《消费者行为学》学习导引 中山大学吴柏林教授 研究生课程“营销管理”绝密资料
中山大学吴柏林教授 研究生课程“营销管理”绝密资料_03
The number of hours required to produce a unit of output. (for example, one pound of potatoes) The opportunity cost of sacrificing one good for another.
03-4
Interdependence and Trade
A general observation . . .
Individuals and nations rely on specialized production and exchange as a way to address problems caused by scarcity.
Farmer Rancher
03-19
The Principle of Comparative Advantage
Differences in the costs of production determine the following:
Who
should produce what? How much should be traded for each product?
Patterns of production and trade are based upon differences in opportunity costs.
03-8
A Parable for the Modern Economy
Imagine . . .
only two goods: potatoes and meat only two people: a potato farmer and a cattle rancher
CH11 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
C HAPTER 11--D EVELOPING N EW M ARKET O FFERINGSOVERVIEW:Most firms recognize the necessity for and advantages of regularly developing new products and services. Mature and declining products eventually must be replaced with newer products. New product development strategy thus is one of the most important activities for any firm in the contemporary marketplace. If the firm does not obsolete its own products, sooner or later someone else will, and all firms should remember that a good idea may not be a good investment. New products can fail, and the risks of innovation are as great as the rewards. The key to successful innovation lies in developing better organizational arrangements for handling new product ideas and developing sound research and decision procedures at each stage of the new-product-development process.The new-product-development process consists of eight stages: idea generation, idea screening, concept development and testing, marketing strategy development, business analysis, product development, market testing, and commercialization. The purpose of each stage is to decide whether the idea should be further developed or dropped. The company should minimize thechances that poor ideas will move forward and good ideas will be rejected.With regard to the adoption of new products, consumers and/or organizations respond at different rates, depending on their characteristics and the product's characteristics. Manufacturers try to bring their new products to the attention of potential early adopters, particularly those with opinion leader characteristics.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading the chapter the student should understand:∙The main risks in developing new products.∙The organizational structures used in managing new-product development.∙The new-product-development process.∙The consumer-adoption process.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I.IntroductionII.Challenges in New-Product Development - companies that fail to develop new products put themselves at risk; at the same time new product development is risky.III.Effective Organizational Arrangements - successful new-product development requires top management commitment and planning.IV.Managing the New-Product Development Process - eight stage processA.Idea Generation - ideas come from a variety of sources. Idea generatingtechniques include: attribute listing. forced relationships, morphological analysis,need/problem identification, brainstorming, and synectics.B.Idea Screening - not all ideas can be pursued, but must be sent to a committeewhere they are considered either: promising, marginal, or a reject. In this stagethe company runs the risk of either accepting a bad idea or rejecting a good one. V.Managing the Development Process: Concept to StrategyA.Concept Development and Testing - attractive ideas must be refined into testableproduct concepts.1.Concept Development- A product concept is an elaborate version of theidea expressed in meaningful consumer terms.2.Concept Testing - product concepts should be presented to an appropriategroup of target consumers to gauge their reactions. Customer-drivenengineering is an engineering effort that attaches high importance toincorporating customer preferences in the final design. Consumerpreferences can be measured through conjoint analysis.B.Marketing-Strategy DevelopmentC.Business Analysis - Performing sales, cost and profit projections on the proposedproduct to determine satisfaction of company objectives.1.Estimating Sales - sum of three different types of sales (first-time,replacement, repeat) Must yield a satisfactory profit.2.Estimating Costs and Profits - Illustrated in the Text.VI.Managing the Development Process: Development to CommercializtionA.Product Development - represents a substantial jump in investment. Productcontinues to move through functional and consumer tests.1.Techniques for measuring consumer preferences - simple rank-ordermethod, paired comparison, and monadic-ratingB.Market TestingC.Consumer-Goods Market Testing - least costly to most costly1.Sales-wave research - consumers who initially try the product at no costare reoffered the product, or a competitor’s product, at slightly reducedprices.2.Simulated store technique - consumers are questioned about brandfamiliarity and preferences, shown advertisements, given a small amountof money and sent to a mock store where there purchases are recordedand analyzed.3.Controlled test marketing - organizations work with a panel of storeswilling to test market a product for a fee.4.Test markets - organizations choose entire market areas in which tointroduce their products.D.Business-Goods Market Testing - testing also offers benefits. Examples oftesting are alpha, beta and trade show.mercialization1.When (Timing) - first entry, late entry, parallel entry2.Where (Geographical Strategy), single market, many markets, national3.To Whom (Target-Market Prospects) - identifying prime prospects4.How (Introductory Market Strategy) - involves many activitiesVII.The Consumer-Adoption Process - How do potential customers learn about new products, try them, and adopt or reject them? Followed by a consumer-loyalty process.A.Stages in the Adoption Process (awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, adoption)B.Factors Influencing the Adoption Process1.People differ markedly in their readiness to try new products2.Personal influence plays a large role in the adoption of new products3.The characteristics of the innovation affect its rate of adoption4.Like people, organizations vary in their readiness to adopt an innovation VIII.SummaryMarketing and Advertising1. Orville Redenbacher markets a number of popcorn products for consumers. The firm recently introduced Double Feature microwave popcorn, shown in the ad in Figure2. How could this idea have been described as a product concept during the product development process? Suggest an appropriate concept statement. What forms of consumer testing would be appropriate for this popcorn product? Why? Would you have used controlled test marketing or test markets to gauge consumer reaction prior to launching this product? Explain your answer.Answer: One way this product concept might have been described during the product development process is "Double Feature microwave popcorn comes with extra-large kernels and extra sauce with real butter. The packet goes into the microwave for three minutes, then you pour the butter sauce over the kernels. This product comes in a carton of three packets priced at $2.89 per box." (Students may offer other concept statements.)The company should have consumers test the product, in a test kitchen or in their homes, by following all the directions and then eating the popcorn. This will help Orville Redenbacher determine whether the product is attractive and appealing to the target market. Students who argue for controlled test marketing may say that this approach allows the company to try out different marketing mixes in a limited way, without the expense and risks of a full test market approach. Students who argue in favor of test markets may say that this is the best way to test consumer and trade ma rketing mixes and forecast future sales more reliably.Focus on TechnologyDuring the new-product-development process, marketers can use conjoint analysi s to analyze offers, identify the most appealing, and learn how customers see the relative importance of each attribute. Because the most appealing offer is not necessarily the most profitable, marketers must also estimate the potential market share and profits to be gained from the top alternatives. Because of the complexity of this technique, marketers use sophisticated software to score the results.For a hands-on demonstration of how conjoint analysis looks from the respondents' perspective, point your Web browser to SurveySite (/), the home page of an online market research firm. Click on "demos" to locate the conjoint analysis sample. After you have completed this sample, click on the explanation of conjoint analysis. Based on this sample conjoint analysis, what attributes are being tested?Why would the automaker want to test these attributes? Which of the product concepts do you think would prove most appealing to those being surveyed? Why?Answer: Attributes being tested in the sample include: model look; price; transmission options; warranty options; audio options; safety options; and interior features. An automaker would test these attributes to find out which combination of attributes would most appeal to the segment being targeted for a particular car. Students' answers about the most appealing product concept will vary, depending on personal preferencesMarketing for the MillenniumAt the start of the new millennium, turbulent business environments and extreme competitive pressures are everyday phenomena for companies with a pres ence on the Web. To stay ahead of the curve, these marketers are taking the new product development process two steps at a time, overlapping concept development and implementation as they continue to gather information on the fly.To see new product development on the fast track, look at Microsoft, which has a special place on its Web site () for program previews (translation: beta versions of soon-to-be-released software). Months before its Office 2000 software was introduced, the company offered preview versions for the bargain price of $19.95. A disclaimer noted the beta version "is not at the level of performance and compatibility of the final, generally available, product offering." The entire r isk of the use or results of the use of this software remains with the user, and Microsoft Corporation makes no warranties, either express or implied." Why would users want to participate in this beta testing—and pay for the privilege? What does Microsoft stand to gain? How early in the development process should Microsoft start beta testing? Answer: Users would participate in beta testing of Office 2000 and similar products because they want to offer their feedback about the program and have a chance to evaluate it before they consider buying the completed product at a considerably higher price. Students may identify additional reasons, as well. Microsoft, for its part, gains input from a large pool of potential purchasers; this input will help the company fix problems and add features before the actual commercial release. Microsoft should start beta testing after the program is fully functional but well in advance of the actual release date, so there is sufficient time to find and fix problems.YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANProduct strategy is based on the choices companies make as they segment their markets, identify target audiences and research their needs, and create an appropriate market positioning. With this foundation, marketers are ready to plan for new-product development and management.Now you are considering Sonic's new-product-development options. Look back at the company's situational analysis and the parts of the marketing plan you have developed so far. Then answer these questions (noting the need for additional research where necessary):∙What kinds of new products would help Sonic achieve its goals and compete more effectively in the marketplace—while meeting the needs of its targeted segments? Be specific.∙Working alone or with other students, generate four or five ideas for new products, and indicate how you can screen these ideas.∙Develop the most promising idea into a product concept and indicate how you plan to test this concept. What dimensions must be tested?∙Assuming that this idea has tested well, develop a marketing strategy for the introduction of the new product. Include a description of the target market; your positioning for the product;the estimated sales, profit, and market-share goals for the first two years; your price strategy;your channel strategy; and the marketing budget you will set for this new product introduction. As your instructor directs, summarize your product-development and management ideas in a written marketing plan or type them into the Product Development/Management section of the Marketing Plan Prosoftware. Be sure to include long-range estimates of sales, profits, and budget requirements for each new product you plan to introduce.Answer: Students may suggest various new products to help Sonic meet its sales goals and compete more effectively. For example, they may suggest developing new systems with s maller but more powerful speakers, to improve product performance and fit with customers' need for space-saving systems. New product ideas can be screened through an idea committee and by rating against preset criteria. Students may say that new product concepts can be tested by asking consumers in the targeted segment to read a description, look at a picture, handle a prototype, or even through virtual reality. Conjoint analysis might also be used. Dimensions to be tested include: communicability and believability; need level; gap level; perceived value; purchase intention; and user targets, purchase occasions, purchasing frequency. The marketing strategy suggested by students should fit with the overall goals and ideas proposed in their marketing plans.。
CH09 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
Segment-by-Segment Invasion Plan
Customer Groups
Airlines Railroads Truckers
Product Varieties
Large computers Mid-size computers Personal computers Company C
Objectives
Identifying Market Segments Choosing Target Markets
©2000 Prentice Hall
Steps in Market Segmentation, Targeting,and Positioning
Market Segmentation
Basic Market-Preference Patterns
(a) Homogeneous preferences (b) Diffused preferences (c) Clustered preferences
Creaminess
Sweetness
©2000 Prentice Hall
Sweetness
Differential Actionable
©2000 Prentice Hall
Heavy and Light Users of Common Consumer Products
PRODUCT (% USERS)
Soups and detergents (94%)
Toilet tissue (95%)
Psychographic
Lifestyle or Personality
Behavioral
Occasions, Benefits, Uses, or Attitudes
CH13 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
PART IV – SHAPING THE MARKET OFFERING CHAPTER13--M ANAGING P RODUCT L INES,B RANDS, ANDP ACKAGINGOVERVIEW:Product is the first and most important element of the marketing mix. A product is anything thatcan be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use, or consumption and that might satisfy awant or need. Products can be physical objects, services, persons, places, organizations, andideas. Product strategy calls or making coordinated decisions on product mixes, product lines,brands, packaging, and labeling.A product can be considered on five levels. The core benefit is the essential use-benefit, problem-solving service that the buyer primarily buys when purchasing a product. The generic product is the basic version of the product. The expected product is the set of attributes and conditions thatthe buyer normally expects in buying the product. The augmented product is additional servicesand benefits that the seller adds to distinguish the offer from competitors. The potential product isthe set of possible new features and services that might eventually be added to the offer.All products can be classified according to their durability (nondurable goods, durable goods, andservices). Consumer goods are usually classified according to consumer shopping habits(convenience, shopping, specialty, and unsought goods). Industrial goods are classified according to how they enter the production process (materials and parts, capital items, and supplies and services).Most companies handle more than one product, and accordingly product mix can be described aspossessing a certain width, length, depth, and consistency. These four dimensions are the tools fordeveloping the company's product strategy. The various lines making up the product mix have tobe periodically evaluated for profitability and growth potential. The company's better lines shouldreceive disproportionate support; weaker lines should be phased down or out; and new lines should be added to fill the profit gap.Each product line consists of product items. The product-line manager should study the sales andprofit contributions of each item in the product line as well as how the items are positionedagainst competitors' items. This provides information for making several product-line decisions.Line stretching involves the question of whether a particular line should be extended downward,upward, or both ways; line filling, whether additional items should be added within the present range of the line; line modernization raises the question of whether the line needs a new look and whether the new look should be installed piecemeal or all at once; line featuring, which items to feature in promoting the line; and line pruning, how to detect and remove weaker product items from the line.Companies should develop brand policies for the individual product items in their lines. Theymust decide on product attributes (quality, features, design), whether to brand at all, whether to do producer or distributor branding, whether to use family brand names or individual brand names, whether to extend the brand name to new products, whether to create multiple brands, and whether to reposition any of them.Physical products require packaging decisions to create such benefits as protection, economy, convenience, and promotion. Marketers have to develop a packaging concept and test it functionally and psychologically to make sure it achieves the desired objectives and is compatible with public policy. Physical products also require labeling for identification and possible grading, description, and promotion of the product. Sellers may be required by law to present certain minimum information on the label to inform and protect consumers.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading the chapter the student should understand:∙The levels of the product∙How a company can build and manage its product mix and product lines∙How a company can make better brand decisions∙How packaging and labeling can be used as a marketing toolCHAPTER OUTLINE:I.Introduction What Is a Product? - Definition. - Anything that can be offered to a marketto satisfy a want or need.II.The Product and the Product MixA.Five Levels of a Product - core benefit, basic product, expected product, augmentedproduct (beyond expectations, where most competition takes place), and potentialproduct (future augmentation possibilities)B.Product Hierarchy - seven levels of product hierarchy: need family, product family,product class, product line, product type, brand, and itemC.Product Classifications1.Durability and Tangibility - nondurable goods, durable goods, services2.Consumer-Goods Classification - convenience, specialty, shopping,unsought3.Industrial-Goods Classification - materials and parts, capital items,supplies and business servicesD.Product-Mix Decisions - a product mix is the set of all products and items that aparticular sellers offers for sale to buyers. Marketer must consider width, length,depth, and consistency.III.Product-Line Decisions - a product line is a group of products that are closely related because they perform a similar function, are sold to the same customer groups, are marketed through the same channels, or fall within given price ranges.A.Product-Line Analysis - sales and profits of each item1.Product-line sales and profits2.Product-line market profile - positioning against competitorsB.Product-Line Length - a line is too short if the manager can increase profits byadding items; the line is too long if the manager can increase profits by droppingitems.1.Line-stretching decisiona.Downward stretch - enter on the low endb.Upward stretch - enter on the high endc.Two-way stretch - both directionsd.Line-filling decision - adding more itemsC.Line Modernization - update to reflect current trends, themesD.Line-Featuring - select one or a few items in the line to featureE.Line-Pruning - when a product is depressing profits, or a company is short ofproduction capacity.IV.Brand Decisions - traditionally, market power has rested with brand-name companies.A.What is a brand? a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them,intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and todifferentiate them from those of the competition. A brand has six levels of meaning.B.The Concept and Measurement of Brand Equity - brand awareness, brandacceptibility, brand preference, brand loyalty. High brand equity provides a numberof competitive advantages.C.Challenges in Branding1.Branding Decision: To Brand or not to Brand?2.Brand-Sponsor Decision - manufacturer’s, distributor’s, or licensedbrand name3.Brand-name decision - individual, blanket family, separate family, orcombination. Desirable qualities in a brand name, p. 451 of text.4.Brand--strategy decisiona.Line extensions - additional items in the same product categoryb.Brand extensions - existing brand name in a new productcategoryc.Multibrands - additional brand names in the same productcategoryd.New Brands - new brand names in a new product categorye.Cobrands - two well-known brand names combine in oneproduct offeringf.Brand-repositioning decision - however well the brand ispositioned in the market, it may have to be repositioned later. V.Packaging and Labeling DecisionsA.Packaging requires decision on concept, size, shape, materials, color, text, and brandmark. Many marketers have called packaging the 5th P. Various factors havecontributed to packaging’s growing use as a marketing tool: self-service, consumeraffluence, company and brand image, and innovation opportunity.bels are a subset of products which can be used to identify, grade, describe orpromote the product.VI.SummaryMarketing and Advertising1. The toothpaste products made by Tom's of Maine are positioned as environmentally friendly, with natural rather than artificial ingredients. The ad in Figure 1 is for the company's fluoride toothpaste. Whatis the core benefit of this product? What are the basic, expected, and augmented products? Analyze this ad, and explain what elements of product and packaging strategy are incorporated into the ad's theme and copy. Answer: The core benefit of Tom's fluoride toothpaste is healthy teeth. The basic product includes fluoride, the main ingredient in fighting cavities. The expected product includes good taste, whitening agents, and an easy-to-squeeze container. The augmented product includes natural ingredients and earth-friendly packaging. The potential product may contain numerous attributes, such as more effective cavity-fighting ingredients, a more convenient tube or dispenser, and so on. One key element of the product strategy incorporated into this ad's theme and copy is the use of only natural ingredients rather than artificial additives; students may identify additional elements. One key element of the packaging strategy incorporated into this ad is the use of earth-friendly packaging materials; students may identify additional elements.2. Figure 2 shows a Zippo ad aimed at business markets. Based on this ad and your knowledge of Zippo, discuss the company's product mix. Why would Zippo put its brand name on the three products shown in the ad? How would you categorize the brand strategy represented by this ad? What does this strategy imply about Zippo's perception of its brand equity? Explain your answer.Answer: Zippo is using a brand extension strategy to put its name on flashlights, pens, and pocket knives. This gives the new products immediate brand recognition and smoothes the way for earlier acceptance. Zippo perceives that it has high brand equity and it wants to use that equity to expand into new product categories.Focus on TechnologyWhat's in a name? For marketers, brand names are valuable assets that must be selected with care. Some companies hire a specialized marketing research firm to create and test potential brand names, whereas others prefer to handle the process internally. Now "do-it-yourself" marketers can use brand-name-development technology offered by Namestormers.The company's Web site () explains how its NamePro software can be used to generate brand names and offers a free downloadable demonstration. Also on the Web site is an explanation of NameWave, a Web-based service that presents up to 40 brand-name ideas for products in categories selected by the user. What are the advantages of using NamePro or NameWave? What are the disadvantages? If you were responsible for developing a product's brand name, would you choose one of these options? Why or why not?Answer: The major advantage of using NamePro or NameWave is the availability of a convenient, structured, controlled system for generating potential brand names. One major disadvantage is that neither system fully integrates an individual product's benefits or qualities or customer perceptions of the product. Students may identify other advantages and disadvantages. Students may suggest using either NamePro or NameWave as a preliminary first step in the process of developing a brand name, because the cost is relatively reasonable and the systems can generate numerous ideas for further study and evaluation. On the other hand, students may not want to use these options because they prefer to use a more customized, individualized process of choosing a brand name.Marketing for the MillenniumAs noted earlier, Pampers is an aggressive brand builder on and off the Internet. In addition to its traditional advertising schedule, Pampers maintains a value-added Web site () offering advice and answers to parents' questions about child development and—what else?—toilet training.Visit the Pampers site and browse the "What's New" section to see the kind of information parents can find here. Next, go to the "Pampers Diapers" section and click on the two links that lead to information about having Pampers delivered to your home and buying Pampers in your local area. After you enter your zip code, you will see banner ads for several retailers. Why would these retailers want links to the PampersWeb site? Why would Procter & Gamble highlight these links? How does this site contribute to brand building for all participating retailers as well as for Pampers?Answer: Retailers want to link to the Pampers site because they hope visitors to that site will buy the diapers at their stores. Procter & Gamble is building stronger relationships with channel members by highlighting retailer links on its Web site. Because the site contains an enormous amount of authoritative information, it should give consumers a positive image of Pampers and the retailers, contributing to brand building for all involved.YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANDecisions about products and branding are critical to the success of any marketing plan. During the planning stages, marketers must consider a variety of issues related to product-mix, product-line length, brand equity, and brand strategies.At Sonic, you are helping Jane Melody manage product lines and branding for the company's shelf stereos. Look again at the company's current situation, the target market, and the product strategy data already in the marketing plan. Then answer these questions to plan Sonic's product programs (noting the need for additional research where necessary):∙What is the core benefit of your product? What elements of the potential product should you consider incorporating?∙Analyze your current product mix and your current product line. What specific changes do you recommend—and why?∙What are the attributes and benefits suggested by the Sonic brand?∙What specific line and brand extensions, new brands, or other brand strategies do you recommend for Sonic—and why?Consider how your answers to these questions will influence Sonic's marketing efforts. Then, as your instructor directs, summarize your recommendations in a written marketing plan or type them into the Marketing Strategy and Program sections of the Marketing Plan Pro software.Answer: The core benefit of Sonic's shelf stereo system is a space-saving way to enjoy music. Students may suggest variations on this core benefit; they may also have many ideas for the potential product, including a longer warranty period, a more decorative speaker design, and a smaller chassis. Sonic has a product line of shelf stereos that range in price from $150 to $400, somewhat below competing brands. It is planning to stretch the line by adding one lower-priced model and two higher-priced models. Its product mix is narrow and getting longer, with the addition of the three new models. Students should offer a variety of changes to the product strategy. The Sonic brand suggests attributes such as reasonable price and well-made products, with related benefits such as value for the money and product reliability.Students may offer various suggestions for line and brand extensions, new brands, and other brand strategies. Evaluate these suggestions in the context of how they fit with the target market's needs, the company's strengths, and the competitive situation (as discussed by students in their marketing plans).。
CH19 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
Measurement
Communication impact Sales impact
Media
Reach, frequency, impact Major media types Specific media vehicles Media timing Geographical media allocation
Evidence Scientific Evidence Technical Expertise Personality Symbol Slice of Life
Lifestyle
Typical Message Execution Styles
Fantasydoor
Advantages: Flexibility; high repeat exposure; low cost; low message competition
2000 Prentice Hall
Limitations: Little audience selectivity; creative limitations
Objectives
Developing & Managing an Advertising Program Deciding on Media & Measuring Effectiveness Sales Promotion Public Relations
2000 Prentice Hall
Direct Mail
Advantages: Audience selectivity; flexibility, no ad competition within same medium; allows personalization Limitations: Relative high cost; “junk mail” image
CH20 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
C HAPTER 20--M ANAGING THE S ALES F ORCEOVERVIEWMost companies use sales representatives, and many companies assign them the pivotal role in the marketing mix. Salespeople are very effective in achieving certain marketingobjectives. At the same time they are very costly. Management must give careful thought to designing and managing its personal-selling resources.Sales force design calls for decisions on objectives, strategy, structure, size and compensation. Sales force objectives include prospecting, communicating, selling and servicing, information gathering, and allocating. Sales force strategy is a question of what types and mix and selling approaches are most effective (solo selling, team selling, and so on). Sales force structure is a choice between organizing by territory, product, customer, or a hybrid combination and developing the right territory size and shape. Sales force size involves estimating the total workload and how many sales hours-and hence salespeople-would be needed. Sales force compensation involves deter-mining pay level and components such as salary, commission, bonus, expenses, and fringe benefits.Managing the sales force involves recruiting and selecting sales representatives and training, directing, motivating, and evaluating them. Sales representatives must be recruited and selected carefully to hold down the high costs of hiring the wrong persons. Sales-training programs familiarize new salespeople with the company's history, its products and policies, the characteristics of the market and competitors, and the art of selling. Salespeople need direction on such matters as developing customer and prospect targets and call norms and using their time efficiency through computer-aided information, planning and selling systems and inside support salespeople. Salespeople also need encouragement through economic and personal rewards and recognition because they must make tough decisions and are subject to many frustrations. The key idea is that appropriate sales force motivation will lead to more effort, better performance, higher rewards, higher satisfaction, and therefore still more motivation. The last management step calls for periodically evaluating each salesperson's performance to help him or her do a better job. The purpose of the sales force is to produce sales, and this involves the art of personal selling. One aspect is salesmanship, which involves a seven-step process: prospecting and qualifying, preapproach, approach, presentation and demonstration, overcoming objections, closing, and fol-low-up and maintenance. Another aspect is negotiation, the art of arriving at transaction terms that satisfy both parties. The third aspect is relationship management, the art of creating a closer working relationship and interdependence between the people in two organizations.In summary, the primary variables for the sales force / management effort include the following: (1) Setting Objectives - Objectives can be general rules for guiding salespeople or more specific expectations for behavior. Regardless, the sales objectives should address the relationship between sales, customer satisfaction, and company profit; (2) Designing Strategy- Strategy requires decisions on salesforce structure, size, and compensation. Variations inthis mixture are appropriate for differing industries, markets and sales objectives; (3) Recruiting and Selecting - Knowing in advance what characteristics will always produce good salespeople is very difficult. Selection procedures should attempt to screen candidates forboth ability and retention-related issues; (4) Training Salespeople - Issues in training center onskills such as order taking and order getting, seeing customers as people who require problem solutions; (5) Supervising Salespeople - Supervision addresses problems in directing and coordinating salespeople's organization, time management, motivation, and customer relationships; (6) Evaluating Salespeople - Evaluation requires both qualitative and quantitative measures of salesforce performance.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading the chapter the student should understand:∙The key factors in designing a sales force∙How one manages a sales force successfully∙The fundamental principles of personal sellingOUTLINEI.Introduction - various classifications of sales positions ranging from least to most creativetypes of selling (deliverer, order taker, missionary, technician, demand creator, solutionvendor)II.Designing the Sales ForceA.Sales Force Objectives (tasks to perform include: prospecting, targeting,communicating, selling, servicing, information gathering, and allocating)B.Sales Force Strategy - approach can be: sales rep to buyer, sales rep to buyergroup, sales team to buyer group, conference selling or seminar selling. Acompany can utilize a direct (company) or contractual (outside) sales force.C.Sales Force StructureD.Force Size and Compensation - level and appropriate combination of components(fixed, variable, expense allowances, and benefits).III.Managing the Sales ForceA.Recruiting and Selecting Sales Representative1.What Makes a Good Sales Representative?2.Recruitment Procedures3.Applicant-Rating ProceduresB.Training Sales Representatives - several goals: to know and identify with thecompany, to know the company’s products, to know the customers’ andcompetitors’ characteristics, to know how to make effective sales presentations,and to understand field procedures and responsibilitiesC.Supervising Sales Representatives1.Developing Norms for Customer Calls2.Developing Norms for Prospect Callsing Sales Time EfficientlyD.Motivating Sales Representatives - the higher the salesperson’s motivation, thegreater his or her effort.1.Sales quotas2.Supplementary Motivators (meetings, contests, etc.)E.Evaluating Sales Representatives1.Sources of Information - sales reports including activity plans and write-ups of activity reports2.Formal Evaluation of Performance (current-to-past sales comparisons,customer-satisfaction evaluation, qualitative evaluation)IV.Principles of Personal SellingA.Professionalism - major steps involved in any sales presentationB.Prospecting and Qualifying - identify and screen out leads1.Pre-approach - learning about the prospect2.Approach - greeting the prospect3.Presentation and Demonstration - tell the product “story”4.Overcoming Objections - psychological and logical resistance5.Closing - asking for the sale6.Follow-Up and Maintenance - ensure satisfactionC.Negotiation1.Negotiation Defined - in negotiated exchange, price and other terms areset via bargaining behavior, in which two or more parties negotiate long-term binding agreements.2.When to Negotiate - appropriate whenever a zone of agreement exists3.Formulating a Negotiation StrategyD.Relationship Marketing - based on the premise that important accounts needfocused and continuous attention. Main steps in establishing a relationshipmarketing program include:1.Identify the key customers meriting relationship marketing,2.Assign a skilled relationship manager to each key customer,3.Develop a clear job description for relationship managers,4.Appoint an overall manager to supervise the relationship managers,5.Have relationship managers develop long-range goals and annualcustomer-relationship plans.V.SummaryMarketing and Advertising1. Ford uses ads such as this, which appeared in Latina magazine, to bring prospects into its dealers' showrooms. Then sales representatives take over, asking about prospects' needs and discussing features and benefits of various Ford models. What kind of training do you think dealers' sales representatives n eed? How can they qualify prospects? Why are good follow-up and maintenance skills important for dealers' sales representatives?Answer: Dealers' sales representatives need training in the features and benefits of each Ford model, as well as training in customers' and competitors' characteristics, effective sales presentation methods, and appropriate field procedures. They can qualify prospects by asking about their preferences (to see whether these match with Ford models being sold), schedule for buying, and price requirements. Good follow-up and maintenance skills keep customers coming back for service at the dealership and encourage customers to buy the next vehicle from the same dealer.2. The Xerox ad shown in Figure 2 is geared toward businesses that produce marketing materials such as brochures in color. This ad directs interested readers to call a toll-free number and ask for a "Xerox Color Specialist." Which of the six types of sales representatives is this specialist likely to be? Which of the specific sales tasks is this sales rep likely to perform?Answer: The Xerox color specialist is likely to be a solution vendor who can devise a system to solve the customer's problems. This sales rep will not do prospecting, targeting, or allocating, but wil l respond to calls from customers by communicating, selling, servicing, and information gathering.Focus on TechnologyAutomated sales management software helps companies boost the productivity of their sales representatives and better integrate sales activities with overall marketing and corporate strategies. Among the leaders in this technology is Trilogy, whose Selling Chain software includes modules for managing sales compensation, contracts, pricing, proposals, and other aspects of the sales proces s.Visit Trilogy's Web site to read about its Selling Chain software(/products/selling_chain.asp). Also click on the "SC Commission" button (in the column of products at left) to read about the sales compensation portion of this program, used by sales managers at Hewlett-Packard and many other companies. With this program, what criteria might sales managers want to use to evaluate the performance of their representatives? Why would sales managers want to track the profitability as well as the volume of sales produced by a sales representative?Answer: Using the Trilogy software, sales managers might want to evaluate their sales reps on the basis of activity (including the number of sales calls made and the number of resulting proposals, contracts, and quotes generated) as well as performance in meeting sales quotas and revenue and profit goals. Customer satisfaction is not tracked directly by the Trilogy software, but should also be included in any sales performance evaluation. Profitability as well as sales should be tracked because reps who build sales volume by discounting prices can significantly hurt the company's overall profitability.Marketing for the MillenniumMany companies are using their Web sites as tool s for building long-term relationships between sales representatives and their customers. A case in point is Texas Instruments, which has created a sophisticated Web site to support its sales of multiple product lines, including calculators and semiconductors.Visit the Texas Instruments Web site (/). Click on the privacy policy (at bottom of page) to learn why information is collected from visitors. Then return to the home page and click on the TI&ME button (at top right) to see how visitors can customize what they view on this site. What does Texas Instruments do with the information it collects from visitors? Why would a customer want to customize the Web page? Why would Texas Instruments want its customers to set up customized Web pages? What effect is this likely to have on the relationship between customers and their sales representatives? Answer: Texas Instruments' privacy policy states that the company will not provide any visitor's personally identifying information to other companies or individuals without getting the visitor's consent. The company tracks the sites from which people go to the Texas Instrument site; it also retains cookies to track specific information requested by the vi sitor, such as personalized Web pages, registrations, and so on. Customers who do not want to waste time wading through mountains of irrelevant data would find customized Web pages useful and time-saving. Knowing what interests a customer can help a sales reptailor the offer of goods and services to better meet that customer's needs; thi s strengthens the relationship between the customer and the sales rep.YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANMany marketers—including nonprofit and for-profit organizations—include personal selling in their marketing plans. However, because of the high cost of maintaining a sales force, many marketers are substituting mail and telephone sales for some personal sales calls.At Sonic, you are helping Jane Melody plan sales strategy for the company's line of shelf stereos. Take a few minutes to review Sonic's current situation and the marketing strategies you have already recommended. Then answer the following questions about Sonic's use of personal selling:∙Who should Sonic's sales force be calling on? How can the sales force support Sonic's marketing plan and goals? Would Sonic benefit from major account management?∙What sales objectives and quotas should Sonic set for its sales force?∙What kind of compensation would be most appropriate for the sales force?∙What training should Sonic be providing for new and existing sales representatives?Once you have answered these questions, consider the implications for Sonic's overall marketing goals and its marketing mix. Depending on your instructor's directions, type your answers and recommendations into a written marketing plan or enter them into the Marketing Strategy/Sales Force section and the Sales Forecast section of the Marketing Plan Pro software.Answer: Sonic's sales force should be calling on wholesalers and retailers as part of the distribution strategy. The goals set for the sales force should directly link with Sonic's marketing plan and goals and with the company's overall goals. Sonic would probably benefit from major account management. This would allow for the development and nurturing of longer-term relationships with retailers and other channel members who sell large quantities of Sonic stereos. Sales objectives and quotas for Sonic's sales force should include: quotas that are higher than the sales forecast presented in the marketing plan, to encourage higher performance; objectives for unit sales, revenues, and profitability; and objectives for customer satisfaction. Sonic can structure its sales compensation in several ways. If straight salary is provided, the company should add special incentives to motivate and reward sales reps for extraordinary effort or results. If straight commission is provided, the company only pays when reps perform, which encourages sales reps to meetor exceed their quotas. However, Sonic would probably do best with a combination of salary and commission, which would pay reps for handling necessary nonsales functions while rewarding them for making or exceeding their quotas. Sonic needs to train its sales reps about the company and its goals; the products and their features and benefits; customers and competitors' characteristics; sales presentation methods; and sales procedures and responsibilities.。
CH04 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
PART II -- ANALYZING MARKETINGOPPORTUNITIESCHAPTER4--G ATHERING I NFORMATION AND M EASURINGM ARKET D EMANDOVERVIEW:Marketing information is a critical element in effective marketing as a result of the trend toward global marketing, the transition from buyer needs to buyer wants, and the transition from price to non-price competition. All firms operate some form of marketing information system, but the systems vary greatly in their sophistication. In too many cases, information is not available or comes too late or cannot be trusted. Too many companies are learning that they lack an appropriate information system, still do not have an information system, lack appropriate information, or they do not know what information they lack or need to know to compete effectively.A well-designed market information system consists of four sub-systems. The first is the internal records system, which provides current data on sales, costs, inventories, cash flows, and accounts receivable and payable. Many companies have developed advanced computer-based internal reports systems to allow for speedier and more comprehensive information.The second market information subsystem is the marketing intelligence system, supplying marketing managers with everyday information about developments in the external marketing environment. Here a well-trained salesforce, purchased data from syndicated sources, and an intelligence office can improve marketing intelligence available to company marketing managers. The third subsystem, marketing research, involves collecting information that is relevant to specific marketing problems facing the company. The marketing research process consists of five steps: defining the problem and research objectives; developing the research plan; collecting information; analyzing the information; and presenting the findings. Good marketing research is characterized by the scientific method, creativity, multiple methodologies, model building, and cost/benefit measures of the value of information.The fourth system is the Marketing Decision Support System (MDSS marketing system) that consists of statistical and decision tools to assist marketing managers in making better decisions. MDSS is a coordinated collection of data, systems, tools and techniques with supporting software and hardware. Using MDSS software and decision models, the organization gathers and interprets relevant information from the business and the environment and turns it into a basis for marketing action. MDSS experts use descriptive or decision models, and verbal, graphical, or mathematical models, to perform analysis on a wide variety of marketing problems.To carry out their responsibilities, marketing managers need estimates of current and future demand. Quantitative measurements are essential for market opportunity, planning marketing programs, and controlling the marketing effort. The firm prepares several types of demandestimates, depending in the level of product aggregation, the time dimension, and the space dimension.A market consists of the set of actual and potential consumers of a market offer. The size of the market depends on how many people have interest, income, and access to the market offer. Marketers also must know how to distinguish between the potential market, available market, qualified available market, served market, and the penetrated market. Marketers must also distinguish between market demand and company demand, and within these, between potentials and forecasts. Market demand is a function, not a single number, and as such is highly dependent on the level of other variables.A major marketing research task is to estimate current demand. Total demand can be estimated through the chain ratio method, which involves multiplying a base number by successive percentages. Area market demand can be estimated by the market-buildup method (for business markets) and the multiple-factor index method (for consumer markets). In the latter case, geodemographic coding systems are proving a boon to marketers. Estimating industry sales requires identifying the relevant competitors and estimating their individual sales, in order to judge their relative performance.To estimate future demand, the company can use several major forecasting methods: expert opinion, market tests, time-series analysis, and statistical demand analysis. The appropriate method will vary with the purpose of the forecast, the type of product, and the availability and reliability of data.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading this chapter students should:∙Understand demand measurement terminology∙Know the methods of estimating current demand∙Know the methods of estimating future demandCHAPTER OUTLINE:I.Introductionponents of a Modern Marketing Information SystemA.Consists of people, equipment, and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate,and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing decisionmakers.III.Internal Records SystemA.The Order-to-Payment Cycle - the heart of the internal records systemB.Sales Information Systems - technology has allowed sales reps to haveimmediate access to information about their prospects and customers.IV.Marketing Intelligence SystemA. A set of procedures for managers to obtain everyday information about pertinentdevelopments in the marketing environment.B.Internal records systems supplies “results” data, and the marketing intelligencesystem supplies “happenings” data.C.There are four steps to improving marketing intelligence: train the sales force,motivate intermediaries to share intelligence, purchase information from outsidesuppliers, and establish an internal marketing information center to collect andcirculate intelligence.V.Marketing Research SystemA.Marketing research -- the systematic design, collection, analysis, and reporting ofdata and findings relevant to a specific marketing situation facing the company.B.Suppliers of marketing research - can be achieved through an in-housedepartment, an outside marketing research firm, or a variety of other costefficient ways. Increasing amounts of information available via the Internet.C.The Marketing Research Process1.Define the Problem and Research Objectives2.Developing the Research Plan - decisions on data sources, researchapproaches, research instruments, sampling plan, and contact methods.3.Collect the Information - phase most expensive and prone to error.4.Analyze the Information - extract pertinent findings from the collecteddata.5.Present the Findings - pertinent to the major marketing decisions facingmanagement.D.Overcoming Barriers to The Use of Marketing ResearchVI.Marketing Decision Support System (MDSS)A.Coordinated collection of data, systems, tools and techniques with supportingsoftware and hardware by which an organization gathers and interprets relevantinformation from business and environment and turns it into a basis formarketing action. Explanation of how an MDSS works.VII.An Overview of Forecasting and Demand MeasurementA.Measures of Market Demand - see TextB.Which Market to Measure? - available market, qualified available market, targetmarket, or penetrated marketC. A Vocabulary for Demand Measurement1.Market demand2.Market forecast3.Market potentialpany demandpany sales forecastpany sales potentialD.Estimating Current Demand1.Total Market Potential2.Area Market Potentiala)Market-buildup methodb)Multiple-factor index method3.Estimating Industry Sales and Market Shares - identifying competitorsand estimating their salesE. Estimating Future Demand1.Survey of Buyers' Intentionsposite of Sales-Force Opinion3.Expert Opinion4.Past-Sales Analysis5.Market Test MethodVIII.SummaryMARKETING AND ADVERTISING1. Marriott has boosted annual revenues over $12 billion by working to identify and satisfy the differing needs and preferences of travelers. The Marriott ad shown in Figure 1 is targeted toward health-conscious business travelers. What internal data sources can the company use to identify opportunities such as this? To identify problems with a particular part of the service offering such as the health club or pool? How would a marketing intelligence system help Marriott compete against Hilton and other rivals who target the business travel market? If you were designing Marriott's marketing intelligence system, what would you include? Why?Answer: To identify opportunities such as meeting the needs of health-conscious business travelers, Marriott might examine internal data sources such as records of trends in usage of its hotels' swimming pools and other health facilities and sales by room service and hotel restaurants of foods favored by health-conscious consumers; students may suggest additional internal data sources. Internal sources of data about problems with the service offering include written complaints and responses to customer satisfaction surveys; students may suggest additional sources. Marriott might use a marketing intelligence system to find out about changes in its competitors' hotels and service offerings geared toward the business travel market (such as new offers of in-room laptops, 24-hour copy center availability, and so on). Such intelligence would allow Marriott to evaluate rivals' actions and consider suitable responses. Students may have many ideas for what to include in a marketing intelligence system for Marriott. Two ideas: Ask suppliers about unusual or large orders placed by rival hotel chains; listen to competitors' speeches and visit their exhibits at conventions and other industry events.2. Bayer Aspirin, the product featured in this ad, is locked in competitive battle with Tylenol, Advil, and a wide range of other pain-killers. In planning next year's marketing programs, the company wants to estimate future demand. Would a survey of buyers' intentions be appropriate for this product? Would you suggest using past-sales analysis or a direct market test? What effect would the unexpected introduction of a new pain-killing drug from a rival firm—supported by a high-profile, multi-million dollar campaign—be likely to have on Bayer's forecast of future demand?Answer: No, a survey of buyers' intentions would not be appropriate for Bayer aspirin, because consumers are unlikely to plan purchases of aspirin for the months ahead. A past-sales analysis would be more helpful than a direct market test, because past sales can be thoroughly analyzed as a way of projecting future sales. Direct market tests are more useful for new products or products being expanded into additional channels or areas, not for an established product such as Bayer aspirin. The unexpected introduction of a new pain-killing drug from a rival firm, supported by a major promotional campaign, would probably change actual sales results, making Bayer's forecasts of future demand inaccurate and out-dated.Focus on TechnologyEvery year since 1994, the Georgia Institute of Technology has conducted two World Wide Web user surveys to find out who is using the Web, what technology is being used, the problems users are encountering, how much individuals and companies are spending online, and how they are using on-line financial services. To learn more, point your Web browser to Georgia Tech's WWW Survey site (/gvu/user_surveys/). Look through the latest survey results. What limitations should companies bear in mind when using these survey results? What kind of sample does this survey represent,and why should marketers care? How could a company such as United Airlines apply the results of this survey in its efforts to sell more airline tickets on the Web?Answer: Companies using the results of this survey should bear in mind that the data may not be representative of a target population, since the respondents are self-selected. The results of the survey may be biased by the exclusion of people who do not use the Internet or prefer not to answer on-line surveys. This survey is a convenience sample, selecting from among an accessible population of Internet users. Knowing this helps marketers realize that they cannot measure the sampling error in such a sample. United Airlines might use the results of this survey to determine what Internet users like, dislike, want, and do not want when making on-line purchases of goods and services; it will also reveal attitudes toward privacy concerns and other problems that bother Internet users. This survey will help the airline get a sense of the demographics of Internet users for comparison with the company's targeted segments. Students may suggest other uses of this survey.Marketing for the MillenniumPrudential is one of many companies using data mining to target its marketing outreach. Through data mining, the firm has saved money and improved response by more narrowly targeting the mailing lists for specific product offers. Visit Prudential's Web site () and select one type of product, such as life insurance. Identify two ways that data mining could be applied to market life insurance. What potential problems or dangers do you see in using data mining? What additional marketing applications can you foresee for Prudential's use of data mining?Answer: Students may suggest various ways that Prudential could use data mining to market life insurance. Two sample ideas for Prudential: (1) sift its complete customer database to identify consumers who have not yet bought life insurance from Prudential to identify prospects for such products; and (2) search the database to find the average age and other demographics of Prudential's most profitable life insurance customers, then search external databases to find other prospects who match the same profile and send them offers for Prudential life insurance. Some potential problems or dangers of data mining are: consumer concerns about privacy; the need for extensive safeguards to protect such valuable data; concerns about future regulation of databases containing sensitive consumer data; students may identify additional issues. Other marketing applications for data mining within Prudential include the ability to assign sales people only to prospects with the highest potential for purchasing selected products; and the ability to rank customers in order of overall profitability so Prudential can target more profitable customers formore/better service and use less-expensive methods for less-profitable customers (students may also offer other ideas).YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANMarketing information systems, marketing intelligence systems, and marketing research systems are used to gather and analyze data for various parts of the marketing plan. These systems can help marketers examine changes and trends in markets, competition, product usage, and distribution channels, among other areas. They can also turn up evidence of important opportunities and threats that must be addressed.You are continuing as Jane Melody's assistant at Sonic. Referring to Table 3-3 in Chapter 3, answer the following questions about how you can use MIS and marketing research to support the development and implementation of Sonic's marketing plan:∙For which sections will you need secondary data? Primary data? Both? Why do you need the information for each section?∙Where can you find suitable secondary data? Identify two non-Internet sources and two Internet sources, describe what you plan to draw from each source, and indicate how you willuse the data in your marketing planning.∙What surveys, focus groups, observation, behavioral data, and/or experiments will Sonic need to support its marketing strategy, including product management, pricing, distribution, andmarketing communication? Be specific about the questions or issues that Sonic should be ableto resolve using market research.As your instructor directs, enter information about Sonic's use of marketing data and research in the appropriate sections of a written marketing plan or type them in the corresponding sections of the Marketing Plan Pro software.Answer: Students should review the data about Sonic shown in Chapter 3 and look at their answers to the marketing plan questions in Chapter 3 before answering these questions. Referring to Table 3.3, students will need secondary data as well as primary data as they look at Sonic's current marketing situation, the opportunity and issue analysis, and marketing strategy. This is because they need to collect primary data from internal sources (such as historical sales figures) and from external sources (such as consumer surveys) and gather secondary data (such as competitive product specifications) as background for writing about the marketing situation, analyzing opportunities and issues facing Sonic, and developing a suitable marketing strategy.Students may offer different ideas for sources of appropriate secondary data for this marketing plan. Some sample ideas include: searching printed materials or Internet sites maintained by trade associations to learn about trends in sales of products similar to the Sonic product line; and searching government publications and Internet sites to find out about current and pending regulations that might affect Sonic's ability to buy parts from international suppliers or sell finished products in international markets.In addition, students are likely to offer various answers about surveys, focus groups, observation, behavioral data, and/or experiments Sonic needs to support its marketing strategy decisions. Evaluate their responses on the basis of how well the marketing research they describe will help Sonic answer specific questions and resolve specific issues important to the company's marketing planning process. As one example, the research should help Sonic better describe attractive, profitable market segments to be targeted.。
CH08 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
C HAPTER 8--D EALING WITH THE C OMPETITION OVERVIEW:In the marketplace there are many companies that develop effective products, channels, pricingand advertising. However, many of these companies lose in the marketplace. There may bemany reasons, but a critical variable may be an inability to understand the competitiveenvironment and to gather and utilize data on that environment.To prepare an effective marketing strategy, a company must consider its competitors as well as itsactual and potential customers. This is especially necessary in slow growth markets because salescan only be gained by wining them away from competitors.A company's closest competitors are those seeking to satisfy the same customers and needs andmaking similar product / service offers. A company should also pay attention to its latentcompetitors who may offer new and/or different ways to satisfy the same needs. The companyshould identify its competitors by using both an industry and market-based analysis.A company should gather information on competitor strategies, objectives, strengths, weaknesses,and reaction patterns. The company should study and understand competitor strategies in order to identify its closest competitors and take the proper steps. The company should know thecompetitor's objectives in order to anticipate further moves and reactions. Knowledge of thecompetitor's strengths and weaknesses permits the company to refine its own strategy to takeadvantage of competitor weaknesses while avoiding engagements where the competitor is strong.Understanding typical competitor reaction patterns helps the company choose and time its moves. Competitive intelligence should be collected, interpreted and disseminated continuously. Company marketing executives should be able to obtain full and reliable information about any competitor that could have bearing on a decision. As important as a competitive orientation is in today's markets, companies should not overdo their focus on competitors. Changing consumer needs and latent competitors are more likely to hurt a firm than the existing competitors. Companies that maintain a good balance of consumer and competitor considerations are practicing effective market orientation.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading this chapter students should:∙Know the difference between the industry and market concepts of competition∙Understand how to identify competitor strategies∙Understand how to determine competitor objectives∙Understand how to estimate competitor reaction patterns∙Know how to design competitive intelligence systems∙Know how to select competitors to attack or avoid∙Understand what it means to balance a customer and competitor orientation CHAPTER OUTLINE:I.Introduction: Porter’s Five F orces; the first three forces focus on competitors; theInternet is rapidly altering many of the existing patterns of competition, especially for the existing middleman and distribution channels.II.Identifying Competitors - four levels: brand, industry, form, and genericA.Industry Concept of Competition1.Number of Sellers and Degree of Differentiation (monopoly, oligopoly,monopolistic competition and pure competition)2.Entry and Mobility Barriers - ease of entry into market and varioussegments3.Exit and Shrinkage Barriers - ease of exit and reduction in size4.Cost Structure5.Degree of Vertical Integration6.Degree of GlobalizationB.Market Concept of Competition - in addition to companies making the sameproduct, look at companies that satisfy the same customer need.III.Analyzing CompetitorsA.Identifying Competitor StrategiesB.Determining Competitor ObjectivesC.Assessing Competitor Strengths and Weaknesses - share of market, share of mind,share of heart. Companies that make steady gains in mind share and heart sharewill inevitably make gains in market share and profitability.D.Estimating Competitor Reaction Patterns - four categories: laid-back (does notreact), selective (reacts only to certain types of attacks), tiger (reacts to anyassault), and stochastic (no predictable reaction)IV.Designing the Competitive Intelligence System -- with considerable emphasis on the Internet and competitor Web sites.A.Four Main Steps1.Setting up the system2.Collecting the data3.Evaluating and analyzing the data4.Disseminating information and respondingB.Selecting Competitors to Attack and Avoid - major steps in customer valueanalysis are:1.identify the major attributes that customers value; assess the quantitativeimportance of the different attributes; assess company and competitorperformance on the different customer values against their ratedimportance; examine how customers in a specific segment rate thecompany’s performance against a specific major competitor on anattribute-by-attribute basis; and monitor customer values over time.2.Classes of Competitors -- following customer value analysis: strong vs.weak, close versus distant, "good" versus "bad.3.Customer value analysis helps a marketer perceive company / productvalue to a customer relative to competitor product value(s).V.Designing Competitive StrategiesA.Market-Leader Strategies1.Expanding the total market, with new users, new uses and more usage2.Defending Market Share, with position, flank, preemptive,counteroffensive, mobile and contraction defensive strategies3.Expanding Market Share (note Procter & Gamble and Caterpillar casestudies) -- line-extension, brand-extension, multibrand, etc., strategies.B.Market-Challenger Strategies by defining the strategic objective and theopponents, choosing a general attack strategy, and choosing a specific attackstrategy.C.Market-Follower StrategiesD.Market-Nicher StrategiesVI.Balancing Customer and Competitor Orientations - marketers should not become so competitor-centered that they focus on customers already lost.VII.SummaryMARKETING A ND ADVERTISING1. The U.S. Postal Service uses advertising to show businesses the benefits of reaching customers through direct mail. Figure 2 is a USPS ad offering a free kit to help marketers learn how to add direct mail to their media mix. Is the industry structure for first class mail a pure monopoly, an oligopoly, monopolistic competition, or pure competition? Support your answer. What is the competitive structure for the overnight delivery industry in which Express Mail competes? What are the implications for the way the USPS markets first-class mail to the business market? For the marketing of Express Mail to the business market?Answer: First class mail is a pure monopoly, because only the U.S. Postal Service is legally allowed to provide this service in the United States. On the other hand, the competitive structure for overnight delivery is an oligopoly, with a relatively s mall number of large organizations such as FedEx, UPS, and the U.S.P.S. offering a range of products. As a result of its monopoly position, the U.S.P.S. does not have to compete on the basis of price or service when it markets first class mail to businesses. Still, the U.S.P.S. wants businesses to use its mail services rather than other media such as magazines, which is the reason for ads such as this. When marketing Express Mail to businesses, the U.S.P.S. faces a great deal of competition, so it has to compete on the basis of price, service, and other marketing mix elements.FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGYLevi Strauss is using mass-customization manufacturing technology to bring customer-size specializationto a new level in an innovative market-nicher strategy for its jeans. The program, titled Levi's Original Spin, allows customers to order jeans specially manufactured to their personal specifications. Levi's salespeople take just three body measurements, and customers get to pick the color, fabric, leg opening, fly type, and model cut. These specifications are electronically transmitted to the Levi's facto ry, where the automated equipment manufactures custom-fit jeans in two to three weeks.Visit the Original Spin pages on Levi's Web site (/originalspin/) to read about this program. How does this program help Levi's compete more effectively against Wrangler and Lee, two traditional competitors in the jeans market? Is Levi's aiming for high margin or high volume with this niche strategy? How do you know?Answer: Original Spin allows Levi's to compete more effectively against Wrangler and Lee with the powerful competitive tool of custom sizing for perfect fit. Whereas Wrangler and Lee offer jeans in standard sizes, Levi's goes further, inviting customers to have jeans made to exact body measurements—intheir choice of cut and fabric. Customers who try Original Spin and like it are far more likely to remain loyal to Levi's; in contrast, customers who buy standard sizes are likely to be less loyal to Wrangler and Lee. Levi's is aiming for high margin, because it charges higher prices for custom-made jeans and can therefore generate a higher profit than from its ready-to-wear lines. Because of the higher price and two-week minimum delay in receiving the custom-made jeans, Original Spin would have difficulty achieving the same sales volume as Levi's ready-to-wear jeans, which indicates that Levi's is not seeking high volume with this niche strategy.MARKETING FOR THE MILLENNIUMDisintermediation via the Internet is changing the competitive playing field in many industries, from tangible goods such as cars (exemplified by Auto By Tel) to intangible services such as insurance (exemplified by LifeQuote). Taking a closer look at disintermediation in the travel industry, consider the competition that a local travel agency faces from airline Web sites such as American Airlines and travel Web sites such as Microsoft's Expedia.Visit the A merican Airlines Web site () to see what is offered, including special fares, flight schedules and pricing, frequent flyer programs, information about airport acces s, and so on. Next, visit the Expedia Web site () to sample its offerings, including booking air travel, rental cars, and hotel rooms, finding information about travel destinations, maps, and more. How are these sites similar, and how are they different? What do these sites offer that traditional travel agencies do not? What do traditional travel agencies offer that these sites do not? What are the implications for the traditional agencies who compete with these online sites?Answer: In general, the A merican Airlines and Expedia Web sites are similar in that both offer information and reservations for air travel. Both also encourage online reservations and purchases and request that visitors register as members. They differ in that A merican Airlines focuses primarily on air travel, emphasizing its own flights, programs, and services, while Expedia covers a wide range of travel services and destinations. Students may go into detail about additional differences and similarities. Unlike traditional travel agencies, the AA site provides easy access to personalized frequent flyer summaries and benefits, Web-only special fares and packages, and similar "exclusives." The Expedia site offers a wealth of detail that travel agents do not, including information and maps for many travel destinations as well as the opportunity to participate in travel chat rooms/message boards.For their part, travel agencies offer the human touch, a personal quality no Web site can really match. When discussing business or leisure travel, traditional agents can detect their customers' underlying interests and concerns, then gear their advice and suggestions accordingly. They can also hand-deliver tickets and itineraries and offer other personalized services that Web sites cannot. Recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of Web-based travel sites, traditional travel agents can launch Web sites and use e-mail to keep customers updated on special fares and offers. At the same time, they should continue to emphasize the one-on-one experience of dealing with a personal travel agent, which will help build relationships with customers. Students may offer additional ideas.YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANCompetitive strategy comes into play in two areas of the marketing plan. First, in assessing the current marketing situation, companies have to examine their competitors' strengths and weaknesses and competitors' reaction patterns. Second, they have to use competitive intelligence to shape their overall competitive strategy, which is supported by the marketing mix.As Jane Melody's assistant, you are analyzing Sonic's competitive situation and preparing its competitive strategy for shelf stereo systems. Assuming that Sonic is not the market leader, answer the following questions about competitive strategy (noting the need for competitive intelligence where necessary): What is the strategic group for Sonic?∙Which firm is the market leader, and what are its objectives, strengths, and weaknesses?(What additional competitive intelligence is needed?)∙As a market challenger, what competitive strategy would be most effective for Sonic?∙Given this competitive strategy, how would you define Sonic's strategic objective and attack strategy?Think carefully about how Sonic's competitive strategy will affect its marketing mix. Then summarize your findings and conclusions in a written marketing plan or type them into the Marketing Situation and Marketing Strategy sections of the Marketing Plan Pro software.Answer: The answers to this chapter's questions depend, in part, on information about Sonic that students have gleaned from Chapter 3 and from their work on marketing plan exercises in earlier chapters. The overall strategic group for Sonic, as outlined in Chapter 3, includes A iwa, Panasonic, Sony, and Philips, companies that manufacture shelf stereo systems at various prices offered in various distribution channels. More specifically, Sonic's positioning of quality and reliability at higher prices may put it in a narrower strategic group with competitors such as Sony and Philips.Although they know that Sonic is not the market leader, students may indicate that additional competitive intelligence is needed to determine exactly which firm leads the market. In earlier exercises, students investigated industry trends by accessing UHF Magazine () and similar sources, which also should have information about market leadership and about the leader's objectives, strengths, and weaknesses. Remind students that market leadership can change from year to year, which will affect Sonic's competitive strategy.As a market challenger with declining profits, Sonic has limited resources and will therefore not want to attack the market leader unless it changes its pricing and other strategies to gain a clear, compelling competitive advantage. One good approach would be to use a flank attack against the weaknesses of the market followers. Another approach might be a bypass attack aimed at segments of the business market, where key competitors may have low or no strategic interest.The competitive strategy that students choose will define Sonic's strategic objective and attack strategy. For example, Sonic might do well with an adapter strategy, improving on the smaller speakers that are gaining favor with consumers. Sonic might also consider a specific attack on the basis of product proliferation (broadening the product line), improved services, or distribution innovation. Sonic should strike a balance between being competitor-centered and being customer-centered, even as it monitors both customers and competitors to follow trends and spot emerging needs.。
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20世纪30年代以后，对消费者行为的研 究得以迅速发展并广泛应用于营销实践 中，尤其是1929—1933年爆发世界性经 济危机以后，企业的经营理念从生产向 销售观念的转变，这也使心理学家开始 重视研究消费者的心理与行为，期间研 究成果累累，大大丰富了消费者行为学 的内容，才得以成为一门独立的学科。
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1965年OHIO州立大学正式提出了世界上第一 部《消费者行为学》的教学大纲。1968年，由 恩格尔、布莱克韦尔、科拉特等人合著的第一 部《消费者行为学》（Consumer Behavior）正 式出版。到了1970年以后，消费者行为的研究 进入变革和大发展时期，它综合运用了其他相 关学科的最新研究成果，其研究领域不断扩大 和深化。总之，消费者行为学是一门多学科交 叉的边缘性学科。
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课程目标
通过学习本课程，学生能够对影响消费 的因素有一个全面的了解，并能把这些 知识运用到企业决策过程中，帮助经营 者建立为消费者服务的市场营销新理念， 提高营销活动的科学性、预见性。
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课程背景
消费者行为学是资本主义工业革命后，市场经 济充分发展，商品供过于求的矛盾日益尖锐， 企业竞争日益加剧的形势下应运而生的，是市 场营销学和心理学的一个重要分支。 作为一门独立的学科出现，只是近几十年的事 情，西方国家的市场营销学和心理学家在教科 书中都涉及了消费者的购买对象、购买组织、 购买目的、购买过程以及影响要素，这部分的 内容逐步扩大充实，得以从市场营销学和心理 学中独立出来，形成了一门新的综合性学科— —消费者行为学。
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本课程将研究个人或群体选择、购买、使用或 处置产品、服务、思想或经验以满足自身愿望 与需要的过程，包括微观层面（个人消费者） 和宏观层面（作为群体或社会成员的消费者） 的研究，涉及消费者的感知、注意、记忆、思 维、情感、需要与动机、价值取向、态度、人 格、兴趣爱好、人际互动等各个方面。 讨论影响消费者决策过程的社会和心理变量、 消费市场的细分、目标市场的设定、顾客态度 的改变、忠诚度和满意度。
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本课程与其它课程的关系
本课程的先修课程为《管理学基础》和 《市场营销学》。
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谢谢收看！
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特别提示
本教材是英文全译版本，是以西方文化 为背景，以西方文化行为模式为对象和 依据，个案都是国外的，缺乏对中国本 土文化下的消费者行为的解读。 对本科生而言，内容太多也是突出的问 题。 Nhomakorabea4
课程内容简介
消费者行为学是心理学和行为科学基础 理论在当代市场营销理论与实践中的应 用，是在市场经济需求的推动下产生的 一门应用学科，研究流通领域所面对的 消费过程中人的心理及行为产生、发展 的规律。
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《消费者行为学》学习导引
教材
Hawkins等著，消费者行为学（原书第8 版），符国群等译，机械工业出版社， 2004版。
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参考书
1. Paul Peter等著，消费者行为与营销 战略，韩德昌主译，东北财经大学出版 社，2000版。 2.龚振等编著，消费者行为学，东北财 经大学出版社，2002版。 3. Solomon著，消费者行为， 张莹等译， 经济科学出版社，1999版。
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我国开始重视和研究消费者行为是在20世纪20 年代，国内学者开始翻译并撰写相关的论文、 论著，此时的代表人物有吴英国、潘菽、孙科 等。 随着我国社会主义市场经济的逐步建立与完善， 研究消费者行为，对进一步把握消费者的心理 规律、心理需要、购买动机，营建良好的消费 环境，打造良好的消费文化，进一步增强企业 的营销效果，促进国民经济发展，它的作用日 益凸显。研究消费者行为，有利于提高企业的 竞争力，有利于引导消费需求，有利于制定宏 观经济政策，进一步促进经济健康协调发展。