深度学习综述讨论简介deepLearning

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Deeplearning4j的分布式深度学习

Deeplearning4j的分布式深度学习深度学习已经成为了人工智能领域的热门话题，而Deeplearning4j作为一种分布式深度学习框架，正受到越来越多的关注。

本文将介绍Deeplearning4j的分布式深度学习相关概念、特点以及其在各个领域的应用。

一、什么是分布式深度学习分布式深度学习是指将深度学习的计算任务分配到多个计算节点上进行并行计算的一种方式。

传统的深度学习方法通常在单个计算节点上进行运算，而分布式深度学习则实现了多个计算节点之间的数据共享与通信，从而提升了计算效率和模型的训练速度。

二、Deeplearning4j框架简介Deeplearning4j是一种基于Java语言开发的分布式深度学习框架，其具有以下特点：1. 可扩展性：Deeplearning4j支持在多台计算节点上进行并行计算，可轻松地扩展到大规模的数据和计算资源。

2. 多样化的模型支持：Deeplearning4j支持各种网络模型的构建，包括卷积神经网络、循环神经网络以及深度信念网络等。

3. 高性能的计算能力：Deeplearning4j通过优化算法和并行计算，提供了高效的深度学习计算能力。

4. 灵活的数据处理：Deeplearning4j支持常见的数据预处理操作，并提供了灵活的数据流水线功能。

5. 丰富的工具生态系统：Deeplearning4j提供了多种工具和库，如ND4J、DataVec等，用于支持数据处理、模型构建和模型评估等环节。

三、Deeplearning4j的应用领域Deeplearning4j作为一种分布式深度学习框架，广泛应用于各个领域，包括但不限于以下几个方面：1. 计算机视觉：Deeplearning4j在计算机视觉领域的应用非常广泛，包括图像分类、目标检测、图像生成等。

通过分布式计算技术，可以大幅提升图像处理任务的效率，并提升模型的准确性。

2. 语音识别：Deeplearning4j在语音识别领域具有出色的表现。

深度学习(Deep Learning)综述及算法简介

Hinton, G. E., Osindero, S. and Teh, Y., A fast learning algorithm for deep belief nets .Neural Computation 18:1527-1554, 2006
Yoshua Bengio, Pascal Lamblin, Dan Popovici and Hugo Larochelle, Greedy Layer-Wise Training of Deep Networks, in J. Platt et al. (Eds), Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 19 (NIPS 2006), pp. 153-160, MIT Press, 2007
The ICML 2009 Workshop on Learning Feature Hierarchies webpage has a list of references.
The LISA public wiki has a reading list and a bibliography.
Geoff Hinton has readings from last year’s NIPS tutorial.
对于表达sin(a^2+b/a)的流向图，可以通过一个有两个输入节点a和b的图表示，其中一个节点通过使用a和b作为输入(例如作为孩子)来表示b/a ；一个节点仅使用a 作为输入来表示平方；一个节点使用a^2 和b/a 作为输入来表示加法项(其值为a^2+b/a )；最后一个输出节点利用一个单独的来自于加法节点的输入计算SIN的最长路径的长度。
传统的前馈神经网络能够被看做拥有等于层数的深度(比如对于输出层为隐层数加1)。SVMs有深度2(一个对应于核输出或者特征空间，另一个对应于所产生输出的线性混合)。

国外近十年深度学习实证研究综述主题、情境、方法及结果

国外近十年深度学习实证研究综述主题、情境、方法及结果一、概述：二、主题分类：计算机视觉：该主题主要关注图像识别、目标检测、图像生成等任务。

研究者利用深度学习模型，如卷积神经网络（CNN），在图像分类、人脸识别、物体检测等任务上取得了显著成果。

自然语言处理：自然语言处理是深度学习的另一重要应用领域。

研究者使用循环神经网络（RNN）、长短期记忆网络（LSTM）、变压器（Transformer）等模型进行文本生成、情感分析、机器翻译等任务，推动了自然语言处理技术的发展。

语音识别与生成：深度学习在语音识别和语音合成方面也有广泛应用。

研究者利用深度学习模型进行语音特征提取、语音识别和语音合成，提高了语音技术的准确性和自然度。

游戏与人工智能：深度学习在游戏领域的应用也日益增多。

研究者利用深度学习模型进行游戏策略学习、游戏内容生成等任务，提高了游戏的智能性和趣味性。

医疗与健康：深度学习在医疗领域的应用也备受关注。

研究者利用深度学习模型进行疾病诊断、药物研发、医疗影像分析等任务，为医疗健康领域的发展提供了有力支持。

这些主题分类展示了深度学习在不同领域和应用场景中的广泛应用和巨大潜力。

通过对这些主题的深入研究和分析，我们可以更好地理解深度学习的发展趋势和应用前景。

1. 计算机视觉在计算机视觉领域，深度学习技术的应用已经取得了显著的突破。

近年来，卷积神经网络（CNN）成为了该领域的主导模型，特别是在图像分类、目标检测、图像分割等方面。

AlexNet、VGG、GoogleNet、ResNet等模型的出现，不断刷新了图像分类任务上的准确率记录。

主题：计算机视觉的核心任务是让机器能够像人一样“看懂”图像和视频，从而进行自动分析和理解。

深度学习通过模拟人脑神经元的连接方式，构建出复杂的网络结构，实现对图像的高效特征提取和分类。

情境：计算机视觉的应用场景非常广泛，包括人脸识别、自动驾驶、医学影像分析、安全监控等。

在这些场景中，深度学习模型需要处理的数据集往往规模庞大，且存在噪声、模糊等问题，因此模型的鲁棒性和泛化能力成为研究重点。

deeplearning tutorial (2) 原理简介+代码详解

deeplearning tutorial (2) 原理简介+代码详解【原创实用版】目录一、Deep Learning 简介二、Deep Learning 原理1.神经网络2.梯度下降3.反向传播三、Deep Learning 模型1.卷积神经网络（CNN）2.循环神经网络（RNN）3.生成对抗网络（GAN）四、Deep Learning 应用实例五、Deep Learning 代码详解1.TensorFlow 安装与使用2.神经网络构建与训练3.卷积神经网络（CNN）实例4.循环神经网络（RNN）实例5.生成对抗网络（GAN）实例正文一、Deep Learning 简介Deep Learning 是一种机器学习方法，其主要目标是让计算机模仿人脑的工作方式，通过多层次的抽象表示来理解和处理复杂的数据。

Deep Learning 在图像识别、语音识别、自然语言处理等领域取得了显著的成果，成为当前人工智能领域的研究热点。

二、Deep Learning 原理1.神经网络神经网络是 Deep Learning 的基本构成单元，它由多个神经元组成，每个神经元接收一组输入信号，根据权重和偏置计算输出信号，并将输出信号传递给其他神经元。

神经网络通过不断调整权重和偏置，使得模型能够逐渐逼近目标函数。

2.梯度下降梯度下降是一种优化算法，用于求解神经网络的权重和偏置。

梯度下降算法通过计算目标函数关于权重和偏置的梯度，不断更新权重和偏置，使得模型的预测误差逐渐减小。

3.反向传播反向传播是神经网络中计算梯度的一种方法。

在训练过程中，神经网络根据实际输出和预期输出的误差，按照梯度下降算法计算梯度，然后沿着梯度反向更新权重和偏置，使得模型的预测误差逐渐减小。

三、Deep Learning 模型1.卷积神经网络（CNN）卷积神经网络是一种特殊的神经网络，广泛应用于图像识别领域。

CNN 通过卷积层、池化层和全连接层等操作，对图像进行特征提取和分类，取得了在图像识别领域的突破性成果。

《神经网络与深度学习综述DeepLearning15May2014

Draft:Deep Learning in Neural Networks:An OverviewTechnical Report IDSIA-03-14/arXiv:1404.7828(v1.5)[cs.NE]J¨u rgen SchmidhuberThe Swiss AI Lab IDSIAIstituto Dalle Molle di Studi sull’Intelligenza ArtiﬁcialeUniversity of Lugano&SUPSIGalleria2,6928Manno-LuganoSwitzerland15May2014AbstractIn recent years,deep artiﬁcial neural networks(including recurrent ones)have won numerous con-tests in pattern recognition and machine learning.This historical survey compactly summarises relevantwork,much of it from the previous millennium.Shallow and deep learners are distinguished by thedepth of their credit assignment paths,which are chains of possibly learnable,causal links between ac-tions and effects.I review deep supervised learning(also recapitulating the history of backpropagation),unsupervised learning,reinforcement learning&evolutionary computation,and indirect search for shortprograms encoding deep and large networks.PDF of earlier draft(v1):http://www.idsia.ch/∼juergen/DeepLearning30April2014.pdfLATEX source:http://www.idsia.ch/∼juergen/DeepLearning30April2014.texComplete BIBTEXﬁle:http://www.idsia.ch/∼juergen/bib.bibPrefaceThis is the draft of an invited Deep Learning(DL)overview.One of its goals is to assign credit to those who contributed to the present state of the art.I acknowledge the limitations of attempting to achieve this goal.The DL research community itself may be viewed as a continually evolving,deep network of scientists who have inﬂuenced each other in complex ways.Starting from recent DL results,I tried to trace back the origins of relevant ideas through the past half century and beyond,sometimes using“local search”to follow citations of citations backwards in time.Since not all DL publications properly acknowledge earlier relevant work,additional global search strategies were employed,aided by consulting numerous neural network experts.As a result,the present draft mostly consists of references(about800entries so far).Nevertheless,through an expert selection bias I may have missed important work.A related bias was surely introduced by my special familiarity with the work of my own DL research group in the past quarter-century.For these reasons,the present draft should be viewed as merely a snapshot of an ongoing credit assignment process.To help improve it,please do not hesitate to send corrections and suggestions to juergen@idsia.ch.Contents1Introduction to Deep Learning(DL)in Neural Networks(NNs)3 2Event-Oriented Notation for Activation Spreading in FNNs/RNNs3 3Depth of Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs)and of Problems4 4Recurring Themes of Deep Learning54.1Dynamic Programming(DP)for DL (5)4.2Unsupervised Learning(UL)Facilitating Supervised Learning(SL)and RL (6)4.3Occam’s Razor:Compression and Minimum Description Length(MDL) (6)4.4Learning Hierarchical Representations Through Deep SL,UL,RL (6)4.5Fast Graphics Processing Units(GPUs)for DL in NNs (6)5Supervised NNs,Some Helped by Unsupervised NNs75.11940s and Earlier (7)5.2Around1960:More Neurobiological Inspiration for DL (7)5.31965:Deep Networks Based on the Group Method of Data Handling(GMDH) (8)5.41979:Convolution+Weight Replication+Winner-Take-All(WTA) (8)5.51960-1981and Beyond:Development of Backpropagation(BP)for NNs (8)5.5.1BP for Weight-Sharing Feedforward NNs(FNNs)and Recurrent NNs(RNNs)..95.6Late1980s-2000:Numerous Improvements of NNs (9)5.6.1Ideas for Dealing with Long Time Lags and Deep CAPs (10)5.6.2Better BP Through Advanced Gradient Descent (10)5.6.3Discovering Low-Complexity,Problem-Solving NNs (11)5.6.4Potential Beneﬁts of UL for SL (11)5.71987:UL Through Autoencoder(AE)Hierarchies (12)5.81989:BP for Convolutional NNs(CNNs) (13)5.91991:Fundamental Deep Learning Problem of Gradient Descent (13)5.101991:UL-Based History Compression Through a Deep Hierarchy of RNNs (14)5.111992:Max-Pooling(MP):Towards MPCNNs (14)5.121994:Contest-Winning Not So Deep NNs (15)5.131995:Supervised Recurrent Very Deep Learner(LSTM RNN) (15)5.142003:More Contest-Winning/Record-Setting,Often Not So Deep NNs (16)5.152006/7:Deep Belief Networks(DBNs)&AE Stacks Fine-Tuned by BP (17)5.162006/7:Improved CNNs/GPU-CNNs/BP-Trained MPCNNs (17)5.172009:First Ofﬁcial Competitions Won by RNNs,and with MPCNNs (18)5.182010:Plain Backprop(+Distortions)on GPU Yields Excellent Results (18)5.192011:MPCNNs on GPU Achieve Superhuman Vision Performance (18)5.202011:Hessian-Free Optimization for RNNs (19)5.212012:First Contests Won on ImageNet&Object Detection&Segmentation (19)5.222013-:More Contests and Benchmark Records (20)5.22.1Currently Successful Supervised Techniques:LSTM RNNs/GPU-MPCNNs (21)5.23Recent Tricks for Improving SL Deep NNs(Compare Sec.5.6.2,5.6.3) (21)5.24Consequences for Neuroscience (22)5.25DL with Spiking Neurons? (22)6DL in FNNs and RNNs for Reinforcement Learning(RL)236.1RL Through NN World Models Yields RNNs With Deep CAPs (23)6.2Deep FNNs for Traditional RL and Markov Decision Processes(MDPs) (24)6.3Deep RL RNNs for Partially Observable MDPs(POMDPs) (24)6.4RL Facilitated by Deep UL in FNNs and RNNs (25)6.5Deep Hierarchical RL(HRL)and Subgoal Learning with FNNs and RNNs (25)6.6Deep RL by Direct NN Search/Policy Gradients/Evolution (25)6.7Deep RL by Indirect Policy Search/Compressed NN Search (26)6.8Universal RL (27)7Conclusion271Introduction to Deep Learning(DL)in Neural Networks(NNs) Which modiﬁable components of a learning system are responsible for its success or failure?What changes to them improve performance?This has been called the fundamental credit assignment problem(Minsky, 1963).There are general credit assignment methods for universal problem solvers that are time-optimal in various theoretical senses(Sec.6.8).The present survey,however,will focus on the narrower,but now commercially important,subﬁeld of Deep Learning(DL)in Artiﬁcial Neural Networks(NNs).We are interested in accurate credit assignment across possibly many,often nonlinear,computational stages of NNs.Shallow NN-like models have been around for many decades if not centuries(Sec.5.1).Models with several successive nonlinear layers of neurons date back at least to the1960s(Sec.5.3)and1970s(Sec.5.5). An efﬁcient gradient descent method for teacher-based Supervised Learning(SL)in discrete,differentiable networks of arbitrary depth called backpropagation(BP)was developed in the1960s and1970s,and ap-plied to NNs in1981(Sec.5.5).BP-based training of deep NNs with many layers,however,had been found to be difﬁcult in practice by the late1980s(Sec.5.6),and had become an explicit research subject by the early1990s(Sec.5.9).DL became practically feasible to some extent through the help of Unsupervised Learning(UL)(e.g.,Sec.5.10,5.15).The1990s and2000s also saw many improvements of purely super-vised DL(Sec.5).In the new millennium,deep NNs haveﬁnally attracted wide-spread attention,mainly by outperforming alternative machine learning methods such as kernel machines(Vapnik,1995;Sch¨o lkopf et al.,1998)in numerous important applications.In fact,supervised deep NNs have won numerous of-ﬁcial international pattern recognition competitions(e.g.,Sec.5.17,5.19,5.21,5.22),achieving theﬁrst superhuman visual pattern recognition results in limited domains(Sec.5.19).Deep NNs also have become relevant for the more generalﬁeld of Reinforcement Learning(RL)where there is no supervising teacher (Sec.6).Both feedforward(acyclic)NNs(FNNs)and recurrent(cyclic)NNs(RNNs)have won contests(Sec.5.12,5.14,5.17,5.19,5.21,5.22).In a sense,RNNs are the deepest of all NNs(Sec.3)—they are general computers more powerful than FNNs,and can in principle create and process memories of ar-bitrary sequences of input patterns(e.g.,Siegelmann and Sontag,1991;Schmidhuber,1990a).Unlike traditional methods for automatic sequential program synthesis(e.g.,Waldinger and Lee,1969;Balzer, 1985;Soloway,1986;Deville and Lau,1994),RNNs can learn programs that mix sequential and parallel information processing in a natural and efﬁcient way,exploiting the massive parallelism viewed as crucial for sustaining the rapid decline of computation cost observed over the past75years.The rest of this paper is structured as follows.Sec.2introduces a compact,event-oriented notation that is simple yet general enough to accommodate both FNNs and RNNs.Sec.3introduces the concept of Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs)to measure whether learning in a given NN application is of the deep or shallow type.Sec.4lists recurring themes of DL in SL,UL,and RL.Sec.5focuses on SL and UL,and on how UL can facilitate SL,although pure SL has become dominant in recent competitions(Sec.5.17-5.22). Sec.5is arranged in a historical timeline format with subsections on important inspirations and technical contributions.Sec.6on deep RL discusses traditional Dynamic Programming(DP)-based RL combined with gradient-based search techniques for SL or UL in deep NNs,as well as general methods for direct and indirect search in the weight space of deep FNNs and RNNs,including successful policy gradient and evolutionary methods.2Event-Oriented Notation for Activation Spreading in FNNs/RNNs Throughout this paper,let i,j,k,t,p,q,r denote positive integer variables assuming ranges implicit in the given contexts.Let n,m,T denote positive integer constants.An NN’s topology may change over time(e.g.,Fahlman,1991;Ring,1991;Weng et al.,1992;Fritzke, 1994).At any given moment,it can be described as aﬁnite subset of units(or nodes or neurons)N= {u1,u2,...,}and aﬁnite set H⊆N×N of directed edges or connections between nodes.FNNs are acyclic graphs,RNNs cyclic.Theﬁrst(input)layer is the set of input units,a subset of N.In FNNs,the k-th layer(k>1)is the set of all nodes u∈N such that there is an edge path of length k−1(but no longer path)between some input unit and u.There may be shortcut connections between distant layers.The NN’s behavior or program is determined by a set of real-valued,possibly modiﬁable,parameters or weights w i(i=1,...,n).We now focus on a singleﬁnite episode or epoch of information processing and activation spreading,without learning through weight changes.The following slightly unconventional notation is designed to compactly describe what is happening during the runtime of the system.During an episode,there is a partially causal sequence x t(t=1,...,T)of real values that I call events.Each x t is either an input set by the environment,or the activation of a unit that may directly depend on other x k(k<t)through a current NN topology-dependent set in t of indices k representing incoming causal connections or links.Let the function v encode topology information and map such event index pairs(k,t)to weight indices.For example,in the non-input case we may have x t=f t(net t)with real-valued net t= k∈in t x k w v(k,t)(additive case)or net t= k∈in t x k w v(k,t)(multiplicative case), where f t is a typically nonlinear real-valued activation function such as tanh.In many recent competition-winning NNs(Sec.5.19,5.21,5.22)there also are events of the type x t=max k∈int (x k);some networktypes may also use complex polynomial activation functions(Sec.5.3).x t may directly affect certain x k(k>t)through outgoing connections or links represented through a current set out t of indices k with t∈in k.Some non-input events are called output events.Note that many of the x t may refer to different,time-varying activations of the same unit in sequence-processing RNNs(e.g.,Williams,1989,“unfolding in time”),or also in FNNs sequentially exposed to time-varying input patterns of a large training set encoded as input events.During an episode,the same weight may get reused over and over again in topology-dependent ways,e.g.,in RNNs,or in convolutional NNs(Sec.5.4,5.8).I call this weight sharing across space and/or time.Weight sharing may greatly reduce the NN’s descriptive complexity,which is the number of bits of information required to describe the NN (Sec.4.3).In Supervised Learning(SL),certain NN output events x t may be associated with teacher-given,real-valued labels or targets d t yielding errors e t,e.g.,e t=1/2(x t−d t)2.A typical goal of supervised NN training is toﬁnd weights that yield episodes with small total error E,the sum of all such e t.The hope is that the NN will generalize well in later episodes,causing only small errors on previously unseen sequences of input events.Many alternative error functions for SL and UL are possible.SL assumes that input events are independent of earlier output events(which may affect the environ-ment through actions causing subsequent perceptions).This assumption does not hold in the broaderﬁelds of Sequential Decision Making and Reinforcement Learning(RL)(Kaelbling et al.,1996;Sutton and Barto, 1998;Hutter,2005)(Sec.6).In RL,some of the input events may encode real-valued reward signals given by the environment,and a typical goal is toﬁnd weights that yield episodes with a high sum of reward signals,through sequences of appropriate output actions.Sec.5.5will use the notation above to compactly describe a central algorithm of DL,namely,back-propagation(BP)for supervised weight-sharing FNNs and RNNs.(FNNs may be viewed as RNNs with certainﬁxed zero weights.)Sec.6will address the more general RL case.3Depth of Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs)and of ProblemsTo measure whether credit assignment in a given NN application is of the deep or shallow type,I introduce the concept of Credit Assignment Paths or CAPs,which are chains of possibly causal links between events.Let usﬁrst focus on SL.Consider two events x p and x q(1≤p<q≤T).Depending on the appli-cation,they may have a Potential Direct Causal Connection(PDCC)expressed by the Boolean predicate pdcc(p,q),which is true if and only if p∈in q.Then the2-element list(p,q)is deﬁned to be a CAP from p to q(a minimal one).A learning algorithm may be allowed to change w v(p,q)to improve performance in future episodes.More general,possibly indirect,Potential Causal Connections(PCC)are expressed by the recursively deﬁned Boolean predicate pcc(p,q),which in the SL case is true only if pdcc(p,q),or if pcc(p,k)for some k and pdcc(k,q).In the latter case,appending q to any CAP from p to k yields a CAP from p to q(this is a recursive deﬁnition,too).The set of such CAPs may be large but isﬁnite.Note that the same weight may affect many different PDCCs between successive events listed by a given CAP,e.g.,in the case of RNNs, or weight-sharing FNNs.Suppose a CAP has the form(...,k,t,...,q),where k and t(possibly t=q)are theﬁrst successive elements with modiﬁable w v(k,t).Then the length of the sufﬁx list(t,...,q)is called the CAP’s depth (which is0if there are no modiﬁable links at all).This depth limits how far backwards credit assignment can move down the causal chain toﬁnd a modiﬁable weight.1Suppose an episode and its event sequence x1,...,x T satisfy a computable criterion used to decide whether a given problem has been solved(e.g.,total error E below some threshold).Then the set of used weights is called a solution to the problem,and the depth of the deepest CAP within the sequence is called the solution’s depth.There may be other solutions(yielding different event sequences)with different depths.Given someﬁxed NN topology,the smallest depth of any solution is called the problem’s depth.Sometimes we also speak of the depth of an architecture:SL FNNs withﬁxed topology imply a problem-independent maximal problem depth bounded by the number of non-input layers.Certain SL RNNs withﬁxed weights for all connections except those to output units(Jaeger,2001;Maass et al.,2002; Jaeger,2004;Schrauwen et al.,2007)have a maximal problem depth of1,because only theﬁnal links in the corresponding CAPs are modiﬁable.In general,however,RNNs may learn to solve problems of potentially unlimited depth.Note that the deﬁnitions above are solely based on the depths of causal chains,and agnostic of the temporal distance between events.For example,shallow FNNs perceiving large“time windows”of in-put events may correctly classify long input sequences through appropriate output events,and thus solve shallow problems involving long time lags between relevant events.At which problem depth does Shallow Learning end,and Deep Learning begin?Discussions with DL experts have not yet yielded a conclusive response to this question.Instead of committing myself to a precise answer,let me just deﬁne for the purposes of this overview:problems of depth>10require Very Deep Learning.The difﬁculty of a problem may have little to do with its depth.Some NNs can quickly learn to solve certain deep problems,e.g.,through random weight guessing(Sec.5.9)or other types of direct search (Sec.6.6)or indirect search(Sec.6.7)in weight space,or through training an NNﬁrst on shallow problems whose solutions may then generalize to deep problems,or through collapsing sequences of(non)linear operations into a single(non)linear operation—but see an analysis of non-trivial aspects of deep linear networks(Baldi and Hornik,1994,Section B).In general,however,ﬁnding an NN that precisely models a given training set is an NP-complete problem(Judd,1990;Blum and Rivest,1992),also in the case of deep NNs(S´ıma,1994;de Souto et al.,1999;Windisch,2005);compare a survey of negative results(S´ıma, 2002,Section1).Above we have focused on SL.In the more general case of RL in unknown environments,pcc(p,q) is also true if x p is an output event and x q any later input event—any action may affect the environment and thus any later perception.(In the real world,the environment may even inﬂuence non-input events computed on a physical hardware entangled with the entire universe,but this is ignored here.)It is possible to model and replace such unmodiﬁable environmental PCCs through a part of the NN that has already learned to predict(through some of its units)input events(including reward signals)from former input events and actions(Sec.6.1).Its weights are frozen,but can help to assign credit to other,still modiﬁable weights used to compute actions(Sec.6.1).This approach may lead to very deep CAPs though.Some DL research is about automatically rephrasing problems such that their depth is reduced(Sec.4). In particular,sometimes UL is used to make SL problems less deep,e.g.,Sec.5.10.Often Dynamic Programming(Sec.4.1)is used to facilitate certain traditional RL problems,e.g.,Sec.6.2.Sec.5focuses on CAPs for SL,Sec.6on the more complex case of RL.4Recurring Themes of Deep Learning4.1Dynamic Programming(DP)for DLOne recurring theme of DL is Dynamic Programming(DP)(Bellman,1957),which can help to facili-tate credit assignment under certain assumptions.For example,in SL NNs,backpropagation itself can 1An alternative would be to count only modiﬁable links when measuring depth.In many typical NN applications this would not make a difference,but in some it would,e.g.,Sec.6.1.be viewed as a DP-derived method(Sec.5.5).In traditional RL based on strong Markovian assumptions, DP-derived methods can help to greatly reduce problem depth(Sec.6.2).DP algorithms are also essen-tial for systems that combine concepts of NNs and graphical models,such as Hidden Markov Models (HMMs)(Stratonovich,1960;Baum and Petrie,1966)and Expectation Maximization(EM)(Dempster et al.,1977),e.g.,(Bottou,1991;Bengio,1991;Bourlard and Morgan,1994;Baldi and Chauvin,1996; Jordan and Sejnowski,2001;Bishop,2006;Poon and Domingos,2011;Dahl et al.,2012;Hinton et al., 2012a).4.2Unsupervised Learning(UL)Facilitating Supervised Learning(SL)and RL Another recurring theme is how UL can facilitate both SL(Sec.5)and RL(Sec.6).UL(Sec.5.6.4) is normally used to encode raw incoming data such as video or speech streams in a form that is more convenient for subsequent goal-directed learning.In particular,codes that describe the original data in a less redundant or more compact way can be fed into SL(Sec.5.10,5.15)or RL machines(Sec.6.4),whose search spaces may thus become smaller(and whose CAPs shallower)than those necessary for dealing with the raw data.UL is closely connected to the topics of regularization and compression(Sec.4.3,5.6.3). 4.3Occam’s Razor:Compression and Minimum Description Length(MDL) Occam’s razor favors simple solutions over complex ones.Given some programming language,the prin-ciple of Minimum Description Length(MDL)can be used to measure the complexity of a solution candi-date by the length of the shortest program that computes it(e.g.,Solomonoff,1964;Kolmogorov,1965b; Chaitin,1966;Wallace and Boulton,1968;Levin,1973a;Rissanen,1986;Blumer et al.,1987;Li and Vit´a nyi,1997;Gr¨u nwald et al.,2005).Some methods explicitly take into account program runtime(Al-lender,1992;Watanabe,1992;Schmidhuber,2002,1995);many consider only programs with constant runtime,written in non-universal programming languages(e.g.,Rissanen,1986;Hinton and van Camp, 1993).In the NN case,the MDL principle suggests that low NN weight complexity corresponds to high NN probability in the Bayesian view(e.g.,MacKay,1992;Buntine and Weigend,1991;De Freitas,2003), and to high generalization performance(e.g.,Baum and Haussler,1989),without overﬁtting the training data.Many methods have been proposed for regularizing NNs,that is,searching for solution-computing, low-complexity SL NNs(Sec.5.6.3)and RL NNs(Sec.6.7).This is closely related to certain UL methods (Sec.4.2,5.6.4).4.4Learning Hierarchical Representations Through Deep SL,UL,RLMany methods of Good Old-Fashioned Artiﬁcial Intelligence(GOFAI)(Nilsson,1980)as well as more recent approaches to AI(Russell et al.,1995)and Machine Learning(Mitchell,1997)learn hierarchies of more and more abstract data representations.For example,certain methods of syntactic pattern recog-nition(Fu,1977)such as grammar induction discover hierarchies of formal rules to model observations. The partially(un)supervised Automated Mathematician/EURISKO(Lenat,1983;Lenat and Brown,1984) continually learns concepts by combining previously learnt concepts.Such hierarchical representation learning(Ring,1994;Bengio et al.,2013;Deng and Yu,2014)is also a recurring theme of DL NNs for SL (Sec.5),UL-aided SL(Sec.5.7,5.10,5.15),and hierarchical RL(Sec.6.5).Often,abstract hierarchical representations are natural by-products of data compression(Sec.4.3),e.g.,Sec.5.10.4.5Fast Graphics Processing Units(GPUs)for DL in NNsWhile the previous millennium saw several attempts at creating fast NN-speciﬁc hardware(e.g.,Jackel et al.,1990;Faggin,1992;Ramacher et al.,1993;Widrow et al.,1994;Heemskerk,1995;Korkin et al., 1997;Urlbe,1999),and at exploiting standard hardware(e.g.,Anguita et al.,1994;Muller et al.,1995; Anguita and Gomes,1996),the new millennium brought a DL breakthrough in form of cheap,multi-processor graphics cards or GPUs.GPUs are widely used for video games,a huge and competitive market that has driven down hardware prices.GPUs excel at fast matrix and vector multiplications required not only for convincing virtual realities but also for NN training,where they can speed up learning by a factorof50and more.Some of the GPU-based FNN implementations(Sec.5.16-5.19)have greatly contributed to recent successes in contests for pattern recognition(Sec.5.19-5.22),image segmentation(Sec.5.21), and object detection(Sec.5.21-5.22).5Supervised NNs,Some Helped by Unsupervised NNsThe main focus of current practical applications is on Supervised Learning(SL),which has dominated re-cent pattern recognition contests(Sec.5.17-5.22).Several methods,however,use additional Unsupervised Learning(UL)to facilitate SL(Sec.5.7,5.10,5.15).It does make sense to treat SL and UL in the same section:often gradient-based methods,such as BP(Sec.5.5.1),are used to optimize objective functions of both UL and SL,and the boundary between SL and UL may blur,for example,when it comes to time series prediction and sequence classiﬁcation,e.g.,Sec.5.10,5.12.A historical timeline format will help to arrange subsections on important inspirations and techni-cal contributions(although such a subsection may span a time interval of many years).Sec.5.1brieﬂy mentions early,shallow NN models since the1940s,Sec.5.2additional early neurobiological inspiration relevant for modern Deep Learning(DL).Sec.5.3is about GMDH networks(since1965),perhaps theﬁrst (feedforward)DL systems.Sec.5.4is about the relatively deep Neocognitron NN(1979)which is similar to certain modern deep FNN architectures,as it combines convolutional NNs(CNNs),weight pattern repli-cation,and winner-take-all(WTA)mechanisms.Sec.5.5uses the notation of Sec.2to compactly describe a central algorithm of DL,namely,backpropagation(BP)for supervised weight-sharing FNNs and RNNs. It also summarizes the history of BP1960-1981and beyond.Sec.5.6describes problems encountered in the late1980s with BP for deep NNs,and mentions several ideas from the previous millennium to overcome them.Sec.5.7discusses aﬁrst hierarchical stack of coupled UL-based Autoencoders(AEs)—this concept resurfaced in the new millennium(Sec.5.15).Sec.5.8is about applying BP to CNNs,which is important for today’s DL applications.Sec.5.9explains BP’s Fundamental DL Problem(of vanishing/exploding gradients)discovered in1991.Sec.5.10explains how a deep RNN stack of1991(the History Compressor) pre-trained by UL helped to solve previously unlearnable DL benchmarks requiring Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs,Sec.3)of depth1000and more.Sec.5.11discusses a particular WTA method called Max-Pooling(MP)important in today’s DL FNNs.Sec.5.12mentions aﬁrst important contest won by SL NNs in1994.Sec.5.13describes a purely supervised DL RNN(Long Short-Term Memory,LSTM)for problems of depth1000and more.Sec.5.14mentions an early contest of2003won by an ensemble of shallow NNs, as well as good pattern recognition results with CNNs and LSTM RNNs(2003).Sec.5.15is mostly about Deep Belief Networks(DBNs,2006)and related stacks of Autoencoders(AEs,Sec.5.7)pre-trained by UL to facilitate BP-based SL.Sec.5.16mentions theﬁrst BP-trained MPCNNs(2007)and GPU-CNNs(2006). Sec.5.17-5.22focus on ofﬁcial competitions with secret test sets won by(mostly purely supervised)DL NNs since2009,in sequence recognition,image classiﬁcation,image segmentation,and object detection. Many RNN results depended on LSTM(Sec.5.13);many FNN results depended on GPU-based FNN code developed since2004(Sec.5.16,5.17,5.18,5.19),in particular,GPU-MPCNNs(Sec.5.19).5.11940s and EarlierNN research started in the1940s(e.g.,McCulloch and Pitts,1943;Hebb,1949);compare also later work on learning NNs(Rosenblatt,1958,1962;Widrow and Hoff,1962;Grossberg,1969;Kohonen,1972; von der Malsburg,1973;Narendra and Thathatchar,1974;Willshaw and von der Malsburg,1976;Palm, 1980;Hopﬁeld,1982).In a sense NNs have been around even longer,since early supervised NNs were essentially variants of linear regression methods going back at least to the early1800s(e.g.,Legendre, 1805;Gauss,1809,1821).Early NNs had a maximal CAP depth of1(Sec.3).5.2Around1960:More Neurobiological Inspiration for DLSimple cells and complex cells were found in the cat’s visual cortex(e.g.,Hubel and Wiesel,1962;Wiesel and Hubel,1959).These cellsﬁre in response to certain properties of visual sensory inputs,such as theorientation of plex cells exhibit more spatial invariance than simple cells.This inspired later deep NN architectures(Sec.5.4)used in certain modern award-winning Deep Learners(Sec.5.19-5.22).5.31965:Deep Networks Based on the Group Method of Data Handling(GMDH) Networks trained by the Group Method of Data Handling(GMDH)(Ivakhnenko and Lapa,1965; Ivakhnenko et al.,1967;Ivakhnenko,1968,1971)were perhaps theﬁrst DL systems of the Feedforward Multilayer Perceptron type.The units of GMDH nets may have polynomial activation functions imple-menting Kolmogorov-Gabor polynomials(more general than traditional NN activation functions).Given a training set,layers are incrementally grown and trained by regression analysis,then pruned with the help of a separate validation set(using today’s terminology),where Decision Regularisation is used to weed out superﬂuous units.The numbers of layers and units per layer can be learned in problem-dependent fashion. This is a good example of hierarchical representation learning(Sec.4.4).There have been numerous ap-plications of GMDH-style networks,e.g.(Ikeda et al.,1976;Farlow,1984;Madala and Ivakhnenko,1994; Ivakhnenko,1995;Kondo,1998;Kord´ık et al.,2003;Witczak et al.,2006;Kondo and Ueno,2008).5.41979:Convolution+Weight Replication+Winner-Take-All(WTA)Apart from deep GMDH networks(Sec.5.3),the Neocognitron(Fukushima,1979,1980,2013a)was per-haps theﬁrst artiﬁcial NN that deserved the attribute deep,and theﬁrst to incorporate the neurophysiolog-ical insights of Sec.5.2.It introduced convolutional NNs(today often called CNNs or convnets),where the(typically rectangular)receptiveﬁeld of a convolutional unit with given weight vector is shifted step by step across a2-dimensional array of input values,such as the pixels of an image.The resulting2D array of subsequent activation events of this unit can then provide inputs to higher-level units,and so on.Due to massive weight replication(Sec.2),relatively few parameters may be necessary to describe the behavior of such a convolutional layer.Competition layers have WTA subsets whose maximally active units are the only ones to adopt non-zero activation values.They essentially“down-sample”the competition layer’s input.This helps to create units whose responses are insensitive to small image shifts(compare Sec.5.2).The Neocognitron is very similar to the architecture of modern,contest-winning,purely super-vised,feedforward,gradient-based Deep Learners with alternating convolutional and competition lay-ers(e.g.,Sec.5.19-5.22).Fukushima,however,did not set the weights by supervised backpropagation (Sec.5.5,5.8),but by local un supervised learning rules(e.g.,Fukushima,2013b),or by pre-wiring.In that sense he did not care for the DL problem(Sec.5.9),although his architecture was comparatively deep indeed.He also used Spatial Averaging(Fukushima,1980,2011)instead of Max-Pooling(MP,Sec.5.11), currently a particularly convenient and popular WTA mechanism.Today’s CNN-based DL machines proﬁta lot from later CNN work(e.g.,LeCun et al.,1989;Ranzato et al.,2007)(Sec.5.8,5.16,5.19).5.51960-1981and Beyond:Development of Backpropagation(BP)for NNsThe minimisation of errors through gradient descent(Hadamard,1908)in the parameter space of com-plex,nonlinear,differentiable,multi-stage,NN-related systems has been discussed at least since the early 1960s(e.g.,Kelley,1960;Bryson,1961;Bryson and Denham,1961;Pontryagin et al.,1961;Dreyfus,1962; Wilkinson,1965;Amari,1967;Bryson and Ho,1969;Director and Rohrer,1969;Griewank,2012),ini-tially within the framework of Euler-LaGrange equations in the Calculus of Variations(e.g.,Euler,1744). Steepest descent in such systems can be performed(Bryson,1961;Kelley,1960;Bryson and Ho,1969)by iterating the ancient chain rule(Leibniz,1676;L’Hˆo pital,1696)in Dynamic Programming(DP)style(Bell-man,1957).A simpliﬁed derivation of the method uses the chain rule only(Dreyfus,1962).The methods of the1960s were already efﬁcient in the DP sense.However,they backpropagated derivative information through standard Jacobian matrix calculations from one“layer”to the previous one, explicitly addressing neither direct links across several layers nor potential additional efﬁciency gains due to network sparsity(but perhaps such enhancements seemed obvious to the authors).。

深度学习是什么

深度学习是什么
深度学习（Deep Learning）是机器学习领域中的一种重要的应用，它
是当今AI技术发展的核心，吸纳了传统的统计学、机器学习、计算机
视觉、自然语言处理等多领域的知识，有效地让计算机“自动知晓”复
杂的系统世界，有助于广泛的实际操作中取得有效的结果。

下面是关
于深度学习的三点简要介绍：
一、深度学习的历史
深度学习发展至今，可以追溯到深度网络（deep network）的诞生，最
早可以追溯到1957年，那时由Rosenblatt以及他的研究人员研发出来
的多层感知机（perceptron）。

有关神经网络（artificial neural network）的发展也是深度学习的基础，而随着计算机技术的进步和发展，深度
学习才得以迅速发展。

二、深度学习的基本原理
深度学习建立在神经网络的框架之上，它的主要概念是借助多层网络
的多层神经元组合来表示抽象的函数，这些函数可以模拟各种复杂的
过程，主要用于分析和预测复杂、自然环境中的特征和行为，从而实
现了自动化处理和分析文本、图像、声音等非结构化信息的功能。

三、深度学习的应用
深度学习已经取得了很大的进展，应用也遍及到医疗、安全、金融、军事、农业等多个领域。

在金融领域，已经成功应用神经网络进行特征识别和交易预测，通过深度学习让计算机自动进行风险评估、客户识别和金融交易决策，从而显著提升金融服务水平。

在军事领域，深度学习技术可以从云端或从机器人设备上收集大量非结构化信息，用于侦测、监测以及战场分析，从而更好地实施军事战略。

(中文)零基础深度学习deep learning

目录[1] Deep learning简介[2] Deep Learning训练过程[3] CNN卷积神经网络推导和实现[4] CNN的反向求导及练习[5] CNN卷积神经网络（一）深度解析CNN[6] CNN卷积神经网络（二）文字识别系统LeNet-5[7] CNN卷积神经网络（三）CNN常见问题总结[1] Deep learning简介一、什么是Deep Learning？实际生活中，人们为了解决一个问题，如对象的分类（对象可是是文档、图像等），首先必须做的事情是如何来表达一个对象，即必须抽取一些特征来表示一个对象，如文本的处理中，常常用词集合来表示一个文档，或把文档表示在向量空间中（称为VSM 模型），然后才能提出不同的分类算法来进行分类；又如在图像处理中，我们可以用像素集合来表示一个图像，后来人们提出了新的特征表示，如SIFT，这种特征在很多图像处理的应用中表现非常良好，特征选取得好坏对最终结果的影响非常巨大。

因此，选取什么特征对于解决一个实际问题非常的重要。

然而，手工地选取特征是一件非常费力、启发式的方法，能不能选取好很大程度上靠经验和运气；既然手工选取特征不太好，那么能不能自动地学习一些特征呢？答案是能！Deep Learning就是用来干这个事情的，看它的一个别名Unsupervised Feature Learning，就可以顾名思义了，Unsupervised的意思就是不要人参与特征的选取过程。

因此，自动地学习特征的方法，统称为Deep Learning。

二、Deep Learning的基本思想假设我们有一个系统S，它有n层（S1,…Sn），它的输入是I，输出是O，形象地表示为：I =>S1=>S2=>…..=>Sn => O，如果输出O等于输入I，即输入I经过这个系统变化之后没有任何的信息损失（呵呵，大牛说，这是不可能的。

信息论中有个“信息逐层丢失”的说法（信息处理不等式），设处理a信息得到b，再对b处理得到c，那么可以证明：a和c的互信息不会超过a和b的互信息。

《2024年深度强化学习综述》范文

《深度强化学习综述》篇一一、引言深度强化学习（Deep Reinforcement Learning, DRL）是人工智能领域中的一项重要技术，它结合了深度学习和强化学习的优势，使得机器能够通过学习来自主地做出决策，并从经验中不断优化自身行为。

近年来，深度强化学习在众多领域取得了显著的成果，如游戏、机器人控制、自动驾驶等。

本文旨在综述深度强化学习的基本原理、研究现状、应用领域以及未来发展趋势。

二、深度强化学习基本原理深度强化学习是一种通过深度神经网络和强化学习算法结合的方式，让机器能够自主学习和决策的技术。

其基本原理包括两个部分：深度学习和强化学习。

1. 深度学习：深度学习是一种通过神经网络模型对大量数据进行学习和预测的技术。

在深度强化学习中，深度学习模型通常用于提取和表示环境中的信息，以便于后续的决策过程。

2. 强化学习：强化学习是一种通过试错的方式来学习最优策略的技术。

在深度强化学习中，强化学习算法根据当前状态和动作的反馈来调整策略，以最大化累积奖励。

三、研究现状自深度强化学习技术问世以来，其在各个领域的应用和研究成果不断涌现。

目前，深度强化学习的研究主要集中在以下几个方面：1. 算法优化：针对不同的任务和应用场景，研究者们不断提出新的算法和模型来提高深度强化学习的性能和效率。

如基于策略梯度的算法、基于值函数的算法等。

2. 模型改进：为了更好地提取和表示环境中的信息，研究者们不断改进深度神经网络的模型结构，如卷积神经网络、循环神经网络等。

3. 硬件加速：随着硬件技术的不断发展，研究者们开始利用GPU、TPU等硬件设备来加速深度强化学习的训练过程，以提高训练速度和性能。

四、应用领域深度强化学习在各个领域都取得了显著的成果，如游戏、机器人控制、自动驾驶等。

1. 游戏领域：深度强化学习在游戏领域的应用非常广泛，如围棋、象棋等棋类游戏以及电子游戏等。

在这些游戏中，深度强化学习算法可以自主地学习和优化策略，以达到最佳的游戏表现。

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Goodfellow I, Pouget-Abadie J, Mirza M, et al. Generative adversarial nets[C]//Advances in neural information processing systems. 2014: 2672-2680.
Long Short-Term Memory(LSTM,1997)
Forward propagation -Taking a sample (X, Yp) from the sample set and put the X into the network; -Calculating the corresponding actual output Op. Back propagation -Calculating the difference between the actual output Op and the corresponding ideal output Yp; -Adjusting the weight matrix by minimizing the error.
Neural Networks
Neuron
Neural network
Convolutional Neural Networks(CNN)
Convolution neural network is a kind of feedforward neural network, which has the characteristics of simple structure, less training parameters and strong adaptability. CNN avoids the complex pre-processing of image(etc.extract the artificial features), we can directly input the original image. Basic components : Convolution Layers, Pooling Layers, Fully connected Layers
Each unit is binary(0 or 1). Every visible unit connects to all the hidden units. Every hidden unit connects to all the visible units. There are no connections between v-v and h-h.
• The generator network generates a sample from the random vector, the discriminator network discriminates whether a given sample is natural or counterfeit. Both networks train together to improve their performance until they reach a point where counterfeit and real samples can not be distinguished.
Deep neural network architectures
• Deep Belief Networks(DBN)
• Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) • Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) • Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) • Long Short-Term Memory(LSTM)
Pooling layer
Pooling layer aims to compress the input feature map, which can reduce the number of parameters in training process and the degree of over-fitting of the model. Max-pooling : Selecting the maximum value in the pooling window. Mean-pooling : Calculating the average of all values in the pooling window.
RNN(Recurrent Neural Network,2013)
What?
RNN aims to process the sequence data. RNN will remember the previous information and apply it to the calculation of the current output. That is, the nodes of the hidden layer are connected, and the input of the hidden layer includes not only the output of the input layer but also the output of the hidden layer.
LSTM Gradient disappearance problem
Yann LeCun
XOR problem
Rosenblatt
Dropout AlexNet
W.S.McCulloch W.Pitts
Single- layer Perceptron
CNNLeNet
Geoffrey Hinton Hinton
Introduction Network structure Training tricks
• Application in Aesthetic Image Evaluation • Idea
Deep Learning(Hinton,2006)
• Deep learning is a branch of machine learning based on a set of algorithms that attempt to model high level abstractions in data. • The advantage of deep learning is to extracting features automatically instead of extracting features manually.
Applacations:
• • • • • • Image editing Image to image translation Generate text Generate images based on text Combined with reinforcement learning And more…
GANs(Generative Adversarial Networks,2014)
GANs Inspired by zero-sum Game in Game Theory, which consists of a pair of networks - a generator network and a discriminator network.
DBN(Deep Belief Network,2006)
Fig1. RBM(restricted Boltzmann machine) structure.
Fig2. DBN(deep belief network) structure.
Hidden units and visible units
Convolution layer local receptive field weight sharing
Reduced the number of parameters
The convolution kernel translates on a 2-dimensional plane, and each element of the convolution kernel is multiplied by the element at the corresponding position of the convolution image and then sum all the product. By moving the convolution kernel, we have a new image, which consists of the sum of the product of the convolution kernel at each position.
ReLU SVM
MP model
BP algorithm
DBN
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Deep Learning Frameworks
Fig2. Complete CNN structure.
Fig3. Softmax layer.
Training and Testing
Before the training stage, we should use some different small random numbers to initialize weights. Training stage :
How to train?
BPTT(Back propagation through time)
Applications?