翻译专外

8、How can upper-level managers deal with distortion in communication?（高层管理者如何应对信息失真）？(1)Upper-level management use redundancy(备份)——That is, require duplication of reports that the manager suspects may be distorted. Competition and redundancy may be somewhat wasteful of overall agency resources, but they allow supervisors to verify the accuracy of the reports that flow upward. One method of duplication is to use sources of upward flow that are external to the agency. Another method involves creating overlapping areas of responsibility within a bureau, each of which reports upward on some overlapping aspect. Another duplication method is to create overlapping areas in different bureaus.经理怀疑可能失真的报告需要复制。

竞争和冗余可能浪费整个机构的资源，但它们允许监督员核实了向上流动的报告的准确性。

复制的一种方法是使用向上流动的外部的机构资源。

另一种方法涉及创建责任的重叠区域内,每个报告向上一些重叠的方面。

另一个复制方法是在不同的部门重复创建重叠区域。

(2)Another anti distortion device is for the information recipient to build in counter-biases. Managers themselves often previously served in an agency’s lower levels and can remember the di stortions they used when reporting information to superiors. They can use that knowledge to “adjust” reports from subordinates to take into account those biases. Superiors also might build into communication directives and required reports measures that are designed to reduce distortion by requiring that information in the reports do the following:①shift from the future toward the present or past, 从未来移向现在或过去，②shift away from qualitative and immeasurable factors and toward quantitative and measurable factors, 从定性和不可估量的因素转变为定量和可测量的因素③shift from quantitative factors that cannot be verified easily to those that can be.从不能很容易地验证到那些可以定量因素转换成可以轻易验证的定量因素。

另一种信息接收者抗失真的装置是建立在反偏见。

管理者自身以前经常曾在一个机构的较低级别并且能记住他们将信息报告给上级时，所使用的扭曲。

他们可以用这些知识来“调整”下属的报告并考虑这些偏见。

上司也可能建立通信指令和要求报告的措施旨在减少失真。

通过要求信息的报告做到以下几点：(3)A third way to deal with distortion is to eliminate the “middlemen” by reducing the levels or layers of hierarchy through which information flows. This approach requires either designing an organization that is flat o r using various “bypass” devices.第三个处理失真的方法是通过减少信息流动的水平或层级结构来消除“中间人”。

这种方法需要设计一个扁平的组织或使用各种“搭桥”设备。

9、Types of Audits（审计类型）An energy audit looks at how well an agency uses or wastes its energy resources, and it generally seeks to promote conversation.能源审计着眼于一个机构多大程度上使用或浪费能源资源，它通常旨在促进对话。

A social audit assesses social issues in an organizational context.社会审计评估在一个组织背景下的社会问题。

In terms of reason or purpose, governments use a compliance audit(守法审计) to assess whether it has financially complied with the law. These audits agencies ensure there is no discrimination by government contractors based on race, religion, color, sex, or national origin, as well as to assess that affirmative action programs are in place to employ veterans and handicapped workers.在原因或目的方面，政府使用守法审计，以评估其是否在经济上遵守法律。

这些审计机构确保政府承包商没有基于种族、宗教、肤色、性别、或国籍的歧视,以及评估,评估肯定行动方案已经可以雇佣退伍军人和残疾工人。

A performance audit looks at the economy and efficiency of an agency and how well it has achieved its stated program results.Performance auditing is an inherently political activity dressed up in apolitical clothes.绩效审计着眼于机构的经济和效率,以及多大程度上取得了其陈述项目成果。

绩效审计本质上是一种披着不关心政治外衣的内在的政治活动。

10、Auditing Agencies（审计机构）p309(1)The General Accounting office(GAO), the federal agency responsible for auditing all other federal agencies.The comptroller is appointed by the president,with the approval of the Senate,for a 15-year term.The GAO issues more than a thousand reports annually,and its officials often testify before congressional investigations and policy hearings.(2)At the state level,most states have an auditing office that serves the legislature.The agency is headed by a state comptroller or controller.In 25 states,the auditor is a separately elected state official who makes up part of the plural executive.In the other states,the controller is appointed by the legislature.A state controller is usually one of the major decision makers for a state’s capital budget.For states with constitutional requirements for a balanced budget and constitutional limitations on the level of debt,the power of the controller’s office is enhanced.(3)Local governments often employ outside accounting agencies to audit their financial records,although large cities and countries typically have their own internal auditing agencies.11、what Makes a Clientele Group Effective?(影响顾客团体有效性的因素) p381 (1)First,the size of membership in a group is a critical factor in its strength.Members can be transformed into voters or workers in an electoral campaign.The larger the membership,the more financial resources the group can accumulate and devote to lobbying,campaign activities,or public relations campaigns to influence general public opinion.(2)A second obvious factor is the group’s degree of dispersion.An agency with a large clientele base that is concentrated in only one or two states will be less supported than an agency with roughly the same size of group membership spread over a broader geographic area.At the state level,a statewide dispersal is more effective than one concentrated in a given city or county.(3)The third critically important factor is the degree of organization of the group.Well-organized and cohesive groups can lobby far more effectively than poorly organized groups.Unorganized or poorly organized groups simply get left out of the policy process.(4)The fourth and final factor is the degree of ardor or intensity clientele group members feel for their cause.Intensely loyal clientele supporters are simply more willing to work harder or sacrifice more resources to support an agency than are members of a group that is only lukewarm in its commitment to the issue.。