通信网络chapter2_2
通信网络-第2章传输技术与传输网络

甚高 VHF 30-300 米波 10m- 空间波
频
MHz
1m
电离层散射(30-60MHz);流星余迹通信; 人造电离层通信(30-144MHz);
对空间飞行体通信;移动通信
超高 UHF 0.3- 分米 1m-Байду номын сангаас
频
3GHz 波 0.1m
空间波
小容量微波中继通信(352-420MHz) 对流层散射通信(700-10000MHz) 中容量微波通信(1700-2400MHz)
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通信网络技术
B2
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2.1.1 传输方式
五、同步传输关系
同步通信、异步通信
同步传输方式中发送方和接收方的时钟是统 一的、字符与字符间的传输是同步无间隔的。 同步通信往往提供位定位信号,适用于高速 数据传输
异步传输方式并不要求发送方和接收方的时 钟完全一样,字符与字符间的传输是异步的。 异步通信适用低速数据传输;RS232
第二章 传输技术与传输网络
2.1 传输方式与特点 2.2 传输介质与性质 2.3 集中传输与复用技术 2.4 检错与纠错 2.5 PDH/SDH光纤传输网 2.6 DDN数字传输网
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2.1 传输方式及性能
2.1.1 传输方式 一、按传输形式
模拟传输与数字传输 模拟传输采用模拟方式,中间需要放大器,
有噪声积累 数字传输采用数字方式,中间使用中继器,
可以克服噪声积累
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通信网络技术
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二、是否调制
基带、频带传输
基带传输是按照数字信号原有的波形(以脉 冲形式)在信道上直接传输,它要求信道具 有较宽的通频带。
Chapter2_TD-SCDMA网络结构

第二章TD-SCDMA 网络结构2.1TD-SCDMA 网络结构(3GPP R4) (4)2.1.1PS域与CS域的公共实体 (6)2.1.1.1 HLR (本地位置寄存器) (6)2.1.1.2 VLR (访问位置寄存器) (7)2.1.1.3 AuC(鉴权中心) (8)2.1.1.4 EIR(设备识别寄存器) (9)2.1.2CS域实体 (10)2.1.2.1 MSC Server (MSC服务器) (10)2.1.2.2 CS-MGW(电路交换-媒体网关) (10)2.1.2.3 GMSC 服务器 (10)2.1.3PS域实体 (11)2.1.3.1 SGSN(服务GPRS支持节点) (11)2.1.3.2 GGSN(网关GPRS支持节点) (11)2.1.3.3 BG(边界网关) (11)2.1.4R4核心网外部接口名称与含义 (12)2.23GPP R5版本介绍 (13)2.3UTRAN接入网结构 (14)2.3.1通用协议结构 (15)2.3.2Iu接口信令协议(3GPP R5 25410-530) (19)2.3.3Iub接口信令协议(3GPP R5 25430-520) (24)2.3.4Iur接口信令协议(3GPP R5 25420-510) (28)2.3.5Iupc接口信令协议(3GPP R5 25450-510) (29)2.4本章练习 (30)本章目标:∙了解TD-SCDMA 系统R4网络结构∙了解TD-SCDMA 系统RAN中包括哪些网元∙至少说出3个Iub接口的功能∙了解Iu-CS接口协议栈结构∙了解Iu-PS接口协议栈结构∙了解Iur接口协议栈结构∙了解Iub接口协议栈结构2.1 TD-SCDMA 网络结构(3GPP R4)TD-SCDMA网络主要包括核心网和无线接入网两部分,核心网主要处理UMTS内部所有的语音呼叫,数据连接和交换,以及与外部其他网络的连接和路由选择。
新一代无线通信技术

第5章 LoRa技术
Chapter
LoRa是一种长距离无线传输技术,具有低功耗和低成本的特点。它能够实现远距离的通信,非常适用于物联网等领域。
LoRa介绍
LoRa应用场景
提高农业生产效率
农业物联网
建设智慧城市
智能城市
监测空气质量等
环境监测
长电池寿命
省去频繁更换电池的麻烦
减少维护成本
Threats to network infrastructure
网络攻击
01
03
Protection of personal information
隐私保护
02
Unauthorized data disclosure
数据泄露
5G技术的发展
5G技术的快速发展将推动数字化转型,改变人们的生活方式和工作方式。未来,5G将成为连接一切的基础,为人类带来更广阔的发展空间。
Chapter
5G技术架构包括5G核心网、5G无线接入网和5G传输网。5G核心网提供更快速的数据传输,5G无线接入网支持更多设备的连接,5G传输网提供更高效的数据传输速率。
5G技术架构
5G关键技术
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
Massive MIMO
Focused signal transmission
家庭用户享受更稳定、更快速的网络体验
家庭网络
02
为企业提供高效的网络支持,提升办公效率
办公环境
安全性提升
加密技术的不断更新
网络攻击防护能力的提升
Wi-Fi 6未来发展
网络智能化
智能路由器、智能家居应用的普及
AI技术在网络优化中的应用
网络信息安全内容整理

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对称密码体制和非对称密码体制
对称密码体制(Symmetric System, One-key System, Secret-key System)
明文和密文之间统计关系尽量复杂;
confusion –混淆,使密文和加密密钥之间的关系尽量复杂。
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(A1-A5), 单位元是0,a的逆是 -a. (M1), 乘法封闭性, 如果a和b属于R, 则ab也属于R (M2), 乘法结合律,对于R中任意a, b, c有a(bc)=(ab)c. (M3), 乘法分配律, a(b+c)=ab+ac or (a+b)c=ac+bc (M4), 乘法交换律, ab=ba,交换环 (M5), 乘法单位元, R中存在元素1使得所有a有 a1=1a. (M6), 无零因子, 如果R中有a, b且ab=0, 则 a=0 or
6.1.1 双重DES
多次加密的最简单形式是进行两次加密,每次使用 不同的密钥
C = EK2(EK1(P)) P = DK1(DK2(C)) 这种方法的密钥长度是56x2=112位
虽然双重DES对应的映射与单DES对应的映射不同, 但是有中途相遇攻击 “meet-in-the-middle”
Chapter2-2-5th 通信系统(Communication Systems)课件

4. The in-phase and quadrature component of
narrowband noise have the same variance
as the narrowband noise n(t).
v n t a v r n I a t r v n Q a t r
– Envelop detector cannot be used – Coherent detection is required
BT 2W
• The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same as the carrier frequency
2.3 Linear Modulation Schemes
东南大学移动通信国家重点实验室
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“通信系统(Communication Systems)”课件
1.13 Sine Wave Plus Narrowband Noise
fR(r)r2expr22 A 22I0Ar2
fVvvexpv2
a2 2
IOav,
0
0,
elsewhere
Figure 1.23 Normalized Rician distribution.
Amplitude Modulation
s t A c 1 k a m t c 2 o f c t s
• Envelop detection
|kam t| 1fo arltl
Overmodulated
fc W
|Kam(t)|<1
|Kam(t)|>1
数字通信第五版课后题答案chap2

E
Y2
=
−
d2
ψ(j dv2
v)
|v=0
=
2nσ4
+
4s2σ2
+
nσ2 + s2
σY2 = E Y 2 − [E (Y )]2 = 2nσ4 + 4σ2s2
Problem 2.9 :
The
Cauchy
r.v.
has
:
p(x)
=
a/π x2+a2
,
−∞
<
x
<
∞
(a)
∞
E (X) = xp(x)dx = 0 −∞
)
=
−j
dψ(jv) dv
|v=0
=
nσ2
+
s2
d2ψ(jv) dv2 =
−nσ4 (n + 2) −s2(n + 4)σ2 − ns2σ2
−s4
(1 − j2vσ2)n/2+2 + (1 − j2vσ2)n/2+3 + (1 − j2vσ2)n/2+4
ej vs2 /(1−j 2vσ2 )
Hence, and
i=1
4
P (B2) = P (Ai, B2) = 0.08 + 0.03 + 0.12 + 0.04 = 0.27
i=1
4
P (B3) = P (Ai, B3) = 0.13 + 0.09 + 0.14 + 0.06 = 0.42
i=1
Problem 2.2 :
The relationship holds for n = 2 (2-1-34) : p(x1, x2) = p(x2|x1)p(x1) Suppose it holds for n = k, i.e : p(x1, x2, ..., xk) = p(xk|xk−1, ..., x1)p(xk−1|xk−2, ..., x1) ...p(x1) Then for n = k + 1 :
Chapter_2-通信电子线路(第3版)-陈启兴-清华大学出版社
宽带高频小信号放大器
按频带宽度分类
窄带高频小信号放大器
晶体管高频小信号放大器 按器件分类 场效应管高频小信号放大器
集成电路高频小信号放大器
谐振高频小信号放大器
按负载性质分类
非谐振高频小信号放大器
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2.1 概述(续)
1. 电压增益和功率增益
•
•
Au
Uo
•
Ui
2. 通频带
•
•
图2图.22-变2 压变器压耦器合耦等合效连电接路电路图
2
R`L
U1 U2
RL
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R`L
N1 N2
RL
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2.2.3 并联谐振回路的耦合连接与接入系数(续)
变压器耦合连接具有以下特点:
(1) 负载电阻RL与放大器之间实现了电隔离。当负载电阻RL 发生故障(如开路、短路)时,减小了引起放大器损坏的可能。
Ap
Po
•
Pi
通频带: 放大器的电压增益从最大值下降到其 0.707(即 2 / 2 )倍处所对应的频率范围,常用2Δf0.7表示。 3. 选择性、矩形系数和抑制比
选择性: 放大器对有用信号的放大和对无用信号的抑制的
能力。
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2.1 概述(续)
矩形系数: 表征放大器选择性好坏的一个参数,其越接
(2) 等效后的电阻R`L可能增大,也有可能减小,只要改变变压 器初级和次级线圈的匝数N1和N2,就能方便地实现阻抗匹配。
(3) 等效后的电路中的电感值只与变压器原边的电感有关, 而与副边的电感值无关。
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2.2.3 并联谐振回路的耦合连接与接入系数(续)
通信网理论基础课件
14
Cable Modem
例如:The DCM-201 has a
maximum downloading speed at 38Mbps (256 QAM) and a maximum uploading speed at 10Mbps (16 QAM). The DCM-201 uses the Reed-Solomon error correction method for data packet integrity.
所谓数据传输链路是指在物理传输媒 介(如双绞线、同轴电缆、光纤、微 波传输系统、卫星传输电路等)上利 用一定的传输标准(它通常规定了电 气接口、调制解调的方式、数据编码 的方式、比特同步、帧格式和复分接 的方式等)形成的传输规定速率(和 格式)的数据比特通道。
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1.1.1 数据传输链路(2)
数据传输链路分为两大类: 一类是用户到网络节点(路由器或交换机) 之间的链路(简称为接入链路); 另一类是网络节点(路由器或交换机)到网 络节点(路由器或交换机)之间的链路(简 称为网络链路)。
1.4 通信网络的基本理论问题
8
1.1通信网络的基本构成
1.1.1 数据传输链路 1.1.2 数据传输网络 1.1.3 网络的互连
3
1.1通信网络的基本构成
传输链路 (电话线、 光纤) 用户终端
(电话机、 传真机、计 算机)
链路汇聚点 (路由器、程控交换机)
基本网络由物理传输 链路和链路汇聚点组成
•Downstream Modulation: 64QAM,256QAM
通信网络知识点总结
通信网络知识点总结1. 网络基础在通信网络中,数据通过各种介质进行传输,如光纤、铜线、无线电波等。
通信网络可以分为局域网、城域网、广域网和互联网等不同范围的网络。
网络中的设备包括路由器、交换机、集线器、网卡等。
2. OSI模型OSI模型是一种通信协议的分类模型,它将通信网络分为7个层次,分别为物理层、数据链路层、网络层、传输层、会话层、表示层和应用层。
每一层都有各自的功能和使用的协议。
3. TCP/IP协议TCP/IP协议是互联网使用的一种通信协议,它将通信网络分为4个层次,分别为网络接口层、网络层、传输层和应用层。
TCP/IP协议是互联网通信的基础,它的主要功能包括数据封装、分组传输、错误检测和数据重传等。
4. IP地址IP地址是用来标识网络上设备的地址,可以分为IPv4和IPv6两种类型。
IPv4采用32位地址格式,而IPv6采用128位地址格式。
IP地址的分配由互联网管理机构负责,为了保证分配的公平和合理,IP地址有层级结构,包括网络地址和主机地址两部分。
5. 子网子网是为了提高IP地址的利用率和网络的安全性而引入的一种概念。
通过划分子网,可以将一个大的IP地址空间分成若干小的子网,每个子网都有自己的子网地址和子网掩码。
子网的划分过程称为子网划分,它可以根据实际需要进行调整。
6. 路由器路由器是用来连接不同网络的设备,它具有路由选择和转发功能。
在网络中,路由器会根据IP地址进行数据包的转发,以便实现数据包的从源到目的地的传输。
7. 交换机交换机是用来连接局域网中不同设备的设备,它具有交换数据包的功能。
在局域网中,交换机会根据MAC地址进行数据包的转发,以便实现设备之间的数据通信。
8. 网关网关是连接不同协议网络的设备,它可以实现协议翻译和数据转发的功能。
在网络中,网关可以将不同协议的数据包进行转换,以便实现不同网络之间的数据通信。
9. 调制解调器调制解调器是用来在数字信号和模拟信号之间进行转换的设备,它可以在数字通信和模拟通信之间进行转换。
通信网基本概念与主体结构(第二版)答案Ch2
Solutions to Chapter 2 (Note: solution to Problem 62 to be added)1. Explain how the notion of layering and internetworking make the rapid growth of applications such as the World Wide Web possible.Solution:Internetworking allows many component networks each with different underlying technology and operation to work together and form one large network. As new network technologies are introduced they can be readily incorporated into the Internet. This provides the ubiquitous connectivity for applications like WWW.The layering concept hides the specific underlying network technology from the upper layers and provides a common networking platform. Using the communication service provided by the layers below, new applications can be introduced independently and at a rapid rate.2. (a) What universal set of communication services is provided by TCP/IP?Solution:The TCP/IP protocol stack provides two basic types of communications services through its two transport layer protocols: TCP provides reliable connection-oriented transfer of a byte stream; UDP provides for best-effort connectionless transfer of individual messages. TCP/IP provides withglobally unique logical addressing that enables machines connected to the Internet to access these two services. The IP addressing scheme is very scalable because of its hierarchical structure.2. (b)How is independence from underlying network technologies achieved?Solution:The two basic communications services provided by TCP and UDP are built on the connectionless packet transfer service provided by the Internet Protocol (IP). Many network interfaces are defined tosupport IP. The salient part of the above figure is that all of the higher layer protocols access the network interfaces through IP. This is what provides the ability to operate over multiple networks.2. (c) What economies of scale result from (a) and (b)?Solution:Once a network interface for IP is defined for a given network technology, then hosts connected using the given network technology can connect to the Internet. This allows the reach of the Internet to grow rapidly, leveraging multiple coexisting networks technologies. Thus investment in new network technologies extends the reach of the Internet.3. What difference does it make to the network layer if the underlying data link layer provides a connection-oriented service versus a connectionless service?Solution:If the data link layer provides a connection-oriented service to the network layer, then the network layer must precede all transfer of information with a connection setup procedure. If the connection-oriented service includes assurances that frames of information are transferred correctly and insequence by the data link layer, the network layer can then assume that the packets it sends to its neighbor traverse an error-free pipe.On the other hand, if the data link layer is connectionless, then each frame is sent independently through the data link, probably in unconfirmed manner (without acknowledgments orretransmissions). In this case the network layer cannot make assumptions about the sequencing or correctness of the packets it exchanges with its neighbors.The Ethernet local area network provides an example of connectionless transfer of data link frames.The transfer of frames using "Type 2" service in Logical Link Control (discussed in Chapter 6)provides a connection-oriented data link control example.4. Suppose transmission channels become virtually error-free. Is the data link layer still needed?Solution:The data link layer is still needed for framing the data and for flow control over the transmissionchannel. In a multiple access medium such as a LAN, the data link layer is required to coordinate access to the shared medium among the multiple users.5. Why is the transport layer not present inside the network?Solution:Some of the functions provided by the transport layer can be provided inside the networks, but other functions cannot. For example, the transport layer provides functions at the end-system tocompensate for the limitations and impairments of the network layer, in order to meet requirements(e.g. QoS) of the upper layer. For example in TCP/IP, IP provides only best effort service. To providethe reliable service required by some applications - that is, to compensate for the shortcomings of best effort service - TCP establishes connections and implements error control on an end-to-end basis. One can imagine that a service provider could incorporate this error control function at the edge of its network. On the other hand, one of the main purposes of the transport layer is to allow multiple processes in the end systems to share a network service. This cannot be achieved inside the network.6. Which OSI layer is responsible for the following?(a)Determining the best path to route packets.The network layer is concerned with the selection of paths across the network.(b)Providing end-to-end communications with reliable service.The transport layer is concerned with providing reliable service on an end-to-end basis across the network.(c)Providing node-to-node communications with reliable service.The data link layer provides for the reliable transfer of information between adjacent nodes in anetwork.7. Should connection establishment be a confirmed service or an unconfirmed service? What about data transfer in a connection-oriented service? Connection release?Solution:In general, the establishment of a connection needs to be confirmed before information transfer can commence across a connection. Therefore connection establishment should be a confirmed service.A connection-oriented service is usually reliable so confirmation of data delivery is not necessary. Incertain situations, however, it is possible that the transfer across a connection is not reliable; in this case confirmation of correct data transfer may be required.In general it is desirable that the release of a connection be confirmed by the parties involved. We will see in Chapter 8, section 5, that sometimes it is not easy to confirm that a connection has beenclosed. Consequently, many protocols attempt to confirm the closing of a connection several times, and then give up and simply stop transmitting.8. Does it make sense for a network to provide a confirmed, connectionless packet transfer service?Solution:Yes. Connectionless packet transfer is often unreliable, that is, packets may be lost or discarded inside a network. Certain applications, for example, signaling in connection setup, requireconfirmation to acknowledge the receipt of packets.9. Explain how the notion of multiplexing can be applied at the data link, network, and transport layers. Draw afigure that shows the flow of PDUs in each multiplexing scheme.Solution:Transport Layer: Multiple application layers processes can share the service provided by UDP.When a UDP PDU arrives from the network layer, the destination port number in the PDU is used to deliver the SDU to the appropriate application layer process. Multiple application layer processes also share the service provided by TCP. In this case, when a TCP segment arrives, the TCPconnection ID, consisting of (source port #, source IP address, destination port #, destination IP address), is used to determine which application process to deliver the SDU to.Network Layer: The packet transfer service provided by IP can be used by all transport layersoperating in a machine. Each transfer layer passes SDUs to the IP layer which prepares IP packets with appropriate source and destination IP addresses for transfer across the Internet. Upon receiving an IP packet, a machine examines the protocol type field to determine which transport layer service to deliver the SDU to. We can also view all transport layer PDUs as sharing the IP packet transfer service between a source machine and a destination machine.Data Link Layer: Network layer packets from different protocols (IP, IPX, Appletalk, etc) can share a data link (such as PPP or Ethernet). We can also view packet flows that traverse a data linkbetween two routers as sharing the link.10. Give two features that the data link layer and transport layer have in common. Give two features in which they differ. Hint: Compare what can go wrong to the PDUs that are handled by these layers.Solution:Features they have in common:•Both layers can provide recovery from transmission errors.•Both layers can provide flow control.•Both layers can support multiplexing.Features in which they differ:•The transport layer is end to end and involves the interaction of peer processes across the network. The data link layer involves the interaction of peer-to-peer processes that areconnected directly. In general, the time that elapses in traversing a data link is much smaller than the time traversing a network, where packets can become trapped in temporary routing loops.Consequently, transport layer protocols must be able to deal with out-of-sequence PDUs and amuch larger backlog of PDUs than data link layers.•The data link layer is concerned with framing and the transport layer is not.•The data link layer may be concerned with medium access control, the transport layer does not have this concern.11(a). Can a connection-oriented, reliable message transfer service be provided across a connectionless packet network? Explain.Solution:Yes. To provide a connection-oriented service, the transport layer can establish a logical connection across the connectionless packet network by setting up state information (for example, packetsequence number) at the end systems. During the connection setup, the message is broken into separate packets, and each packet is assigned a sequence number.Using the sequence numbers, the end-system transport-layer entities can acknowledge received packets, determine and retransmit lost packets, delete duplicate packets, and rearrange out-of-order packets. The original message is reassembled as packets arrive at the receiving end.For example, TCP provides a connection-oriented reliable transfer service over IP, a connectionless packet transfer service.11b. Can a connectionless datagram transfer service be provided across a connection-oriented network?Solution:Yes. The connectionless datagram transfer service can be implemented by simply setting up aconnection across the network each time a datagram needs to be transferred. Alternatively, all nodes can have permanent connections to a “connectionless server” that has the function of relayingdatagrams in connectionless fashion.12. An internet path between two hosts involves a hop across network A, a packet-switching network, to a router and then another hop across packet-switching network B. Suppose that packet switching network A carries the packet between the first host and the router over a two-hop path involving one intermediate packet switch. Suppose also that the second network is an Ethernet LAN. Sketch the sequence of IP and non-IP packets and frames that are generated as an IP packet goes from host 1 to host 2.Solution:The IP layer in Host 1 generates an IP packet addressed to the destination host on the destination network and sends it to the router. The network interface in the host encapsulates the IP packet into the packet PDU used by network A. This packet is encapsulated in a frame that traverses data link 1 to the packet switch. The packet is recovered and then forwarded inside a frame along data link 2.The data link at the router recovers the Network A packet, and the IP network interface at the router recovers the IP packet and determines that the next hop is on Network B. The router encapsulates the IP packet into an Ethernet frame, puts the host 2 Ethernet physical address in the frame and sends it to the LAN. The Ethernet card on the host captures the frame and extracts the IP packet and passes it to the host.13. Does Ethernet provide connection-oriented or connectionless service?Solution:Ethernet provides connectionless transfer service of information frames.14. Ethernet is a LAN so it is placed in the data link layer of the OSI reference model.(a)How is the transfer of frames in Ethernet similar to the transfer of frames across a wire? How is itdifferent?The transfer of frames in Ethernet occurs directly over a transmission medium and in this sense is similar to direct transmission over a wire. The sequence of frames into Ethernet arrive in thesame order they are transmitted. However multiple stations can transmit in Ethernet which differs from direct transmission over a wire.(b)How is the transfer of frames in Ethernet similar to the transfer of frames in a packet-switching network?How is it different?Ethernet supports the transfer of frames among multiple end systems and in this sense is similar to a packet switching network. Ethernet does not involve routing which is a feature of packetswitching. Ethernet depends on broadcasting and/or bridging which differs from packet networks.15. Suppose that a group of workstations is connected to an Ethernet LAN. If the workstations communicate only with each other, does it make sense to use IP in the workstations? Should the workstations run TCP directly over Ethernet? How is addressing handled?Solution:Ethernet supports the exchange of frames between stations and can support the direct exchange of information. Using Ethernet without IP would result in an inflexible and difficult to managesystem. Ethernet addresses are fixed and tables need to be changed whenever a machine ismoved, while IP addresses are logical and can be changed whenever a machine is moved. ATCP connection uses the IP addresses in its connection ID so Ethernet addresses could not beused.16. Suppose two Ethernet LANs are interconnected by a box that operates as follows. The box has a table that tells it the physical addresses of the machines in each LAN. The box listens to frame transmissions on each LAN. If a frame is destined to a station at the other LAN, the box retransmits the frame onto the other LAN, otherwise the box does nothing.Solutions follow questions:a.Is the resulting network still a LAN? Does it belong in the data link layer or the network layer?The resulting network is a local area network that has been extended. The extended LAN transfers frames, and so it still belongs in the data link layer.b.Can the approach be extended to connect more than two LANs? If so, what problems arise as the number ofLANs becomes large?Yes, more than two LANs can be connected using the above approach to form an extended LAN. As the number of LANs becomes large, the number of physical addresses stored in the bridge grows and becomes unmanageable. Each time a machine is added the addresses in all the boxes need to be updated. Serious problems arise if boxes are connected so that loops can occur.17. Suppose all laptops in a large city are to communicate using radio transmissions from a high antenna tower. Is the data link layer or network layer more appropriate for this situation?Solution:The data link layer is concerned with the transfer of frames of information across a single hop. The network layer involves the transfer of information across a network using multiple hops per path in general. The connection from a radio antenna to the laptops is direct, and thus a data link layerprotocol is more suitable for this situation.Now suppose the city is covered by a large number of small antennas covering smaller areas. Which layer is more appropriate?A number of areas each covered by small antennas can be interconnected using the "bridging"approach of problem 16, which remains in the data link layer. However, the network layer may be more appropriate because it provides for the transfer of data in the form of packets across thecommunication network. A key aspect of this transfer is the routing of the packets from the source machine to the destination machine, typically traversing a number of transmission link and network nodes where routing is carried out.18. Suppose that a host is connected to a connection-oriented packet-switching network and that it transmits a packet to a server along a path that traverses two packet switches. Suppose that each hop in the path involves a point-to-point link, that is, a wire. Show the sequence of network layer and data link layer PDUs that are generated as the packet travels from the host to the server.Solution:Assume that a network connection has already been set up between the host machine and thenetwork machine. When the host generates an IP packet for transfer to the server, the IP packet will be transferred using the network connection as follows.•The IP packet is encapsulated into a network packet that has a connection ID in its header.The packet may then be encapsulated into a frame that traverses data link 1 and arrives atswitch 1.•The network packet is recovered from the data link 1 frame. The connection ID in the packet is used to determine the outgoing port from switch 1. The connection ID may need to bemapped into a corresponding connection ID over data link 2. The packet is encapsulated intoa frame that traverses data link 2.•The network packet is recovered from the data link 2 frame. The connection ID in the packet determines the outgoing port from switch 1 and the next connection ID. The packet isencapsulated into a frame that traverses data link 3.•The network packet is recovered from the data link 3 frame. The connection ID in the arriving packet indicates that this is the destination node. The IP packet is recovered.The connection-oriented network in this example could correspond to ATM or to frame relay.19. Suppose an application layer entity wants to send an L-byte message to its peer process, using an existing TCP connection. The TCP segment consists of the message plus 20 bytes of header. The segment is encapsulated into an IP packet that has an additional 20 bytes of header. The IP packet in turn goes inside an Ethernet frame that has 18 bytes of header and trailer. What percentage of the transmitted bits in the physical layer correspond to message information, if L = 100 bytes, 500 bytes, 1000 bytes?Solution:TCP/IP over Ethernet allows data frames with a payload size up to 1460 bytes. Therefore, L = 100, 500 and 1000 bytes are within this limit.The message overhead includes:•TCP: 20 bytes of header•IP: 20 bytes of header•Ethernet: total 18 bytes of header and trailer.ThereforeL = 100 bytes, 100/158 = 63% efficiency.L = 500 bytes, 500/558 = 90% efficiency.L = 1000 bytes, 1000/1058 = 95% efficiency.20. Suppose that the TCP entity receives a 1.5 megabyte file from the application layer and that the IP layer is willing to carry blocks of maximum size 1500 bytes. Calculate the amount of overhead incurred from segmenting the file into packet-sized units.Solution:1500 - 20 -20 = 1460 bytes1.5 Mbyte / 1460 byte = 1027.4, therefore 1028 blocks are needed to transfer the file.Overhead = ((1028 x 1500 - 1.5M)/1.5M) x 100 = 2.8%21. Suppose a TCP entity receives a digital voice stream from the application layer. The voice stream arrives at a rate of 8000 bytes/second. Suppose that TCP arranges bytes into block sizes that result in a total TCP and IP header overhead of 50 percent. How much delay is incurred by the first byte in each block?Solution:Assume the stream is segmented as shown below, where the white cells represent data and the shaded cells represent the TCP header overhead.Therefore, block size = 80 bytes and the payload size = 40 bytes.Assume zero processing delay due to data arrangement and segmenting.The delay incurred by the first byte of each block = 40/8000 = 0.5 ms.22. How does the network layer in a connection-oriented packet-switching network differ from the network layer ina connectionless packet-switching network?Solution:The network layer in connection-oriented networks maintains state information about everyconnection. It can allocate resources at the switches through admission control. The network layer in connectionless networks has no knowledge of "connections", and instead deals independently with each packet.The network layer in connection-oriented networks performs routing on a per connection basis. Each packet is routed based on a connection identifier of some sort and packets of the same connection have the same identifier value. In a connectionless network, routing is performed on per packet basis;each packet is routed independently based on information carried in the packet header, for example, the destination address.In connection-oriented networks, the network layer forwarding table is set up by a signaling procedure during the connection establishment. In connectionless networks, the routers may execute adistributed algorithm to share network state information and dynamically calculate the routing table continuously.In case of failure, the connection must be re-established in connection-oriented networks, whereas in connectionless networks, the packets are re-routed. The network layer in connectionless networks is more robust against failures.Summary of differences:Connection-oriented Connectionless Maintain state information about every connection No knowledge of the "connection"Allocate resources to connections at switches No resource allocationAdmission control No admission controlPer connection routing Per packet routingRoute packet based on identifier Route packet based on destination address.Forwarding table specifies the output port and outgoing identifier value as function of the incoming identifier value Routing table specifies the output port depending on the destination addressForwarding table set up by signaling during connection establishment.Router executes distributed algorithm to share network state information and dynamically calculate the routing tableConnection must be re-established in cases of failure Packets are rerouted around failures, robust against failures23. Identify session layer and presentation layer functions in the HTTP protocol.Solution:Presentation layer functions:The request message and the response message headers include information about the content type of the documents (e.g. text/html, image/gif).Session layer functions:The HTTP protocol defines the client/server interaction in three steps:1. Client sends the request for a file2. Server replies with the file or error message if file is not found.3. Server closes the TCP connection after some timeout period.24. Suppose we need a communication service to transmit real-time voice over the Internet. What features of TCP and what features of UDP are appropriate?Solution:TCP is desirable in that it provides a connection for the transfer of a stream of information, which characterizes a digital voice stream. However, to provide reliable service TCP uses acknowledgments and retransmissions that result in packet delay and jitter that can not be tolerated by real-time traffic.UDP provides connectionless service and delivers packets quickly. In case of packet loss, UDP does not provide retransmission, but some degree of packet loss can be tolerated by voice.25. Consider the end-to-end IP packet transfer examples in Figure 2.15. Sketch the sequences of IP packets and Ethernet and PPP frames that are generated by the three examples of packet transfers: from the workstation to the server; from the server to the PC, and from the PC to the server. Include all relevant header information in the sketch.Solution:Workstation to Server:IP packet headerEthernet FrameThe Ethernet frame is broadcast over the LAN. The server's NIC card recognizes that the frame is intended for its host, so it captures the frame and examines it. It finds that the protocol type is set to IP, so it passes the IP datagram up to the IP entity.Server to PC:IP packet headerEthernet FrameThe Ethernet frame is broadcast over the LAN. The router examines frame and passes IPdatagram to its IP entity which discover that the IP datagram is not for itself, but is to be routed on. The routing tables at the router show that the machine with address (2,2) is connecteddirectly on the other side of the point-to-point link. The router encapsulates the IP datagram in a PPP frame.IP packet headerPPP FrameThe PPP receiver at the PC receives the frame, checks the protocol type field and passes the IP datagram to its IP entity.PC to Server:The PC IP entity generates the IP packet shown below. The PPP transmitter at the PC encapsulates the IP packet into a PPP frame sends it to the point-to-point link. There's no need for a physical address specificationIP datagramIP packet headerPPP FrameThe router examines the PPP frame and passes the IP datagram to its IP entity which discoversthat the IP datagram is not for itself, but is to be routed on. The routing table at the router showsthat the machine with address (1,1) is connected in the other side of the Ethernet network. Therouter then encapsulates the IP datagram into an Ethernet frame that is broadcast in the LAN.The server's NIC card recognizes that the frame is intended for its host, so it captures the frameand examines it. It finds that the protocol type is set to IP, so it passes the IP datagram up to the IP entity.26. Suppose a user has two browser applications active at the same time, and suppose that the two applications are accessing the same server to retrieve HTTP documents at the same time. How does the server tell the difference between the two applications?Solution:A client application generates an ephemeral port number for every TCP connection it sets up. AnHTTP request connection is uniquely specified by the five parameters: (TCP, client IP address,ephemeral port #, server IP address, 80). The two applications in the above situations will havedifferent ephemeral port #s and will thus be distinguishable to the server.27. Consider the operation of non-persistent HTTP and persistent HTTP.(a)In non-persistent HTTP (version 1.0): Each client-server interaction involves setting up a TCP connection,carrying out the HTTP exchange, and closing the TCP connection. Let T be the time that elapses fromwhen a packet is sent from client to server to when the response is received. Find the rate at which HTTPexchanges can be made using non-persistent HTTP.(b)In persistent HTTP (version 1.1) the TCP connection is kept alive. Find the rate at which HTTP exchangescan be made if the client cannot send an additional request until it receives a response for each request.(c)Repeat part (b) if the client is allowed to pipeline requests, that is, it does not have to wait for a responsebefore sending a new request.Solution:(a) Each HTTP exchange involves: 1. a three-way handshake to set up the TCP connection; 2. anHTTP request-response interaction; and 3. a TCP close. The client can send its request after the first two handshakes in part 1 (which takes up T seconds). The request and response then take an additional T second. A new request can be initiated with an associated new TCP connection even while the previous TCP connection is being closes. Thus a maximum of one HTTP exchange per 2T seconds is possible.(b) Since each exchange is completed in T seconds, after the connection is setup, the exchange rateis 1/T.(c) The rate depends on how long it takes to send a request and how late it takes to compose aresponse. Considering the maximum of these to be t seconds, exchange rate can be up to 1/t.28. What is the difference between a physical address, a network address, and a domain name?Solution:The physical address is the unique hardware address that identifies an interface of a machine on a physical network such as a LAN. Physical addresses are used in the data link layer.A network address is a machine's logical address on a network. The network address is used in thenetwork layer. The network address used on the Internet is the IP address.Domain names are used as an aid to identify hosts and networks in the Internet, since names are easier to remember than numbers. The DNS system is used to translate between domain names and IP addresses. The domain name for the network address 128.100.132.30 is .29. Explain how a DNS query proceeds if the local name server does not have the IP address for a given host when the following approaches are used. Assume an example where four machines are involved in ultimately resolving a given query.(a)When a machine B cannot resolve an address in response to a query from A, machine B sends the query toanother machine in the chain. When B receives the response, it forwards the result to B.(b)When a machine B cannot resolve an address in response to a query from A, machine B sends a DNS replyto A with the IP address of the next machine in the chain, and machine A contacts that machine.Solution:(a) Host A sends a query to a name server B. B cannot resolve an address, therefore sends the queryto C. C cannot resolve an address either, and send the query to D. Similarly, D cannot resolve an address and sends the query to E, where finally an address is resolved and returned to D. D replies the address to C, C replies it to B, and finally B passes it to the host. In this scenario each server should remember the state of the query and its source.(b) Host A sends a query to name server B. B cannot resolve an address, replies to A with the IPaddress of C. Host A send a query to C this time. C cannot resolve an address, and replies to A with the IP address of D. A sends a query to D. D cannot resolve an address, and replies with the IP address of E. A sends a query to E, E finally resolves an address and returns it to A. In this scenario。
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S ( D) D L C ( D) Remainder g ( D)
(1)置SN=0。
(2)如果从高层接收到一个分组,则将SN指配 给该分组;如果没有高层分组,则等待。 (3)将发送序号为SN的分组装入的物理帧中发 送给接收节点B。 (4)如果从B接收的RN>SN,则将SN加1,返回 (2)。如果在规定的有限长时间内,没有从B接收 到RN>SN的帧(应答),则返回(3)进行重传。
25
无发送序号情况
DATA 定时器 DATA
ACK
新数据还是重发 的数据?
26
无接收序号情况
发送 A 0 定时器 超时 0 1
A无法区分该 ACK是对那个 分组的应答
2
ACK
ACK
NACK
接收 B packet0
27
等待式ARQ协议的严格描述(1)
假定A向B发送分组(A→B),节点A的发送算 法如下:
第2章 端到端的传输协议
韩维佳 通信工程学院信息科学研究所
1
2.2 链路层的差错控制技术
2.2.1 差错检测 2.2.2 ARQ协议 2.2.3 最佳帧长
2
2.2.1 差错检测(1)
链路层差错检测的目的是:如何有效地发
现一帧数据比特经过物理信道传输后是否 正确。
3
2.2.1 差错检测(2)
7
1.奇偶校验码(4)
如果L取1,即 C S1 S 2 S 3 ... S K 为最简单的单 比特的奇偶校验码,它使得生成的码字(信息比 特+校验比特)所含“1”的个数为偶数。该码可 以发现所有奇数个比特错误,但是不能发现任何 偶数个错误。
8
1.奇偶校验码(5)
在实际应用奇偶校验码时,每个码字中K个信息比 特可以是输入信息比特流中K个连续的比特,也可以 按一定的间隔(如一个字节)取K个比特。为了提高 检测错误的能力,可将上述两种取法重复使用。
20
2.2.2 ARQ协议(2)
为了研究ARQ协议,我们对物理比特管道(物理链 路)作如下假定: (1)在物理信道上传输的帧到达接收端前被时延了 一个任意可变的时间; (2)帧在传输过程中可能会丢失,也可能出错;
(3)帧到达的顺序与发送的顺序相同。
21
2.2.2 ARQ协议(3)
有四种不同形式的ARQ重传协议
则校验比特对应下列多项式的系数:
S ( D) D L L 1 C ( D) Re mainder C L 1 D ... C1 D C 0 g ( D)
式中:Remainder[]表示取余数。式中的除法与普通 的多项式长除相同,其差别是系数是二进制,其运算 以模2为基础。
与生成多项式 g(D)相除,并求其余数。如果
R ( D) Re mainder 0 g ( D)
则认为接收无误。
18
CRC校验(9)
R ( D) Remainder 0 有两种情况:一是接 g ( D) 收的序列正确无误;二是有错,但此时的错误使
得接收序列等同于某一个可能的发送序列。后一 种情况称为漏检。
4
1.奇偶校验码(1)
例:
信息序列长K=3,校验序列长L=4。输入信息比特
为 {S1,S2,S3},校验比特为 {C1,C2,C3,
C4},校验的规则为
C1 S1 S3 , C2 S1 S 2 S3 , C3 S1 S 2 , C4 S 2 S3
5
1.奇偶校验码(2)
解:输入比特序列可表示为
S ( D) D D D D D 1, K 8
7 5 4 2 1
因为 g ( D) D D D 1, L 16
16
16
15
2
CRC校验(7)
所以
D 23 D 21 D 20 D18 D17 D16 Remainder 16 15 2 D D D 1
0101001110110110011101010
L个校 验比特 L个校 验比特
N个比特 0010011011101 0011101110001 1110000001111 0010011011101 0011101110001 1110000001111 L个校 验比特 L个校 验比特
9
CRC校验(1)
g ( D) D D D 1
16
15
2
CRC-CCITT(L=16):
16 12
g ( D) D D D 1
26 23 5 22 16 12 11 10
5
CRC-32(L=32):
32
g ( D) D D D D D D D D D D D D D D 1
CRC(循环冗余校验)是根据输入比特序列
( S K 1 , S K 2 ,..., S1 , S 0 )
通过下列CRC算法产生L位的校验比特序列
(C L 1 , C L 2 ,..., C1 , C 0 )
10Βιβλιοθήκη CRC校验(2)将输入比特序列表示为下列多项式的系数:
S ( D) S K 1 D K 1 S K 2 D K 2 ... S1 D S 0
8 7 4 2
14
CRC校验(6)
例2.1 :设输入比特序列为(10110111),采用 CRC-16生成多项式,求其校验比特序列。
解:输入比特序列可表示为
S( D) = ?, K = 8
因为 g ( D) D D D 1, L 16
15
16
15
2
CRC校验(6)
例2.1 :设输入比特序列为(10110111),采用 CRC-16生成多项式,求其校验比特序列。
12
CRC校验(4)
• 例如,
( D 5 D 3 ) /(D 3 D 2 1)
D2 D
的商为
余数为
D2 D
最终形成的发送序列为:
(SK 1, SK 2 ,, S1 , S0 , CL1,...,C1, C0 )
13
CRC校验(5)
常用的几个L阶CRC生成多项式为: CRC-16(L=16):
31
等待式算法的正确性证明
算法的正确性证明可分为两部分:一是稳妥性 (Safety),即算法决不会产生不正确的结果 (在这里是指提交给上层分组的顺序不对);二 是活动性(Liveness),即算法会永远不停地产 生结果(不会产生死循环,一旦进入死循环,将 不会进行进一步的处理),在这里指在A节点能 够不停地接收高层的分组,在B节点能够不停地 将这些分组呈送给高层。
式中:D可以看成为一个时延因子,Di 对应比特 Si 所
处的位置。 例如:10101100,S(D)=D7+D5+D3+D2
11
CRC校验(3)
gL-1
g1
+
D
+
D
+
D
设CRC校验比特的生成多项式为(g(D)=D16+D15+D2+1)
g ( D) D g L1 D
L
L 1
... g1 D 1
33
等待式ARQ算法活动性证明(1)
为了考察该算法的活动性,假定A在 t1时刻开始 发送给定的分组i,B在 t2时刻正确接收到该分组, A在 t3时刻正确接收到B的应答。显然,如果 t2= ,则表示B收不到A的分组;如果 t3=,则表 示A收不到B的应答。因而,要证明该算法的活动 性就要证明
1 1 0 0 1 0)
17
CRC校验(8)
由此式可得校验比特序列为: (0000001110110010)。最终形成的经过校验后 的发送序列为(101101110000001110110010)。
在接收端,将接收到的序列
R( D) rK L1 D K L1 rK L2 D K L2 ... r1 D r0
常用的检错方法
– 奇偶校验 – 循环冗余校验CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check)
基本思路是发端按照给定的规则,在K个信息比特 后面增加L个按照某种规则计算的校验比特;在接 收端对收到的信息比特重新计算L个校验比特。 比较接收到的校验比较和本地重新计算的校验比 特,如果相同则认为传输无误,否则认为传输有 错。
19
2.2.2 ARQ协议(1)
前面解决了如何发现传输帧的错误问题,下面要解决当
接收端发现传输帧有错如何处理的方法。
出错的最简单处理方法是(收端)自动请求发端重发 (ARQ,Automatic Retransmission Request)。即收端 收到一帧后,经过CRC检验,如果发现该帧传输有误, 则通过反馈信道(该信道可以与前向传输相同,也可以 不同)以某种反馈规则通知发端重复上述过程,直到收 端收到正确的帧为止。对反馈规则和重传规则的设计, 要保证整个自动重传协议的正确性和有效性。
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1.奇偶校验码(3)
例如:设发送的信息比特为{100},经过奇偶校验 码生成的校验序列为{1110},则发送的信息序列 为{1001110}。
若经过物理信道传输后,接收的序列为{1011110}, 则本地根据收到的信息比特{101}计算出的校验序列 应为{0011}。显然该序列与接收到的校验序列{1110} 不同,表明接收的信息序列有错。