写字楼框架结构设计文献综述+开题报告+外文翻译
框架结构外文文献
框架结构外文文献标题：框架结构的研究综述摘要：框架结构是一种广泛应用于建筑工程中的结构设计模式，它能够提供良好的承载能力和抗震性能。
本文通过综述国内外的相关研究文献，总结了框架结构在建筑工程中的应用、设计方法和优化技术等方面的研究成果。
研究发现，随着计算机技术的发展，框架结构的设计方法和优化技术也得到了很大的改进和提升，利用数值模拟和优化算法可以实现更加精确和高效的框架结构设计。
但是，目前对于框架结构的材料使用、施工工艺以及环境友好性等方面的研究还较少，有待进一步深入研究和探索。
关键词：框架结构、设计方法、优化技术、建筑工程1.引言框架结构是一种常用的建筑结构模式，它具有良好的承载能力、刚度和抗震性能，广泛应用于各种建筑工程中。
框架结构的设计和优化是一个复杂的问题，涉及到结构力学、材料力学和计算机技术等多个领域。
本文通过对国内外相关研究文献的综述，总结了框架结构的应用、设计方法和优化技术等方面的研究成果，并提出未来研究的方向和建议。
2.框架结构的应用框架结构广泛应用于建筑工程中，包括住宅、办公楼、商业中心、桥梁等各类建筑物。
它可以通过组合不同形状的框架单元，实现不同尺度和功能的建筑设计。
框架结构在建筑工程中的应用研究主要集中在结构形态设计、材料选择和施工工艺等方面。
3.框架结构的设计方法框架结构的设计是一个复杂的过程，需要综合考虑结构形态、材料性能和施工工艺等因素。
传统的设计方法主要是基于经验公式和手工计算，存在设计效率低、精度不高的问题。
近年来，随着计算机技术的发展，基于数值模拟和优化算法的框架结构设计方法逐渐成为研究的热点。
数值模拟方法可以对框架结构进行力学分析和性能评估，优化算法可以实现结构的最优设计。
研究发现，利用数值模拟和优化算法可以得到更加精确和高效的框架结构设计。
4.框架结构的优化技术框架结构的优化是为了实现结构的最优设计和性能的最大化。
目前广泛应用的优化技术包括遗传算法、粒子群优化算法、模拟退火算法和人工神经网络等。
高层建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structural Systems to resist lateral loadsmonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Tube-in-tube structures.6.Core-interactive structures.7.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.2.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriatecomputer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.3.Braced FramesThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.4.Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally (but not always) concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economicalthan steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The sys tem has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.5.Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations,as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.6.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders (i.e, the webs of the framed tube) while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns (i.e, the flanges of the framed tube). In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane (i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced (i.e, shear-stiff) tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed (i.e, shear-flexible) tube.7.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systemspassing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1.The structural system is 94 ft (28.6m) wide, 196ft(59.7m) long, and 601ft (183.3m)high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m) by 40 ft (12.2m), centered 90 ft (27.4m)apart in the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the longdirection.4. A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for thecenter50ft (15.2m) of each of the long sides.6. A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7. A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, becausethe shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.8.Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=ΣfL/EFor buildings of 12 ft (3.66m) floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi (138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15 (12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in (1.9mm) per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in. (94mm) less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.抗侧向荷载的结构体系1.常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。
土木工程框架结构设计开题报告文献综述外文翻译
毕业设计（论文）开题报告（含文献综述、外文翻译）题目南凯信办公楼设计姓名学号专业班级土木工程（结构方向）1班指导教师学院土木建筑工程学院开题日期 2013年3月10日文献综述框架结构设计1.前言随着社会的发展,钢筋混凝土框架结构的建筑物越来越普遍.由于钢筋混凝土结构与砌体结构相比较具有承载力大、结构自重轻、抗震性能好、建造的工业化程度高等优点；与钢结构相比又具有造价低、材料来源广泛、耐火性好、结构刚度大、使用维修费用低等优点。
因此，在我国钢筋混凝土结构是多层框架最常用的结构型式。
例如：我国20世纪60年代的北京民航办公大楼是装配整体式框架结构；80年代建造的北京长城饭店是现浇延性框架结构。
2.框架结构的优缺点框架结构体系是由梁、板、柱组成。
优点：建筑平面布置灵活，可以做成有较大空间的会议室、车间、教室等。
需要时还可以隔断分隔成小房间，或拆除隔断变成大房间，因而使用非常灵活。
外墙用非承重构件，可以使立面设计灵活多变。
使用轻质隔墙和外墙，还可以大大降低结构自重，节省材料。
缺点：框架结构的缺点也很明显，因为框架结构的抗侧刚度主要取决于梁、柱的截面尺寸，通常梁、柱截面惯性矩小，侧向变形较大，因此限制了框架结构的使用高度。
在我国目前情况下，框架结构建造高度以15～20层以下为宜。
综上所述，在高度不大的结构中框架结构是一种比较好的结构体系。
3.框架结构布置框架结构在进行平面布置时，首先要确定柱网，柱网的尺寸必须满足建筑使用和结构受力合理要求，同时还有考虑施工方便和经济因素。
柱网的开间及进深。
可设计成大柱网和小柱网，在抗震结构中，过大的柱网将给实现延性框架增加一定的困难。
承重框架及抗侧力框架。
承重框架是指直接支承楼板传来的竖向荷载的框架，根据楼板中梁板布置的不同一般可分为横向承重、纵向承重和双重承重等几种布置方式。
由于风及地震可能从任何一方向作用，所以不管横向还是纵向都是抗侧力框架。
抗侧力框架必须做成刚接框架，不得采用横向为框架、纵向为铰接排架的结构体系。
框架结构天城商业外文献翻译
1 外文翻译1.1 Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.1.2 EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelledscrapers are of 19 m ³ struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.1.3 Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. There are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered asnonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .From《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING》。
框架结构设计外文翻译
南京理工大学紫金学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系：机械工程系专业：土木工程姓名：袁洲学号： 050105140 外文出处：Design of prestressed(用外文写)concrete structures 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文8-2简支梁布局一个简单的预应力混凝土梁由两个危险截面控制：最大弯矩截面和端截面。
这两部分设计好之后，中间截面一定要单独检查，必要时其他部位也要单独调查。
最大弯矩截面在以下两种荷载阶段为控制情况，即传递时梁受最小弯矩M G的初始阶段和最大设计弯矩M T时的工作荷载阶段。
而端截面则由抗剪强度、支承垫板、锚头间距和千斤顶净空所需要的面积来决定。
所有的中间截面是由一个或多个上述要求，根它们与上述两种危险截面的距离来控制。
对于后张构件的一种常见的布置方式是在最大弯矩截面采用诸如I形或T形的截面，而在接近梁端处逐渐过渡到简单的矩形截面。
这就是人们通常所说的后张构件的端块。
对于用长线法生产的先张构件，为了便于生产，全部只用一种等截面，其截面形状则可以为I形、双T形或空心的。
在第5 、 6 和7章节中已经阐明了个别截面的设计，下面论述简支梁钢索的总布置。
梁的布置可以用变化混凝土和钢筋的办法来调整。
混凝土的截面在高度、宽度、形状和梁底面或者顶面的曲率方面都可以有变化。
而钢筋只在面积方面有所变化，不过在相对于混凝土重心轴线的位置方面却多半可以有变化。
通过调整这些变化因素，布置方案可能有许多组合，以适应不同的荷载情况。
这一点是与钢筋混凝土梁是完全不同的，在钢筋混凝土梁的通常布置中，不是一个统一的矩形截面便是一个统一的T形，而钢筋的位置总是布置得尽量靠底面纤维。
首先考虑先张梁，如图 8-7，这里最好采用直线钢索，因为它们在两个台座之间加力比较容易。
我们先从图（a）的等截面直梁的直线钢索开始讨论。
这样的布置都很简单，但这样一来，就不是很经济的设计了，因为跨中和梁端的要求会产生冲突。
外文翻译英文_【9层】9462.13平米框架培训大楼毕业设计
英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult building . One may say that low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sectionsto support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal. Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can e asily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required persquare foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire in economy .1.Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems .This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down theoverturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third powerof the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However ,this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystembe suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2.Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact inthe most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames . 3.Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . Forexample , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4.Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directlyon the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5.The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategicplacement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6.Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor .This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work togetherinstead of separately .7.Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontalcomponents such as two or more elevator shafts at multistoryintervals with a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deepgirder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type with openings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section ,they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames both within and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces thoughframe bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces . Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes oftenrequire excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。
中英文外文文献翻译办公空间设计办公室办公楼设计研究
本科毕业设计（论文）中英文对照翻译(此文档为word格式,下载后您可任意修改编辑!)作者：Hsiao M C期刊：South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences 2016, 3(1),151-160原文The research of office space designHsiao M CAbstractNowadays, the development of society and the progress of science and technology, people are faced with is accelerating the pace of life andmore and more competition in the workplace, fast rhythm, high efficiency of modern society is that people cannot escape the reality. People will be more time and energy on the work; therefore, the office will naturally become the central in the life of modern people. International association of architects (CIAM) in the Athens charter basic activities as human society to live, work, recreation, transportation, four categories, and the office is the most important one of the basic activities of human beings. Now, people take up a third time a day in the office or even more time, it makes people always in a state of very nervous, in such cases, people are becoming more and more high to the requirement of office space environment, only pay attention to use function in the design of office space has already cannot satisfy the needs of the development of modern society, people choose to work now pay more attention to have a good and comfortable working environment, the design of humanity, life, healthy and comfortable office space allows employees to work anywhere at any time to adjust their own state, maintain good mood, to experience the fun in life is full of confidence in the work, in a better state into work, to a greater extent to improve the working efficiency of the office staff. Although for office space comfort and humanized design need more capital investment, but from the point of long-term interests, the enterprise itself will get more benefits.Keywords: office; open space; humanized1 IntroductionOffice space as the name suggests is the place for people in office, the main purpose of office space for people is to create wealth and value. Nowadays, competition in the society to get people to put more time on the job, in the face of the increasing pressure of work, people to the requirement of working environment increases, the use of office space is not only to have the basic function, at the same time to meet people's physical, psychological and emotional needs, such as good and comfortable working environment can improve the work efficiency of people, so as to bring more benefit for the enterprise. Along with the development of era and people's ideological change, the influence of many factors that make the development of office space experiencing a series of great changes. Modernist architect miens van DE lo had described the office space to become a "machine" for work, and this kind of one-sided pursuit of office density and efficient office way already can not satisfy the needs of the development of modern society, the traditional single enclosed Spaces were replaced by a flexible and open space of the communication. In the 21st century, the rapid development in the new technological revolution in the era of information, digital living style will make human life into an unprecedented status, office space is presented with a new look. The office space design is the lack of consistency and a certain continuity that is typical in the development of office space designfeatures. From a natural economy to commodity economy era today office space itself has experienced a long period of development. From the perspective of the development of history, since the human society to form a fixed settlements, our earliest period can be traced back to ancient Egypt had the embryonic form of the original construction of office space, the place of from a primitive tribe to the slave society, feudal society amen, hall, shops and so on can reflect a office action. Western industrial revolution led to the rise of commercial society, the workplace and life of people gradually began to separation, because the new material, new technology, the continuous development of new features, prompted the production of large Numbers of new office building, modern office space begins in the true sense, the earliest definition of literature for commercial office is part of the family or shops. 2 Literature reviewUnder the impetus of the economic development and technological progress, the foreign office space research early, books provides office space for the development of more powerful theory basis. Grover leather us 1914 deutsche manufacturing alliance exhibition office building design in cologne marks the beginning of modern office buildings. American entrepreneur’s successful expe rience is: must have a first-class office, this is an important business investment. Architects constantly explore new type of office space; the possible way of office and the office environment make predictions of the future. In the early 1950 s, thefamous German Quick burner Team on the basis of analyzing the function of office put forward: according to the working process and the structure of the communication process, in a large open space set up some unit of work, to improve office efficiency. Office space with different professional work processes and work requirements, broke the long-term produced by closed offices and hierarchical, emphasizes the equal status between people, to the office as a place for exchange of information, once all the rage this office pattern, open compartment has been popular in the United States in the 1960 s. Northern Europe and Japan and other countries research also have their own style, for example, the Japanese experts and scholars on the study of office space is mainly engaged in office space system automation research and forecast the impact of the rapid development of the information for office space, etc. The middle of the 20th century, some German architect requests a landscape of office space, 1967, Chicago in the United States held the first international conference of landscape office buildings. After entering the information age, various technology affects people's life and the way of office, people research focus to the intelligent office building, the word "intelligent building", first appeared in the united technology group UTBS company in January 1984 in Connecticut City construction completed by the Place the tagline of the building.1989 Americans Fay pop Cohen first puts forward the concept of "home office", the home office quickly catch onaround the world economy developed office building experts Frank generation of fe (Frank Duffy) in The "The emergence of intelligent office buildings", The emergence of The intelligence office building), The article to The characteristics of intelligent office buildings were described in detail. Cambridge university master, the royal architects association member Adam thinks, office space should be versatile, that is, a space need to derive a variety of functions, each function is not fixed interval, they can be either office area, also can be a recreation area. This view highlights the landscape of the office and intellectualization. MIT professor Alan (Thomas Allen) after more than ten years of research, proved the group work or "work unit" is in the office is the most effective way to achieve "intimacy". At the same time, the environment behaviorist to the satisfaction degree of the work environment and the findings of a study of the working life has a profound influence on the development of office environment. Many developed countries in Western Europe and Japan and other countries have held a "new office space" this paper will, on the development of office space has carried on the deep discussion. Including some designers for office furniture research and some office furniture fair held all influence the development of office space. At the same time in the research of intelligent office space and other technical, western scholars gradually began to attach importance to office space and the socialbackground, enterprise organization structure and other associated factors influence each other between the British DEGW's office space design phenomenon and social phenomenon is introduced into the design of the office, and study out of the office space design and organizational structure of the relationship between methods. 3 The present situation of the office space design 3.1 More flexible way of office"Front shop, back home in the early" style of work will live and work together, people's homes is a living place and the workplace. By the 18th century industrial revolution, the family of the production function gradually disappear, people no longer production, occupy the office of "collective" appears gradually, people began to habits of "nine to five" working mode, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century Taylor scientific management style to infiltrate the office management, work and the activities of people in the presence of regulators. As office space from day to day routine work is gradually replaced by the computer, office will eventually become a meeting place for communication, instead of dealing with affairs. In the face of all kinds of modern technology and the impact of the Internet, now the new office way is also constantly emerging. All contact and communication is convenient as well as the time and place for the office is not qualified, SOHO family office began to emerge. SOHO is the abbreviation of "Small office Home office", meaning a Small office space and Home office space, is a freer, more flexible waysof working. In traditional agricultural society, almost all products are manufactured by the family, the material of the whole society by household production to meet demand. Office mode along with the development of The Times through a series of evolution, Fay pop Cohen first proposed the concept of "home office". The establishment of the development of information technology and network space and the development of residential construction to provide home office, the office way gradually flourished in the economically developed regions in the world. The workings of a family and work together both save social resources, and eliminating the commuting time, this way of working can be flexible, free time is gradually accepted by more and more people. Due to the SOHO is a new way of working, must give workers a variety of convenient while also appeared a lot of disadvantages. With this way of family office is accepted by more and more people, SOHO will improve in the future development. Experts estimate that by 2020, the world will be more than 60% of the workers will work at home.3.2 More perfect office spaceOffice space design's ultimate purpose is to provide the best office and living environment for people, make people in the indoor environment for the physical and psychological comfort, security, and light touch. Built in the late 19th century early 20th century some office space would be staff communication, and rest, recreation. Developmentin the 21st century today, the function of office space was further refinement; office workers demand determines the design direction of office space. American SOM design firm in the Far East business development director Tony Bath: new definition of work in the United States is working and living together, office environment is the most important is to provide an open space, make the staff to be able to work and leisure together. Now began to put the meeting room of office space design as the core of floor design, some enterprises for staff in the office space provides a coffee bar, tea area and kitchen, the discussion area, library, etc., Germany, the new economy era of vocational place after the company held a party, this has blurred the line between work and play. There are some new things, such as gym, game rooms, leisure hall, and even functional space is applied to the work environments, such as basketball court, in the function of these affiliated facilities, used for leisure as well as the temporary office employees. The improvement of the office space function can make the person tired spirit immediately relax, relieve tension when people work, solve the original space of monotonous, more comfortable office environment.译文办公空间设计研究Hsiao M C摘要现如今，社会的发展和科技的进步，人们所面对的就是生活节奏的不断加快以及越来越激烈的职场竞争，快节奏、高效率的现代社会是人们无法逃避的现实。
华宇办公楼框架结构设计学士学位论文
毕业论文（设计）题目华宇办公楼框架结构设计英文题目Hua Yu frame structureoffice building design院系土木工程与城市建设学院专业土木工程姓名黄海年级 2010级土A1014指导教师戴嘉兴二零一四年六月摘要本工程为华宇办公楼的结构设计，采用混凝土框架结构，该办公楼为五层钢筋混泥土结构体系，底层层高为 3.9m，其它层层高为 3.6m，建筑面积约31002m。
本工程地震烈度为7度，设计分组为第一组，场地类别为Ⅱ类，框架抗震等级为三级。
基本风压为0.35kN/2m。
楼、屋盖m，基本雪压为0.40kN/2均采用现浇钢筋混凝土结构。
本设计是以“简单、实用、经济、安全”为核心的设计原则。
按照设计规范来完成本工程的结构设计。
本设计方案根据设计资料先画出建筑施工图，先进行荷载的标准值计算，接着采用弯矩二次分配法，做出弯矩图，剪力图，轴力图。
横向框架在水平地震作用下的内力和位移计算，横向框架在风荷载作用下的内力和位移计算，然后进行内力组合计算，找出最不利的一组或几组内力组合，进行安全结构计算配筋并绘图。
整个设计过程中，遵循设计资料和相关的最新规范，对设计的各个环节进行全面的分析。
始终围绕着设计的核心原则进行设计。
【关键词】: 框架结构、内力组合、结构配筋AbstractFor hua yu office building structure design of this project, the adoption of concrete frame structures, the office building for five layer reinforced concrete structure system, the underlying the height of 3.9 m, other layers of high of 3.6 m, building area of about 3100. This design engineering seismic intensity of 7 degrees, grouped into the first group, site category for Ⅱ, frame aseismic levels for level 3. The basic wind pressure is 0.35 kN /m2, basic snow pressure is 0.40 kN /m2. Floor, roof adopts the cast-in-place reinforced concrete structure.This design is based on \"simple, practical, economic and security\" as the core design principles. According to the design specification to complete the project structure design.This design according to the design data to draw the construction plan, load standard values calculated first, and then USES the bending moment secondary distribution method, make the bending moment diagram and shear diagram, shaft trying to. Transverse frame under horizontal seismic action of internal force and displacement calculation, horizontal framework under the wind load of the internal force and displacement calculation, and then the combination of internal force calculation, find out the most unfavorable one or several groups of internal force combination, the security structure calculation of reinforcement and drawing.The whole design process, follow the latest specification, design data and related to the design of each link to conduct a comprehensive analysis. Always surround the core principles of design.key words：frame structure, internal force combination, structure reinforcement目录摘要(Abstract) (I)第一章设计资料 (1)1.1工程概况 (1)1.2地质水文条件 (1)1.3气象条件 (1)1.4材料使用 (1)第二章结构设计 (2)2.1 结构布置和结构选型 (2)2.1.1 结构布置 (2)2.1.2梁柱截面尺寸初估 (2)2.1.3结构选型 (4)2.2 框架的计算简图 (4)2.2.1 计算简图说明 (4)2.2.2 框架梁柱的线刚度计算 (5)2.3 荷载计算 (6)2.3.1.恒载标准值计算 (6)2.3.2活荷载标准值计算 (8)2.3.3横向框架在恒荷载和活荷载作用下的计算简图 (9)2.3.4横向框架在重力荷载代表值作用下计算简图 (12)2.4内力计算 (15)2.4.1恒载作用下的内力计算 (15)2.4.2 活载作用的内力计算 (20)2.4.3重力荷载代表值作用下的内力计算 (25)第三章横向框架在风荷载作用下的内力和位移计算 (31)3.1横向框架在风荷载作用下的计算 (31)3.2 风荷载作用下框架位移计算 (31)3.3 风荷载作用下框架内力的计算 (33)第四章横向框架在水平地震作用下的内力和位移计算 (37)4.1 水平地震作用下结构各层的总重力荷载代表值计算 (38)4.2横向框架在水平地震作用下的内力和位移计算 (40)4.3水平地震作用下框架内力计算 (42)第五章内力组合 (46)5.1内力换算 (46)5.2框架梁、柱的内力组合 (50)第六章框架梁、柱配筋 (63)6.1 框架柱配筋计算 (63)6.2 框架梁设计 (66) (73)第七章楼板配筋计算7.1楼板配筋计算 (73)7.2板的配筋计算 (74)第八章楼梯配筋计算 (76)8.1楼梯板配筋计算 (76)8.2 平台板设计 (77)8.3 平台梁设计 (78)第九章基础设计 (80)9.1 A柱基础设计： (80)9.2 B柱基础设计： (82)参考文献 (85)谢辞 (86)1.1工程概况（1）工程名称：华宇办公楼框架结构设计；建设地点：九江市郊区（2）建筑概况:该办公楼为五层钢筋混泥土结构体系，底层层高为 3.9m，其它层层层高为3.6m，室内外高差为0.45m。
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附件一：课题名称开发区某高级写字楼框架结构设计主要任务与目标土木工程专业结构工程方向毕业设计的教学过程，是实现本科培养目标要求的重要的实践教学环节,是学生在毕业前的最后学习和综合训练阶段；对于提升学生综合素质、培养教学与工程实践接轨有着重要的意义。
通过深入实践、了解社会、撰写论文等毕业设计（论文）诸环节，着重培养学生综合分析、解决问题以及组织活动和社交能力，尤其在独立工作能力方面上一个台阶。
同时对学生的思想品德、工作态度、工作作风、事业心和责任心等诸方面都会有很大影响，对于提高毕业生全面素质具有重要意义。
主要内容与基本要求1、建筑部分（1）总建筑面积10000m2左右。
（2）技术要求：建议层高4.2m，总高不大于30m，采用不上人屋面；基本雪压0.3kN/m2，基本风压0.5kN/m2。
抗震设防烈度为6度。
地质条件为素填土0.5m，淤泥质粘土13.5m砂土10m，地下水位在地表－3.000m。
（3）设计内容及要求完成的图纸内容为施工图深度要求。
应完成图纸内容：1）按建筑制图标准规定绘制图纸若干张，要求完成下列内容：2主要内容与基本要求建筑设计总说明，平、立、剖、详图等；门窗统计表(门窗明细表中的内容有编号、名称、洞口尺寸(宽×高(mm))、数量等)等。
2）各层平面图，注写图名和比例。
标注房间名称，标注各部分尺寸：外部尺寸：三道尺寸(即总尺寸、轴线尺寸、墙段和门窗洞口尺寸)以及底层室外台阶、坡道、散水等尺寸。
内部尺寸：内部墙段、门窗洞口和墙厚等细部尺寸。
标注室内外地面标高、各层楼面标高。
标注轴线及轴线编号、门窗编号、剖切符号和详图索引符号等。
3）立面图（不少于两个），包括各个立面的建筑设计及有关尺寸；标明建筑外形以及门窗、雨篷、外廊等构配件的形式和位置，注明外墙饰面材料和做法。
标注边轴线及编号，注写图名和比例。
4）剖面图比例（不少于一个），包括剖面组合、房间各部分的高度及楼梯剖面；标注室内外地面、楼面、平台面、门窗洞口顶面和底面以及檐口底面或女儿墙顶面等处的标高。
标注建筑总高、层高以及门窗洞口和窗间墙等细部尺寸。
标注主要轴线及编号、详图索引号,标注写图名和比例。
5）屋顶平面图表示出各坡面交线、檐沟或女儿墙和天沟、雨水口、屋面上人孔等位置，标注排水方向和坡度。
标注屋面标高(结构上表面标高)，标注屋面上人孔等突出屋面部分的有关尺寸。
标注各转角处的定位轴线及编号。
外部标注两道尺寸。
标注详图索引符号，注写图名和比例。
6）楼梯详图（包括平面图、剖面图、踏步、扶手大样等）7）局部详图3～4个。
屋檐、屋面泛水等。
3要求表示清楚各部分的构造关系，标注有关细部尺寸、标高、轴线编号以及做法说明等。
2、结构部分（1）设计任务1）绘制图纸若干张，要求完成下列内容结构施工图要求完成：结构平面布置图(1:100)；基础平面布置图及基础配筋图；楼梯的结构布置图及配筋图)；框架配筋详图；构件详图（现浇板配筋图等）。
2）结构计算----写于计算书中,要求完成：一榀框架及其柱下基础的设计计算；现浇楼梯(梁式或板式)的设计计算；现浇板的的设计计算。
3）结构设计计算书结构设计计算书中必须注明结构及其构件选型和结构布置，详细列出结构设计计算的各个步骤、全部的计算过程和计算结果。
计算书中应附有必要的计算用图(结构及构件的关系图和结构及构件的计算简图)。
计算书必须采用word文档，不能随意涂改。
（2）技术要求：手算中需考虑侧向风荷载的影响。
根据场地地质条件进行基础的计算。
主要参考资料及文献阅读任务1、民用建筑设计通则JGJ37-87；宿舍建筑设计规范JGJ36－872、房屋建筑学3、钢筋混凝土结构设计规范GB50010-20024、砌体结构设计规范GB50003-2001 5、建筑桩基基础设计规范JGJ94-946、建筑抗震设计规范GB50011-20017、钢筋混凝土结构教材（上、下）;结构力学教材;土力学与地基基础教材;建筑结构抗震设计教材;8、建筑构造通用图集外文翻译任务阅读相关结构设计的外文文献若干篇，并择其一、二篇翻译。
要求英文字符数10000以上，汉字2000以上。
4计划进度：起止时间内容2007.1.8~ 2007.1.30开题报告、文献综述、外文翻译2007.3.5~2007.4.1确定设计方案、完成建筑部分设计任务2007.4.1~2007.5.6结构计算，施工图设计，完成结构部分设计任务2007.5.9提交初稿2007.5.16定稿，提交毕业设计全部材料2007.6.10前毕业设计答辩实习地点慈溪维科置业有限公司指导教师签名年月日系意见系主任签名：年月日学院盖章主管院长签名：年月日5文献综述报告：钢筋混凝土建筑结构设计综述03级土木工程（2）班章正锋 1.引言本文主要是总体介绍钢筋混凝土在建筑上的应用与设计的过去状况、现状与未来的发展方向以及浅谈结构设计一些原则与方法，文章所描述的结构仅限于钢筋混凝土结构。
自从世界上首次制成钢筋混凝土制品，并用于结构工程，至今略过百年。
比起原始人类最早所用的土、木结构，文明史初期出现的砖石、砌体结构，以及工业革命后大量发展的钢结构来说，钢筋混凝土结构是最年轻的结构工程成员。
但是，它的性能和制作工艺不断地获得改善和提高，结构形式变化多样，应用范围逐渐扩大。
现今，在世界各国，特别在我国，它已经成为结构工程中最为兴旺发达的一族。
其广泛应用于建筑工程、桥梁和交通工程、水利和海港工程、地下工程及特种结构等。
2.钢筋混凝土与结构设计 2.1钢筋混凝土所谓钢筋混凝土结构是指由配置受力的普通钢筋、钢筋网或钢筋骨架的混凝土制成的结构[1]。
其充分利用了混凝土的受压能力与钢筋的受拉性能。
2.2结构设计而建筑结构设计就是结合一系列的理论计算方法充分利用钢筋混凝土的力学性能，设计出最优化的结构受力体系，满足人类的日常生活的要求。
结构的设计原则和计算理论，初期是从钢结构移植过来的“弹性分析-允许应力法[1]”，发展为单一安全系数的极限承载力法，以至现在基于概率统计可靠度分析的极限状态设计法。
结构的内力计算，由最简单的古典弹性分析法，发展为考虑塑性变形的极限平衡法，以至进行结构受力非线性全过程分析。
有限元分析方法和计算机技术的结合，为复杂结构的准确分析提供了强力的有效手段，在实际工程中已日益完善。
62.3新型钢筋混凝土结构的发展随着现代科学的发展，钢筋混凝土结构已经不仅仅是混凝土加钢筋的组合。
越来越多的新型现代钢筋混凝土结构出现并应用在建筑上。
如新型钢管混凝土结构，特别是最新采用薄壁钢管混凝土，采用高性能混凝土的钢管混凝土，中空夹层钢管混凝土，该新型结构是将两层钢管同心放置，并在两层钢管之间关注混凝土。
这种钢管混凝土具有很好的发展前景，可以减少单位耗钢量，降低结构的综合造价，且结构上钢管混凝土柱刚度大，变形小，稳定性好，在多层住宅及高层或超高层建筑中应用较实惠[5]。
另外，钢与混凝土组合结构也进入工程师结构选型的视野，如钢与混凝土组合梁、钢与混凝土预应力组合梁、钢板与混凝土组合梁、钢桁架与混凝土组合梁、压型钢板混凝土组合梁、外包钢混凝土结构、钢骨混凝土结构、钢骨混凝土柱等[6]。
预应力混凝土结构自从上世纪20年代进入混凝土结构家族以来，逐渐成长为一项成熟的结构。
采用先张拉和后张拉的技术是混凝土结构在承受荷载前给予配置钢筋一个有效预应力与锚固损失和混凝土收缩徐变产生的损失相等]12[。
要注意的预应力混凝土技术需要采用高强钢材和高强混凝土材料。
因此预应力混凝土在要求裂缝控制等级较高的结构；大跨度或受力很大的构件；对构件刚度和变形控制要求较高的结构构件中优先采用。
2.4建筑结构设计原则与浅析建筑结构设计的原则是：适用、安全、经济、美观，同时要便于施工[2]。
这五个方面各有所重，又互为矛盾，最优建筑结构设计是这五个方面的最佳结合。
结构设计一般在建筑设计之后。
结构设计不能破坏建筑设计，建筑设计不能超出结构设计的能力范围。
结构设计决定建筑设计能否实现，在这个意义上，结构设计显得更为重要。
建筑结构设计可分为整体设计和部件设计两部分。
整体设计包括结构体系的选择、柱网的布置、梁的布置、剪力墙的分布、基础的选型等。
整体设计一般分主体和基础两部分进行。
设计人员根据建筑物的性质、高度、重要程度、当地的抗震设防烈度、风力情况等条件来选择合适的结构体系。
选定结构体系后，就要具体决定柱、梁、墙(剪力墙)的分布和尺寸等[2]。
在进行主体结构内力计算后，主体结构底截面的内力就是基础选型和计算的重要依7据。
进行整体设计后，就要进行部件设计。
部件设计是指柱、梁、板、墙(剪力墙)和块体这5部分的内力和配筋计算。
梁和柱一般可看作细长杆件，内力情况与计算体系相符合[8]。
单向板可简化为单位宽度的梁来计算，双向板的计算理论也较成熟，异型板的计算较为复杂，应尽量避免。
对于单片的剪力墙，一般把它视为薄壁柱]14 [作近似计算，有时要考虑翼缘的作用；对于简体结构中的剪力墙则要用空间力学的方法来计算。
块体不同于梁、柱、板、墙，它在空间3个方向的尺寸都比较大，难以视作细长杆件或简化为平面体系来计算。
如单独基础、柱的承台、深梁都是块体，受力情况很复杂，难以精确分析，所以在计算中往往加大安全系数，以保安全。
手算与计算机算所采用的计算方法、理论、计算模型是有差别的[9]。
结构计算的工作量是很大的，采用手算时要在工作量和计算精度之间折中。
手算时为减少工作量，受力体系应尽量简化为平面力系，计算中作一些假设，要利用经验值和图表，用计算机进行合理的结构内力计算，需要优秀的结构计算程序。
作为结构设计人员应学习计算机所用的计算理论，并要知其所以然。
结构设计程序的出现并没有降低对设计人员的要求，相反，它要求设计人员学习更先进的计算理论。
目前许多结构计算程序都有一个弊端：即计算过程的屏蔽，使用者只管输入数据和看结果，对计算过程一无所知，不知道计算过程建立的基础及其适用范围，这是潜在的危险。
一个优秀的结构计算程序应该提供程序所采用的计算理论的详细说明，说明其采用的计算模型、计算假设、适用范围等。
另外，应允许使用者干预计算过程，充分发挥设计者的主观能动性和创造力。
另外，在设计中活荷载是需要重点考虑的，例如风荷载和雪荷载都是比较容易过大或者过小的被设置。
更重要的是已有建筑物的荷载中，风荷载和雪荷载所产生的效应是巨大的[11]。
因此在建筑的荷载设计中，风荷载与雪荷载要考虑周到。
2.5结构设计的发展方向今后结构设计的方向应该是：（1）概念设计将发挥越来越大的作用[7]概念设计是指正确地解决总体方案、材料使用和细部构造的问题，以达到合理抗震设计的目的。
它是根据抗震设计的复杂性、难以精确计算而提出来的一种从宏观上实现8合理抗震，避免不必要的繁琐计算，同时为抗震设计创造有利条件，使计算分析结果更能反映地震时结构反应的实际情况的设计方法。