B.S结构外文翻译
cpu中央处理器中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料翻译中央处理器设计摘要CPU(中央处理单元)是数字计算机的重要组成部分,其目的是对从内存中接收的指令进行译码，同时对存储于内部寄存器、存储器或输入输出接口单元的数据执行传输、算术运算、逻辑运算以及控制操作。
在外部，CPU为转换指令数据和控制信息提供一个或多个总线并从组件连接到它。
在通用计算机开始的第一章，CPU作为处理器的一部分被屏蔽了。
但是CPU有可能出现在很多电脑之间，小，相对简单的所谓微控制器的计算机被用在电脑和其他数字化系统中，以执行限制或专门任务。
例如，一个微控制器出现在普通电脑的键盘和检测器中，但是这些组件也被屏蔽。
在这种微控制器中，与我们在这一章中所讨论的CPU可能十分不同。
字长也许更短，（或者说4或8个字节），编制数量少，指令集有限。
相对而言，性能差，但对完成任务来说足够了。
最重要的是它的微控制器的成本很低，符合成本效益。
在接下去的几页里，我考虑的是两个计算机的CPU，一个是一个复杂指令集计算机（ CISC），另一个是精简指令集计算机（RISC）。
在详细的设计检查之后，我们比较了两个CPU的性能，并提交了用来提高性能的一些方法的简要概述。
最后，我们讨论了关于一般数字系统设计的设计思路。
1．双CPU的设计正如我们前一章提到的，一个典型的CPU通常被分成两部分：数据路径和控制单元。
该数据路径由一个功能单元、登记册和内部总线组成，为在功能单元、存储器以及其他计算机组件之间提供转移信息的途径。
这个数据途径有可能是流水线，也有可能不是。
控制单元由一个程序计数器，一个指令寄存器，控制逻辑，和可能有其他硬或微程序组成。
如果数据途径是流水线那么控制单元也有可能是流水线。
电脑的CPU是一个部分，要么是复杂指令集计算机（ CISC），要么是精简指令集计算机（RISC），有自己的指令集架构。
本章的目的是提交两个CPU的设计，用来说明指令集，数据路径，和控制单元的构造特征的合并。
该设计将自上而下，但随着先前组件设计的重新使用，来说明指令集构架在数据路径和控制单元上的影响，数据路径上的单元的影响力。
外文翻译---混凝土,钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土
Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, andPrestressedConcreteConcrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden in forms of the shape and dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse aggregate.Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles into a solid mass. Additional water, over and above that needed for this chemical reaction, is necessary to give the mixture workability that enables it to fill the forms and surround the embedded reinforcing steel prior to hardening. Concretes with a wide range of properties can be obtained by appropriates adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials.Special cements,special aggregates, and special curing methods permit an even wider variety of properties to be obtained.These properties depend to a very substantial degree on the proportions of the mix, on the thoroughness with which the various constituents are intermixed, and on the conditions of humidity and temperature in which the mix is maintained from the moment it is placed in the forms of humidity and hardened. The process of controlling conditions after placement is known as curing.To protect against the unintentional production of substandard concrete, a high degree of skillful control and supervision is necessary throughout the process,from the proportioning by weight of the individual components, trough mixing and placing, until the completion of curing.The factors that make concrete a universal building material are so pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at present, for thousands of years, starting with lime mortars from 12,000 to 600 B.C. in Crete, Cyprus, Greece, and the Middle East. The facility with which , while plastic, it can be deposited and made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages.Most of the constituent materials,with the exception of cement and additives,are usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones,is high,which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as in natural stones,it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its economical use in structural members that ate subject to tension either entirely or over part of their cross sections.To offset this limitation,it was found possible,in the second half of thenineteenth century,to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is places in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely surrounded by the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member.The resulting combination of two materials,known as reinforced concrete,combines many of the advantages of each:the relatively low cost,good weather and fire resistance, good compressive strength, and excellent formability of concrete and the high tensile strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel.It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings,bridges,dams, tanks, reservoirs, and a host of other structures.In more recent times, it has been found possible to produce steels, at relatively low cost, whose yield strength is 3 to 4 times and more that of ordinary reinforcing steels.Likewise,it is possible to produce concrete4to5times as strong in compression as the more ordinary concrete. These high-strength materials offer many advantages, including smaller member cross sections, reduced dead load, and longer spans. However, there are limits to the strengths of the constituent materials beyond which certain problems arise.To be sure,the strength of such a member would increase roughly in proportion to those of the materials. However, the high strains that result from the high stresses that would otherwise be permissible would lead to large deformations and consequently large deflections of such member under ordinary loading conditions.Equally important,the large strains in such high-strength reinforcing steel would induce large cracks in the surrounding low tensile strength concrete, cracks that would not only be unsightly but that could significantly reduce the durability of the structure.This limits the useful yield strength of high-strength reinforcing steel to 80 ksi according to many codes and specifications; 60 ksi steel is most commonly used.A special way has been found, however, to use steels and concrete of very high strength in combination. This type of construction is known as prestressed concrete. The steel,in the form of wires,strands,or bars, is embedded in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by compressive stresses in the concrete after hardening,Because of this precompression,the concrete in a flexural member will crack on the tension side at a much larger load than when not so precompressed. Prestressing greatly reduces both the deflections and the tensile cracks at ordinaryloads in such structures, and thereby enables these high-strength materials to be used effectively. Prestressed concrete has extended, to a very significant extent, the range of spans of structural concrete and the types of structures for which it is suited.混凝土，钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土混凝土是一种经过水泥，沙子和砂砾或其他材料聚合得到经过细致配比的混合物，在液体变硬使材料石化后可以得到理想的形状和结构尺寸。
资本结构中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The effect of capital structure on profitability : an empirical analysis of listed firms in Ghana IntroductionThe capital structure decision is crucial for any business organization. The decision is important because of the need to maximize returns to various organizational constituencies, and also because of the impact such a decision has on a firm’s ability to deal with its competitive environment. The capital structure of a firm is actually a mix of different securities. In general, a firm can choose among many alternative capital structures. It can issue a large amount of debt or very little debt. It can arrange lease financing, use warrants, issue convertible bonds, sign forward contracts or trade bond swaps. It can issue dozens of distinct securities in countless combinations; however, it attempts to find the particular combination that maximizes its overall market value.A number of theories have been advanced in explaining the capital structure of firms. Despite the theoretical appeal of capital structure, researchers in financial management have not found the optimal capital structure. The best that academics and practitioners have been able to achieve are prescriptions that satisfy short-term goals. For example, the lack of a consensus about what would qualify as optimal capital structure has necessitated the need for this research. A better understanding of the issues at hand requires a look at the concept of capital structure and its effect on firm profitability. This paper examines the relationship between capital structure and profitability of companies listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange during the period 1998-2002. The effect of capital structure on the profitability of listed firms in Ghana is a scientific area that has not yet been explored in Ghanaian finance literature.The paper is organized as follows. The following section gives a review of the extant literature on the subject. The next section describes the data and justifies the choice of the variables used in the analysis. The model used in the analysis is then estimated. The subsequent section presents and discusses the results of the empirical analysis. Finally, the last section summarizes the findings of the research and also concludes the discussion.Literature on capital structureThe relationship between capital structure and firm value has been the subject of considerable debate. Throughout the literature, debate has centered on whether there is an optimal capital structure for an individual firm or whether the proportion of debt usage is irrelevant to the individual firm’s value. The capital structure of a firm concerns the mix of debt and equity the firm uses in its operation. Brealey and Myers (2003) contend that the choice of capital structure is fundamentally a marketing problem. They state that the firm can issue dozens of distinct securities in countless combinations, but it attempts to find the particular combination that maximizes market value. According to Weston and Brigham (1992), the optimal capital structure is the one that maximizes the market value of the firm’s outstanding shares.Fama and French (1998), analyzing the relationship among taxes, financing decisions, and the firm’s value, concluded that the debt does not concede tax b enefits. Besides, the high leverage degree generates agency problems among shareholders and creditors that predict negative relationships between leverage and profitability. Therefore, negative information relating debt and profitability obscures the tax benefit of the debt. Booth et al. (2001) developed a study attempting to relate the capital structure of several companies in countries with extremely different financial markets. They concluded thatthe variables that affect the choice of the capital structure of the companies are similar, in spite of the great differences presented by the financial markets. Besides, they concluded that profitability has an inverse relationship with debt level and size of the firm. Graham (2000) concluded in his work that big and profitable companies present a low debt rate. Mesquita and Lara (2003) found in their study that the relationship between rates of return and debt indicates a negative relationship for long-term financing. However, they found a positive relationship for short-term financing and equity.Hadlock and James (2002) concluded that companies prefer loan (debt) financing because they anticipate a higher return. Taub (1975) also found significant positive coefficients for four measures of profitability in a regression of these measures against debt ratio. Petersen and Rajan (1994) identified the same association, but for industries. Baker (1973), who worked with a simultaneous equations model, and Nerlove (1968) also found the same type of association for industries. Roden and Lewellen (1995) found a significant positive association between profitability and total debt as a percentage of the total buyout-financing package in their study on leveraged buyouts. Champion (1999) suggested that the use of leverage was one way to improve the performance of an organization.In summary, there is no universal theory of the debt-equity choice. Different views have been put forward regarding the financing choice. The present study investigates the effect of capital structure on profitability of listed firms on the GSE.MethodologyThis study sampled all firms that have been listed on the GSE over a five-year period (1998-2002). Twenty-two firms qualified to be included in the study sample. Variables used for the analysis include profitability and leverage ratios. Profitability is operationalized using a commonly used accounting-based measure: the ratio of earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) to equity. The leverage ratios used include:. short-term debt to the total capital;. long-term debt to total capital;. total debt to total capital.Firm size and sales growth are also included as control variables.The panel character of the data allows for the use of panel data methodology. Panel data involves the pooling of observations on a cross-section of units over several time periods and provides results that are simply not detectable in pure cross-sections or pure time-series studies. A general model for panel data that allows the researcher to estimate panel data with great flexibility and formulate the differences in the behavior of thecross-section elements is adopted. The relationship between debt and profitability is thus estimated in the following regression models:ROE i,t =β0 +β1SDA i,t +β2SIZE i,t +β3SG i,t + ëi,t (1) ROE i,t=β0 +β1LDA i,t +β2SIZE i,t +β3SG i,t + ëi,t (2) ROE i,t=β0 +β1DA i,t +β2SIZE i,t +β3SG i,t + ëi,t (3)where:. ROE i,t is EBIT divided by equity for firm i in time t;. SDA i,t is short-term debt divided by the total capital for firm i in time t;. LDA i,t is long-term debt divided by the total capital for firm i in time t;. DA i,t is total debt divided by the total capital for firm i in time t;. SIZE i,t is the log of sales for firm i in time t;. SG i,t is sales growth for firm i in time t; and. ëi,t is the error term.Empirical resultsTable I provides a summary of the descriptive statistics of the dependent and independent variables for the sample of firms. This shows the average indicators of variables computed from the financial statements. The return rate measured by return on equity (ROE) reveals an average of 36.94 percent with median 28.4 percent. This picture suggests a good performance during the period under study. The ROE measures the contribution of net income per cedi (local currency) invested by the firms’ stockholders; a measure of the efficiency of the owners’ invested capital. The variable SDA measures the ratio of short-term debt to total capital. The average value of this variable is 0.4876 with median 0.4547. The value 0.4547 indicates that approximately 45 percent of total assets are represented by short-term debts, attesting to the fact that Ghanaian firms largely depend on short-term debt for financing their operations due to the difficulty in accessing long-term credit from financial institutions. Another reason is due to the under-developed nature of the Ghanaian long-term debt market. The ratio of total long-term debt to total assets (LDA) also stands on average at 0.0985. Total debt to total capital ratio(DA) presents a mean of 0.5861. This suggests that about 58 percent of total assets are financed by debt capital. The above position reveals that the companies are financially leveraged with a large percentage of total debt being short-term.Table I.Descriptive statisticsMean SD Minimum Median Maximum━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ROE 0.3694 0.5186 -1.0433 0.2836 3.8300SDA 0.4876 0.2296 0.0934 0.4547 1.1018LDA 0.0985 0.1803 0.0000 0.0186 0.7665DA 0.5861 0.2032 0.2054 0.5571 1.1018SIZE 18.2124 1.6495 14.1875 18.2361 22.0995SG 0.3288 0.3457 20.7500 0.2561 1.3597━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Regression analysis is used to investigate the relationship between capital structure and profitability measured by ROE. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression results are presented in Table II. The results from the regression models (1), (2), and (3) denote that the independent variables explain the debt ratio determinations of the firms at 68.3, 39.7, and 86.4 percent, respectively. The F-statistics prove the validity of the estimated models. Also, the coefficients are statistically significant in level of confidence of 99 percent.The results in regression (1) reveal a significantly positive relationship between SDA and profitability. This suggests that short-term debt tends to be less expensive, and therefore increasing short-term debt with a relatively low interest rate will lead to an increase in profit levels. The results also show that profitability increases with the control variables (size and sales growth). Regression (2) shows a significantly negative association between LDA and profitability. This implies that an increase in the long-term debt position is associated with a decrease in profitability. This is explained by the fact that long-term debts are relatively more expensive, and therefore employing high proportions of them could lead to low profitability. The results support earlier findings by Miller (1977), Fama and French (1998), Graham (2000) and Booth et al. (2001). Firm size and sales growth are again positively related to profitability.The results from regression (3) indicate a significantly positive association between DA and profitability. The significantly positive regression coefficient for total debt implies that an increase in the debt position is associated with an increase in profitability: thus, the higher the debt, the higher the profitability. Again, this suggests that profitable firms depend more on debt as their main financing option. This supports the findings of Hadlock and James (2002), Petersen and Rajan (1994) and Roden and Lewellen (1995) that profitable firms use more debt. In the Ghanaian case, a high proportion (85 percent)of debt is represented by short-term debt. The results also show positive relationships between the control variables (firm size and sale growth) and profitability.Table II.Regression model results━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Profitability (EBIT/equity)Ordinary least squares━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Variable 1 2 3SIZE 0.0038 (0.0000) 0.0500 (0.0000) 0.0411 (0.0000)SG 0.1314 (0.0000) 0.1316 (0.0000) 0.1413 (0.0000)SDA 0.8025 (0.0000)LDA -0.3722(0.0000)DA -0.7609(0.0000)R²0.6825 0.3968 0.8639SE 0.4365 0.4961 0.4735Prob. (F) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ConclusionsThe capital structure decision is crucial for any business organization. The decision is important because of the need to maximize returns to various organizational constituencies, and also because of the impact such a decision has on an organization’s ability to deal with its competitive environment. This present study evaluated the relationship between capital structure and profitability of listed firms on the GSE during a five-year period (1998-2002). The results revealed significantly positive relation between SDA and ROE, suggesting that profitable firms use more short-term debt to finance their operation. Short-term debt is an important component or source of financing for Ghanaian firms, representing 85 percent of total debt financing. However, the results showed a negative relationship between LDA and ROE. With regard to the relationship between total debt and profitability, the regression results showed a significantly positive association between DA and ROE. This suggests that profitable firms depend more on debt as their main financing option. In the Ghanaian case, a high proportion (85 percent) of the debt is represented in short-term debt.译文加纳上市公司资本结构对盈利能力的实证研究论文简介资本结构决策对于任何商业组织都是至关重要的。
工程管理专业外文文献翻译(中英文)【精选文档】
xxxxxx 大学本科毕业设计外文翻译Project Cost Control: the Way it Works项目成本控制：它的工作方式学院（系）: xxxxxxxxxxxx专业: xxxxxxxx学生姓名: xxxxx学号： xxxxxxxxxx指导教师： xxxxxx评阅教师：完成日期：xxxx大学项目成本控制：它的工作方式在最近的一次咨询任务中，我们意识到对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的,仍有一些缺乏理解。
所以我们决定描述它是如何工作的.理论上，项目成本控制不是很难跟随。
首先，建立一组参考基线。
然后，随着工作的深入，监控工作,分析研究结果,预测最终结果并比较参考基准。
如果最终的结果不令人满意，那么你要对正在进行的工作进行必要的调整，并在合适的时间间隔重复。
如果最终的结果确实不符合基线计划，你可能不得不改变计划.更有可能的是，会 (或已经) 有范围变更来改变参考基线，这意味着每次出现这种情况你必须改变基线计划。
但在实践中，项目成本控制要困难得多，通过项目数量无法控制成本也证明了这一点。
正如我们将看到的，它还需要大量的工作，我们不妨从一开始启用它。
所以，要跟随项目成本控制在整个项目的生命周期.同时，我们会利用这一机会来指出几个重要文件的适当的地方。
其中包括商业案例，请求（资本)拨款（执行），工作包和工作分解结构，项目章程（或摘要),项目预算或成本计划、挣值和成本基线。
所有这些有助于提高这个组织的有效地控制项目成本的能力。
业务用例和应用程序（执行）的资金重要的是要注意，当负责的管理者对于项目应如何通过项目生命周期展开有很好的理解时,项目成本控制才是最有效的。
这意味着他们在主要阶段的关键决策点之间行使职责。
他们还必须识别项目风险管理的重要性，至少可以确定并计划阻止最明显的潜在风险事件。
在项目的概念阶段•每个项目始于确定的机会或需要的人.通常是有着重要性和影响力的人,如果项目继续,这个人往往成为项目的赞助。
【建筑】高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译中英文
【关键字】建筑高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Structural Engineer Journal of the Institution of Structural Engineer, 2014, 92, pp: 26-29.英文原文Talling building and Steel constructionCollins MarkAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel fraing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings. and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the (1974) in .Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all columnelement can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in . The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story building inColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in , using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story in has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of (), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at () centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and aninterior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to desi gn the world’s present tallest ( or )lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story in is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, , , West German, , and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the , built in cast iron over the Severn River in in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet () long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of built the for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the in . In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the , also known as the , in (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than (). In , the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some () in diameter and () long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower () high. Not only was theheight-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a engineer , had designed the , ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in and . Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to . ( ) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the , was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and c olumns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the in , where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The ’s 102 stories (. []) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at , supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the , and has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.中文译文高层结构与钢结构作者：Collins Mark近年来,尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步,但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。
结构设计--中英文翻译
外文翻译结构设计结构设计Augustine J.Fredrich摘要：结构设计是选择材料和构件类型，大小和形状以安全有用的样式承担荷载。
一般说来，结构设计暗指结构物如建筑物和桥或是可移动但有刚性外壳如船体和飞机框架的工厂稳定性。
设计的移动时彼此相连的设备（连接件），一般被安排在机械设计领域。
关键词：结构设计；结构分析；结构方案；工程要求Abstract: Structure design is the selection of materials and member type ,size, and configuration to carry loads in a safe and serviceable fashion .In general ,structural design implies the engineering of stationary objects such as buildings and bridges ,or objects that maybe mobile but have a rigid shape such as ship hulls and aircraft frames. Devices with parts planned to move with relation to each other(linkages) are generally assigned to the area of mechanical .Key words: Structure Design ；Structural analysis ；structural scheme ；Project requirementsStructure DesignStructural design involved at least five distinct phases of work: project requirements, materials, structural scheme, analysis, and design. For unusualstructures or materials a six phase, testing, should be included. These phases do not proceed in a rigid progression , since different materials can be most effective in different schemes , testing can result in change to a design , and a final design is often reached by starting with a rough estimated design , then looping through several cycles of analysis and redesign . Often, several alternative designs will prove quite close in cost, strength, and serviceability. The structural engineer, owner, or end user would then make a selection based on other considerations.Project requirements. Before starting design, the structural engineer must determine the criteria for acceptable performance. The loads or forces to be resisted must be provided. For specialized structures, this may be given directly, as when supporting a known piece of machinery, or a crane of known capacity. For conventional buildings, buildings codes adopted on a municipal, county , or , state level provide minimum design requirements for live loads (occupants and furnishings , snow on roofs , and so on ). The engineer will calculate dead loads (structural and known, permanent installations ) during the design process.For the structural to be serviceable or useful , deflections must also be kept within limits ,since it is possible for safe structural to be uncomfortable “bounce”Very tight deflection limits are set on supports for machinery , since beam sag can cause drive shafts to bend , bearing to burn out , parts to misalign , and overhead cranes to stall . Limitations of sag less than span /1000 ( 1/1000 of the beam length ) are not uncommon . In conventional buildings, beams supporting ceilings often have sag limits of span /360 to avoid plaster cracking, or span /240 to avoid occupant concern (keep visual perception limited ). Beam stiffness also affects floor “bounciness,” which can be annoying if not controlled. In addition , lateral deflection , sway , or drift of tall buildings is often held within approximately height /500 (1/500 of the building height ) to minimize the likelihood of motion discomfort in occupants of upper floors on windy days .Member size limitations often have a major effect on the structural design. For example, a certain type of bridge may be unacceptable because of insufficient under clearance for river traffic, or excessive height endangering aircraft. In building design,ceiling heights and floor-to-floor heights affect the choice of floor framing. Wall thicknesses and column sizes and spacing may also affect the serviceability of various framing schemes.Materials selection. Technological advances have created many novel materials such as carbon fiber and boron fiber-reinforced composites, which have excellent strength, stiffness, and strength-to-weight properties. However, because of the high cost and difficult or unusual fabrication techniques required , they are used only in very limited and specialized applications . Glass-reinforced composites such as fiberglass are more common, but are limited to lightly loaded applications. The main materials used in structural design are more prosaic and include steel, aluminum, reinforced concrete, wood , and masonry .Structural schemes. In an actual structural, various forces are experienced by structural members , including tension , compression , flexure (bending ), shear ,and torsion (twist) . However, the structural scheme selected will influence which of these forces occurs most frequently, and this will influence the process of materials selection.Tension is the most efficient way to resist applied loads ,since the entire member cross section is acting to full capacity and bucking is not a concern . Any tension scheme must also included anchorages for the tension members . In a suspension bridge , for example ,the anchorages are usually massive dead weights at the ends of the main cables . To avoid undesirable changes in geometry under moving or varying loads , tension schemes also generally require stiffening beams or trusses.Compression is the next most efficient method for carrying loads . The full member cross section is used ,but must be designed to avoid bucking ,either by making the member stocky or by adding supplementary bracing . Domed and arched buildings ,arch bridges and columns in buildings frames are common schemes . Arches create lateral outward thrusts which must be resisted . This can be done by designing appropriate foundations or , where the arch occurs above the roadway or floor line , by using tension members along the roadway to tie the arch endstogether ,keeping them from spreading . Compression members weaken drastically when loads are not applied along the member axis , so moving , variable , and unbalanced loads must be carefully considered.Schemes based on flexure are less efficient than tension and compression ,since the flexure or bending is resisted by one side of the member acting in tension while the other side acts in compression . Flexural schemes such as beams , girders , rigid frames , and moment (bending ) connected frames have advantages in requiring no external anchorages or thrust restrains other than normal foundations ,and inherent stiffness and resistance to moving ,variable , and unbalanced loads .Trusses are an interesting hybrid of the above schemes . They are designed to resist loads by spanning in the manner of a flexural member, but act to break up the load into a series of tension and compression forces which are resisted by individually designed tension and have excellent stiffness and resistance to moving and variable loads . Numerous member-to-member connections, supplementary compression braces ,and a somewhat cluttered appearance are truss disadvantages .Plates and shells include domes ,arched vaults ,saw tooth roofs , hyperbolic paraboloids , and saddle shapes .Such schemes attempt to direct all force along the plane of the surface ,and act largely in shear . While potentially very efficient ,such schemes have very strict limitations on geometry and are poor in resisting point ,moving , and unbalanced loads perpendicular to the surface.Stressed-skin and monologue construction uses the skin between stiffening ribs ,spars ,or columns to resist shear or axial forces . Such design is common in airframes for planes and rockets, and in ship hulls . it has also been used to advantage in buildings. Such a design is practical only when the skin is a logical part of the design and is never to be altered or removed .For bridges , short spans are commonly girders in flexure . As spans increase and girder depth becomes unwieldy , trusses are often used ,as well as cablestayed schemes .Longer spans may use arches where foundation conditions ,under clearance ,or headroom requirements are favorable .The longest spans are handled exclusively by suspension schemes ,since these minimize the crucial dead weight andcan be erected wire by wire .For buildings, short spans are handled by slabs in flexure .As spans increase, beams and girders in flexure are used . Longer spans require trusses ,especially in industrial buildings with possible hung loads . Domes ,arches , and cable-suspended and air –supported roofs can be used over convention halls and arenas to achieve clear areas .Structural analysis . Analysis of structures is required to ensure stability (static equilibrium ) ,find the member forces to be resisted ,and determine deflections . It requires that member configuration , approximate member sizes ,and elastic modulus ; linearity ; and curvature and plane sections . Various methods are used to complete the analysis .Final design . once a structural has been analyzed (by using geometry alone if the analysis is determinate , or geometry plus assumed member sizes and materials if indeterminate ), final design can proceed . Deflections and allowable stresses or ultimate strength must be checked against criteria provided either by the owner or by the governing building codes . Safety at working loads must be calculated . Several methods are available ,and the choice depends on the types of materials that will be used .Pure tension members are checked by dividing load by cross-section area .Local stresses at connections ,such as bolt holes or welds ,require special attention . Where axial tension is combined with bending moment ,the sum of stresses is compared to allowance levels . Allowable : stresses in compression members are dependent on the strength of material, elastic modulus ,member slenderness ,and length between bracing points . Stocky members are limited by materials strength ,while slender members are limited by elastic bucking .Design of beams can be checked by comparing a maximum bending stress to an allowable stress , which is generally controlled by the strength of the material, but may be limited if the compression side of the beam is not well braced against bucking .Design of beam-columns ,or compression members with bending moment ,mustconsider two items . First ,when a member is bowed due to an applied moment ,adding axial compression will cause the bow to increase .In effect ,the axial load has magnified the original moment .Second ,allowable stresses for columns and those for beams are often quite different .Members that are loaded perpendicular to their long axis, such as beams and beam-columns, also must carry shear. Shear stresses will occur in a direction to oppose the applied load and also at right angles to it to tie the various elements of the beam together. They are compared to an allowable shear stress. These procedures can also be used to design trusses, which are assemblies of tension and compression members. Lastly, deflections are checked against the project criteria using final member sizes.Once a satisfactory scheme has been analyzed and designed to be within project criteria, the information must be presented for fabrication and construction. This is commonly done through drawings, which indicate all basic dimensions, materials, member sizes, the anticipated loads used in design, and anticipated forces to be carried through connections.结构设计结构设计包含至少5个不同方面的工作：工程要求，材料，结构方案，分析和设计。
物流分拣中英文对照外文翻译文献
物流分拣中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)由一个单一的存储/检索机服务的多巷道自动化立体仓库存在的拣选分拣问题摘要随着现代化科技的发展，仓库式存储系统在设计与运行方面出现了巨大的改革。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS）嵌入计算机驱动正变得越来越普遍。
由于AS / RS 使用的增加对计算机控制的需要与支持也在提高。
这项研究解决了在多巷道立体仓库的拣选问题，在这种存储/检索（S / R）操作中，每种货物可以在多个存储位置被寻址到。
提出运算方法的目标是，通过S/R系统拣选货物来最大限度的减少行程时间。
我们开发的遗传式和启发式算法，以及通过比较从大量的问题中得到一个最佳的解决方案。
关键词：自动化立体仓库，AS / RS系统，拣选，遗传算法。
1.言在现今的生产环境中，库存等级保持低于过去。
那是因为这种较小的存储系统不仅降低库存量还增加了拣选货物的速度。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS），一方面通过提供快速响应，来达到高操作效率；另一方面它还有助于运作方面的系统响应时间，减少的拣选完成的总行程时间。
因此，它常被用于制造业、储存仓库和分配设备等行业中。
拣选是仓库检索功能的基本组成部分。
它的主要目的是，在预先指定的地点中选择适当数量的货物以满足客户拣选要求。
虽然拣选操作仅仅是物体在仓储中装卸操作之一，但它却是“最耗时间和花费最大的仓储功能。
许多情形下，仓储盈利的高低就在于是否能将拣选操作运行处理好”。
（Bozer和White）Ratliff和Rosenthal，他们关于自动化立体仓库系统（AS/RS）的拣选问题进行的研究，发明了基图算法，在阶梯式布局中选取最短的访问路径。
Roodbergen 和de Koster 拓展了Ratliff 和Rosenthal算法。
他们认为，在平行巷道拣选问题上，应该穿越巷道末端和中间端进行拣选，就此他们发明了一种动态的规划算法解决这问题。
就此Van den Berg 和Gademann发明了一种运输模型(TP)，它是对于指定的存储和卸载进行测算的仪器。
RuC高压相变的第一性原理计算外文翻译及原文
本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译译文学生姓名：院（系）：材料科学与工程专业班级：材料1101指导教师：完成日期：2015年3月1日要求1、外文翻译是毕业设计（论文）的主要内容之一，必须学生独立完成。
2、外文翻译译文内容应与学生的专业或毕业设计（论文）内容相关，不得少于15000印刷符号。
3.外文翻译译文用A4纸打印。
文章标题用3号宋体，章节标题用4号宋体，正文用小4号宋体，20磅行距；页边距上、下、左、右均为2.5cm，左侧装订，装订线0.5cm。
按中文翻译在上，外文原文在下的顺序装订。
4、年月日等的填写，用阿拉伯数字书写，要符合《关于出版物上数字用法的试行规定》，如“2005年2月26日”。
5、所有签名必须手写，不得打印。
RuC高压相变的第一性原理计算First-principle calculations of high-pressure phasetransformations in RuC作者：Jian Hao, Xiao Tang, Wenjing Li, Yinwei Li起止页码：46004-p1~p5出版日期（期刊号）：EPL, 105 (2014) 46004,2014年2月27日出版单位：IOP, EPL (Europhysics Letters)摘要- 使用第一原理计算在高压下RuC的结构稳定性。
结果表明，在9.3GPa的压力下，RuC从ZB型（闪锌矿型）结构转变为空间群为I4mm的四面体结构。
通过RuC5金字塔构造的I4mm结构的稳定性达26GPa，在更高压力下，则更有利成为WC型结构。
观察到伴随ZB型→ I4mm → WC型的相序，配位数增加从4至5，然后至6。
能带结构的计算表明，ZB型相是半导体，而I4mm和WC型相是金属。
此外，对所有三个阶段的RuC的机械特性进行了讨论。
简介-经压缩，由于原子间相互作用的变化和电子密度的再分配，化合物通常经历若干次相变。
结构的变化也因此可以引起物理性质的剧烈变化[1]。
钢结构设计外文翻译参考文献
钢结构设计外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)使用高级分析法的钢框架创新设计1．导言在美国，钢结构设计方法包括允许应力设计法(ASD)，塑性设计法(PD)和荷载阻力系数设计法(LRFD)。
在允许应力设计中，应力计算基于一阶弹性分析，而几何非线性影响则隐含在细部设计方程中。
在塑性设计中，结构分析中使用的是一阶塑性铰分析。
塑性设计使整个结构体系的弹性力重新分配。
尽管几何非线性和逐步高产效应并不在塑性设计之中，但它们近似细部设计方程。
在荷载和阻力系数设计中，含放大系数的一阶弹性分析或单纯的二阶弹性分析被用于几何非线性分析，而梁柱的极限强度隐藏在互动设计方程。
所有三个设计方法需要独立进行检查，包括系数K计算。
在下面，对荷载抗力系数设计法的特点进行了简要介绍。
结构系统内的内力及稳定性和它的构件是相关的，但目前美国钢结构协会（AISC）的荷载抗力系数规范把这种分开来处理的。
在目前的实际应用中，结构体系和它构件的相互影响反映在有效长度这一因素上。
这一点在社会科学研究技术备忘录第五录摘录中有描述。
尽管结构最大内力和构件最大内力是相互依存的（但不一定共存），应当承认，严格考虑这种相互依存关系，很多结构是不实际的。
与此同时，众所周知当遇到复杂框架设计中试图在柱设计时自动弥补整个结构的不稳定（例如通过调整柱的有效长度）是很困难的。
因此，社会科学研究委员会建议在实际设计中，这两方面应单独考虑单独构件的稳定性和结构的基础及结构整体稳定性。
图28.1就是这种方法的间接分析和设计方法。
在目前的美国钢结构协会荷载抗力系数规范中，分析结构体系的方法是一阶弹性分析或二阶弹性分析。
在使用一阶弹性分析时，考虑到二阶效果，一阶力矩都是由B1,B2系数放大。
在规范中，所有细部都是从结构体系中独立出来，他们通过细部内力曲线和规范给出的那些隐含二阶效应，非弹性，残余应力和挠度的相互作用设计的。
理论解答和实验性数据的拟合曲线得到了柱曲线和梁曲线，同时Kanchanalai发现的所谓“精确”塑性区解决方案的拟合曲线确定了梁柱相互作用方程。
图纸常见外文翻译
Takto oznacene plochy +0.5mm k souboru dat
Plochy, urcujici polohu pro nadrazene sestavy 做过该标记的表面+0.5mm，此记录的规定表面是为了更好的总体构造。
Nicht bemasste Beschnittradien R (5+1)mm 未注明尺寸的极边缘半径 R (5+1)mm
errechnet/calculated 计重
Gewogen/ actual 实际的 Versuch/prototype 试生产 Fertigung/ production 生产
Sicherh..-Dok./ Safety doc. 安全
Benennung 命名 Maszstab/ Scale 比例
Typ-Pruef-Dok. und Typ-Pruef-Nr
Type-appr.-doc. nd
Type approval number 批准类型文件和批准类型编号。
CAD-System und Verwaltungssystem-Schluessel
CAD-System and administration code 计算机辅助系统监控号码
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附件1：外文资料翻译译文B/S结构B/S结构即Browser/Server（浏览器/服务器）结构，是伴随着互联网技术出现的一种对C/S结构的改变或者说是改进。
在这种结构中，用户界面通过WWW 来达到在前端充分实现部分逻辑的目的，但最主要的逻辑在服务器中实现，从而形成一个所谓的三层结构。
B/S结构主要被用于成熟的WWW技术，与多种浏览器脚本语言（VBScript, JavaScript）以及ActiveX技术相结合。
为了实现强大的功能和开发成本的节约，用一个标准的网页浏览器来与复杂的专用软件相结合，是一种全新的软件架构技术。
在今天的软件应用中，Windows98和Windows2000操作系统在浏览器技术上植入B/S结构已成为优先的架构。
很明显，B/S结构的应用相对于传统的C/S结构的应用程序会有巨大进步。
B/S结构使用星形配置或使用互联网虚拟专网（VPN）来建立内部的通讯系统网络。
前者具有安全、快速和准确的特性。
后者则是投入的节约，与利益相关联。
以公司规模和地理位置分布为前提，利用互联网接入，通过内部防火墙至整个网络。
C/S结构和B/S结构的区别:客户/服务器结构是建立在局域网的基础上的。
浏览器/服务器结构是建立在广域网基础上的。
不同的计算机硬件环境:C/S结构一般建立在专用网络上，在小范围的网络环境中，在经由的局域网服务器之间提供连接和数据交换的专业化服务。
B/S结构建立在广域网以上，不需要在电话网络和租用设备中安装专门的网络硬件环境。
其信息自主化管理，C/S结构比一般的操作系统和浏览器适用范围更广，只要能联网就行。
不同的安全性要求:C/S结构相对固定的一般用户团体，其信息安全控制能力是强大的。
高度机密的信息系统一般采用C/S结构比较合适，因为通过发布，公开了B/S结构的信息。
建立在广域网上的B/S结构面临未知的用户群体，在安全控制能力上显得薄弱一些。
不同的程序框架:C/S结构把更多的注意力放在过程上，对于多层次的访问权限的操作速度则会少做考虑。
基于对更大优化基础的需求，B/S结构需考虑访问安全和速度的多重因素。
B/S 结构、C/S结构比程序框架结构更需要的是系列BizTalk 2000 Exchange 2000这种全面支持网络组件安装系统的发展趋势。
Sun和IBM公司推出JavaBean组件技术来使B/S结构更加成熟。
不同的软件信任:C/S结构的操作可能不可避免要整体考虑，组件中的可信任成分在可信赖的B/S中要求更好。
B/S结构的多种结构，具有相对独立的功能的组件，都是为了更好的被信任。
在桌子上也可以通过习惯被接受，而不是只在桌子上做石墙。
不同的系统维护:系统软件维护就是生存周期，巨额开支以及重要性使得C/S结构由整体的重要性这个总体目标来解决问题和对系统进行升级，而升级是困难的，也可能是做一个新的系统。
用代替独立的部件和系统的B/S结构的组成元件来实现无缝升级，产生最小的系统维护成本，只要从互联网下载安装在用户自己系统中就能得到升级。
不同的处理方式:C/S结构来处理用户所面对的固定的、在同一区域的问题，其安全需求的高要求以及相关的操作系统在方式上应该是相同的。
B/S结构建立在广域网上，其用户群体的不同，地理位置上的分散，这是C/S 结构所不能实现的，与操作系统平台的关系最小。
不同的用户界面:C/S结构的软件是已建立的Windows平台软件，其在功能方面有限的方法，反映了在浏览器中建立B/S结构的更高要求、更丰富而生动的表现与用户的交流，是减少、降低开发成本中最困难的。
不同的信息流:C/S结构的程序一般是典型的集中机械加工，其范畴相对比较局限。
B/S结构的信息流可以改变B-B、B-C、B-G的信息，其流的转换更像是交易中心。
基于B/S结构的软件的好处:B/S结构只是一种安装服务器（Server）、用户使用的浏览器（就像Internet Explorer, MYIE）操作软件、浏览器/服务器结构。
和C/S结构相比来看，尽管C/S结构堪比早期的文件服务器，加上其巨大的发展，但是与B/S结构相比，其缺点和不足之处是显而易见的。
首先，B/S结构比C/S结构的维护工作量已经大大减少了。
比如C/S结构中所有要求用户安装和配置的软件。
如果一个拥有50家企业的客户端使用了一个C/S结构的软件，即使这个软件有了一些很小的变化（比如增加了一个新的功能），该系统必须保护工作者这样的维护；服务器将得到最新版本的更新；将用户过期的软件卸载，然后安装上新的版本，接着继续进行建立，最可怕的是客户外部维修工作必须进行50次。
如果一方是当地客户的另一个地方，系统维护人员也要再去那个地方进行卸载、安装等维护工作。
如果在一个客户端停止服务之后，忘记了这样的维护，那么客户将由于版本不一致的问题而停止，导致不能工作。
而B/S结构中，客户只需安装而不需维护。
如果我们想把企业软件加入到B/S结构和C/S结构中去，看看我们的软件升级、系统维护人员如何保护：系统的维护只要在网上将服务器升级到最新版本，其他客户端只需重新登录系统即可，所使用的最新版本软件便已经存在。
其次，为了降低整体所有权C/S结构和B/S结构的相对成本，C/S结构的软件通常使用双层结构。
双层结构中，客户端接受用户请求向客户服务端数据库发出要求，该数据库服务将会提交用户数据，用户数据将被计算处理（可能涉及计算机、集成、统计等等），结果将显示给用户。
在三层结构中，客户端接受用户向客户服务应用端发出的申请请求服务来从数据库服务端中获取数据，申请服务将被计算处理，结果会被提交给处理数据的客户端，客户端会给用户一个结果。
这两种结构是不同的，在客户端操作下的双层结构以及末端的三层结构都没有参与客户的处理，用户简单的接收请求，表明了最后的结果。
因为三层结构的客户端不需要参与计算，客户计算机配置的要求也相对较低。
此外，由于从客户端申请服务只会传输最终结果，其数据量少，使用电话线就能满足要求。
C/S结构使用双层结构，其使用电话线作为传输线路由于太慢可能会不能够被接受。
采用三层结构的翡翠中国软件配置可以提高服务器的配置，降低用户需要的配置。
这种增长是一种服务器（在同一台电脑上的应用服务和数据库服务）的价格，而较低分数的台湾正是客户机的价格标准，在降低综合成本的所有权上扮演了一个重要角色。
C/S结构的软件数据一致性比B/S结构要求更多:在C/S结构的软件问题解决方案中，为了让大型企业集团使用，被用于贯穿在整个区域服务器安装中以及数据同步模型中。
这些服务器必须在每天总部获得最终数据后被同步。
局域网故障作为个人数据库不能及时同步的结果，服务器不是数据中的一个点，而这些数据是不一致的，这不是为了决策，对于B/S结构的软件结构来说，其数据是存储在每个商业文件的客户端中，这些数据直接进入中央数据库，这样就不存在数据一致性的问题了。
C/S结构和B/S结构的软件数据实时比较:在集团技术应用程序中，C/S结构在当前商业下看不出任何的来龙去脉，它在数据之后才被看见，而B/S结构则不同，它可以立即看到所有的当前操作以便快速决策，从而有效避免公司的损失。
C/S结构的数据安全软件比B/S结构要求更多:由于C/S结构的软件数据分布特征，客户出现诸如火灾、凶杀、地震、病毒、黑客入侵等已经成为一种可怕的数据杀手。
此外，团队标准造成的软件应用的不同，C/S结构软件必须在多处安装多个服务器，而且需要各个服务器之间的大量数据同步。
这样，每个数据点，在整个应用程序中，其数据安全又有潜在的数据安全。
因此，在团体层面的大规模的应用中，C/S结构的软件安全是不能被接受的。
B/S结构构成的软件部分由于其专注于在数据库服务器总部的数据存储，而不是保存任何商业客户的数据库和数据库连接的信息以及同步的数据，很自然的会出现一些安全问题。
附件2：外文原文B/S structureB/S structure that Browser/Server (browser/server) structure, with the emergence of Internet technology, a change or improvement to C/S structure. In this structure, user interface through “WWW”fully realized part of the logic in the front end to achieve, but the main logic in the server to form a so called 3-tier structure. B/S structure, primarily used to mature “WWW” technology, the combination of multiple browsers Script Language (VBScript, JavaScript) and ActiveX technology, using a standard Web browser on the need to achieve the original complex proprietary software in order to achieve powerful functions, and the development of cost savings, is a brand new software system construction technology. 98/Windows with Windows-2000 operating system will be browser technology implanted within the structure of today's software applications have become the preferred architecture. Clearly B/S structural applications versus traditional C/S applications will be enormous progress.B/S structure using star shape configuration or build an internal communications network using Internet “Xunizhuanwang (VPN)”. The former is characterized by security, fast and accurate. The latter is a savings investment, cross advantages. Subject to firm size and geographic distribution determined. Internet access through an internal firewall, then the entire network.C/S with B/S distinction :Client/Server is built on the basis of the LAN. Browser/Server is built on the basis of the Wan.Hardware environment different :C/S generally built on dedicated network, the small scope of the network environment, between via LAN servers to provide connectivity and data exchange specialized services.B/S built on the Wan above, need not be specialized network hardware environment cases with the telephone network, leased equipment. Information own management. C/S stronger than the scope of general operating systems and browsersas long as there is on line.For different security requirements:C/S relatively fixed user group oriented general, the control of information security is strong. General highly confidential information systems used C/S structure appropriate, through the issuance of publicly B/S information.B/S built on the Wan, based on the ability to control security weak in the face of the user group is unknown.Procedural framework for the different:C/S procedures can focus more on processes; multi level access to the competence of the operating speed can be less consideration.B/S visit to the security and speed of multiple considerations, based on the need for greater optimization basis. B/S, C/S have higher requirements than the procedural framework is the development of the structural trend from Ms. Net series BizTalk 2000-Exchange-2000, comprehensive support network components erection system. Sun and IBM pushed the Java Bean component technology to enable B/S more mature.Different software trusted:C/S procedures could inevitable holistic considerations, the trusted components of the components is in the trusted B/S request of the good.B/S of multiple structures, components for relatively independent functions. To the relatively better trusted. On the table can be used to buy, instead of doing the stone wall in the tables.Maintaining different systems:System software maintenance is the survival cycle, big spending, important C/S procedures as a result of the overall importance of the overall mission to address the problems and the system upgrading. Upgrading is difficult, and maybe doing a new system.B/S components composition of the replacement of individual components and systems to achieve seamless escalation. Minimize system maintenance costs. Downloaded from the Internet installed on the users themselves can achievepromotion.Different treatment:C/S procedures to deal with users face fixed, and in the same region, the security requirements of high demand, and related operating systems. Is the same system should be.B/S built on the wide area network, the different user groups, geographical dispersion, and this is C/S unable to do so. Relations with the operating system platform smallest.Different user interface:C/S are established Windows platform, the performance of limited means, to reflect the general requirements established in the browser B/S higher, a more rich and vivid manifestations and users exchange. And the most difficult to reduce, reduce development costs.Different information flow:C/S procedures generally typical centralized mechanical processing, the world of relatively low.B/S information flow can change B-B, B-C, B-G information, and the flow changes, more like trading centres.B/S structure of the benefits software:What B/S structure is only the installation of a server (Server), and customer used browser (Browse, such as Internet Explorer, MYIE) operating software, browser/server architecture. Compared to C/S struct, despite C/S struct compared to the earlier document server, and great progress, but compared with B/S, shortcomings and deficiencies are obvious.First, B/S than C/S maintenance workload has been greatly reduced. C/S struct every customer must install and configure the software. A total of 50 enterprises if a client site using a C/S struct software, even when the software has been very minor changes (for example, increased a function), the system must protect workers such maintenance; Servers will be updated to the latest version; Will be customer old software unloading, and then install the new version, and then proceed to set up, is themost horrible customer out maintenance work must be carried out 50 times. If one side is in another part of the local customers, system maintenance workers must also went to that place again unloading installation, the installation work. If a client ends, forget such maintenance, the customer will end the problems encountered inconsistent version unable to work. And B/S structure, customer installation and maintenance no. If we would join the enterprise software into B/S, C/S structure, we look at software upgrades, system maintenance workers how to protect: the maintenance of the system as long as the server software upgrade to the latest version on the line. Other clients as long as the re entry system using the latest version of the software is already on.Secondly, to reduce overall ownership C/S, B/S relative cost C/S software typically used two-tier structure.Two-tier structure, customer accepted user request to the customer service database request, the database service will be submitted to the client data, customer data will be calculated (possibly involving computers, aggregation, statistics, etc.) and the results show to the user.In the three-tier structure, customer accepted user request to the customer service application to request application services to obtain data from the database services, application services will be calculated and the results submitted to the data customer, a customer results to users.These two structures is different, the two-tier structure in customer operation, and the three-tier structure of the ends are not involved in processing customers, users simply receiving the request, indicating that the final results. Since the three-tier structure of the client side does not need to be involved in the calculation, the client computer configuration requirements are relatively low.Furthermore, since the application services to clients only transmission of the final results, the data volume less, the use of telephone lines can trust. C/S used two-tier structure, the use of telephone lines as transmission lines may not be able to accept because too slow. Adopted a three-tier structure of the jade Chinese software configuration can be improved server configuration, reduce customer configuration. This increase is a servers (application services and database services on the samecomputer can) prices, and lower scores Taiwan is the customer machine prices, played a role in reducing the overall cost of ownership.C/S, software data consistency more B/S:In C/S struct software solutions, for use by large business groups are used throughout the regional level server installation, and then data synchronization model. These servers must be synchronized every day after the headquarters to get final data. LAN malfunctions as a result of individual databases that can not be simultaneously not even keep up, the server is not a point of data, the data never consistent, not for decision making. The structure of the software B/S speaking, the data is stored on the client side of each business documents directly into a central database that did not exist in the data consistency problem.C/S, B/S software data real time comparisons:In Group class applications, C/S struct not see any current business context, is seen after data; And B/S structure is different, it can immediately see all of the current operations and facilitate rapid decision making, effectively avoid corporate losses.C/S, data security software more B/S:As C/S struct software data distribution characteristics, customer occurring fires, murders, earthquakes, viruses, hackers have become a terrible data killer. In addition, different software applications for the group level, C/S struct software must install multiple servers everywhere, and in a number of data synchronization between servers. Thus, each data point data security implications of the data security of the entire application. Therefore, large scale applications as the group level, C/S struct software security is unacceptable. B/S structure for the software part, because of its focus on the data stored in the database server at headquarters, not the preservation of any business customer data and database connectivity information, as well as what data is synchronous, so naturally there are those security issues.。