preface
Preface 兰氏化学手册
PREFACE TOFIFTEENTH EDITIONThis new edition,thefifth under the aegis of the present editor,remains the one-volume source of factual information for chemists,both professionals and students—thefirst place in which to“look it up”on the spot.The aim is to provide sufficient data to satisfy all one’s general needs without recourse to other reference sources.A user willfind this volume of value as a time-saverbecause of the many tables of numer ical data which have been especially compiled.Descriptive properties for a basic group of approximately4300organic compounds are compiled in Section1,an increase of300entries.All entries are listed alphabetically according to the senior prefix of the name.The data for each organic compound include (where available)name,structural formula,formula weight,Beilstein reference(or if un-available,the entry to the Merck Index,12th ed.),density,refractive index,melting point, boiling point,flash point,and solubility(citing numerical values if known)in water andvarious common organic solvents.Structural formulas either too complex or too ambig-uous to be rendered as line formulas are grouped at the bottom of each facing double page on which the entries appear.Alternative names,as well as trivial names of long-standing usage,are listed in their respective alphabetical order at the bottom of each double page in the regular alphabetical sequence.Another feature that assists the user in locating a desired entry is the empirical formula index.Section2on General Information,Conversion Tables,and Mathematics has had the table on general conversion factors thoroughly reworked.Similarly the material on Statis-tics in Chemical Analysis has had its contents more than doubled.Descriptive properties for a basic group of inorganic compounds are compiled in Section 3,which has undergone a small increase in the number of entries.Many entries under the column“Solubility”supply the reader with precise quantities dissolved in a stated solvent and at a given temperature.Several portions of Section4,Properties of Atoms,Radicals,and Bonds,have been significantly enlarged.For example,the entries under“Ionization Energy of Molecular and Radical Species”now number740and have an additional column with the enthalpy of formation of the ions.Likewise,the table on“Electron Affinities of the Elements, Molecules,and Radicals”now contains about225entries.The Table of Nuclides has material on additional radionuclides,their radiations,and the neutron capture cross sec-tions.Revised material for Section5includes the material on surface tension,viscosity,di-electric constant,and dipole moment for organic compounds.In order to include more data at several temperatures,the material has been divided into two separate tables.Ma-terial on surface tension and viscosity constitute thefirst table with715entries;included is the temperature range of the liquid phase.Material on dielectric constant and dipoleviiviii PREFACE TO FIFTEENTH EDITIONmoment constitute another table of1220entries.The additional data at two or more tem-peratures permit interpolation for intermediate temperatures and also permit limited ex-trapolation of the data.The Properties of Combustible Mixtures in Air has been revised and expanded to include over450compounds.Flash points ar e to be found in Section1. Completely revised are the tables on Thermal Conductivity for gases,liquids,and solids. Van derWaals’constants forgases has been br ought up to date and expanded to over500 substances.Section6,which includes Enthalpies and Gibbs Energies of Formation,Entropies,and Heat Capacities of Organic and Inorganic Compounds,and Heats of Melting,Vaporization, and Sublimation and Specific Heat at Various Temperatures for organic and inorganic compounds,has expanded by11pages,but the majoradditions have involved data in columns where it previously was absent.More material has also been included for critical temperature,critical pressure,and critical volume.The section on Spectroscopy has been retained but with some revisions and expansion. The section includes ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy,fluorescence,infrared and Raman spectroscopy,and X-ray spectrometry.Detection limits are listed for the elements when usingflame emission,flame atomic absorption,electrothermal atomic absorption,argon induction coupled plasma,andflame atomicfluorescence.Nuclear magnetic resonance embraces tables for the nuclear properties of the elements,proton chemical shifts and coupling constants,and similar material for carbon-13,boron-11,nitrogen-15,fluorine-19,silicon-19,and phosphorus-31.In Section8,the material on solubility constants has been doubled to550entries. Sections on proton transfer reactions,including some at various temperatures,formation constants of metal complexes with organic and inorganic ligands,buffer solutions of all types,reference electrodes,indicators,and electrode potentials are retained with some revisions.The material on conductances has been revised and expanded,particularly in the table on limiting equivalent ionic conductances.Everything in Sections9and10on physiochemical relationships,and on polymers, rubbers,fats,oils,and waxes,respectively,has been retained.Section11,Practical Laboratory Information,has undergone significant changes and expansion.Entries in the table on“Molecular Elevation of the Boiling Point”have been increased.McReynolds’constants for stationary phases in gas chromatography have been reorganized and expanded.The guide to ion-exchange resins and discussion is new and embraces all types of column packings and membrane materials.Gravimetric factors have been altered to reflect the changes in atomic weights for several elements.Newly added are tables listing elements precipitated by general analytical reagents,and giving equations for the redox determination of the elements with their equivalent weights.Discussion on the topics of precipitation and complexometric titrations include primary standards and indicators for each analytical technique.A new topic of masking and demasking agents includes discussion and tables of masking agents forvar ious elements,foranions and neutral molecules,and common demasking agents.A table has been added listing the common amino acids with theirpI and p Kvalues and their3-letterand1-letterabbr evi-astly a9-page table lists the threshold limit value(TLV)for gases and vapors.As stated in earlier prefaces,every effort has been made to select the most useful and reliable information and to record it with accuracy.However,the editor’s50years ofPREFACE TO FIFTEENTH EDITION ix involvement with textbooks and handbooks bring a realization of the opportunities for gremlins to exert their inevitable mischief.It is hoped that users of this handbook will continue to offer suggestions of material that might be included in,or even excluded from, future editions and call attention to errors.These communications should be directed to the editor.The street address will change early in1999,as will the telephone number. However,the e-mail address should remain as“pd105@.”Knoxville,TN John A.DeanPREFACE TOFOURTEENTH EDITIONPerhaps it would be simplest to begin by stating the ways in which this new edition,the fourth under the aegis of the present editor,has not been changed.It remains the one-volume source of factual information for chemists,both professionals and students—thefirst place in which to“look it up”on the spot.The aim is to provide sufficient data to satisfy all one’s general needs without recourse to other reference sources.Even the worker with the facilities of a comprehensive library willfind this volume of value as a time-saverbecause of the many tables of numer ical data which have been especially compiled.The changes,however,are both numerous and significant.First of all,there is a change in the organization of the subject matter.For example,material formerly contained in the section entitled Analytical Chemistry is now grouped by operational categories:spectroscopy;electrolytes,electro-motive force,and chemical equilibrium;and practical laboratory information.Polymers,rubbers, fats,oils,and waxes constitute a large independent section.Descriptive properties for a basic group of approximately4000organic compounds are compiledin Section1.These follow a concise introduction to organic nomenclature,including the topic of stereochemistry.Nomenclature is consistent with the1979rules of the Commission on Nomencla-ture,International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry(IUPAC).All entries are listed alphabeti-cally according to the senior prefix of the name.The data for each organic compound include(where available)name,structural formula,formula weight,Beilstein reference,density,refractive index, melting point,boiling point,flash point,and solubility(citing numerical values if known)in water and various common organic solvents.Structural formulas either too complex or too ambiguous to be rendered as line formulas are grouped at the bottom of the page on which the entries appear. Alternative names,as well as trivial names of long-standing usage,are listed in their respective alphabetical order at the bottom of each page in the regular alphabetical sequence.Another feature that assists the user in locating a desired entry is the empirical formula index.Section2combines the former separate section on Mathematics with the material involving General Information and Conversion Tables.The fundamental physical constants reflect values rec-ommended in1986.Physical and chemical symbols and definitions have undergone extensive re-vision and expansion.Presented in14categories,the entries follow recommendations published in 1988by the IUPAC.The table of abbreviations and standard letter symbols provides,in a sense,an alphabetical index to the foregoing tables.The table of conversion factors has been modified in view of recent data and inclusion of SI units;cross-entries for“archaic”or unusual entries have been curtailed.Descriptive properties for a basic group of approximately1400inorganic compounds are com-piled in Section3.These follow a concise,revised introduction to inorganic nomenclature that follows the recommendations of the IUPAC published in1990.In this section are given the exact atomic(or formula)weight of the elements accompanied,when available,by the uncertainty in the finalfigure given in parentheses.In Section4the data on bond lengths and strengths have been vastly increased so as to include not only the atomic and effective ionic radii of elements and the covalent radii for atoms,but also the bond lengths between carbon and other elements and between elements other than carbon.Allxixii PREFACE TO FOURTEENTH EDITIONlengths are given in picometers(SI unit).Effective ionic radii are tabulated as a function of ion charge and coordination number.Bond dissociation energies are given in kilojoules per mole with the uncertainty of thefinalfigure(s)given in parentheses when known.New tables include bond dipole moments,group dipole moments,work functions of the elements,and relative abundances of the naturally occurring elements.The table of nuclides has been shortened and includes only the more commonly encountered nuclides;tabulations list half-life,natural abundance,cross-section to thermal neutrons,and radiation emitted upon disintegration.Entries have been updated.Revised material in Section5includes an extensive tabulation of binary and ternary azeotropes comprising approximately850entries.Over975compounds have values listed for viscosity,di-electric constant,dipole moment,and surface tension.Whenever possible,data for viscosity and dielectric constant are provided at two temperatures to permit interpolation for intermediate tem-peratures and also to permit limited extrapolation of the data.The dipole moments are often listed for different physical states.Values for surface tension can be calculated over a range of temperatures from two constants that can befitted into a linear equation.Also extensively revised and expanded are the properties of combustible mixtures in air.A table of triple points has been added.The tables in Section6contain values of the enthalpy and Gibbs energy of formation,entropy, and heat capacity atfive temperatures for approximately2000organic compounds and1500inor-ganic compounds,many in more than one physical state.Separate tabulations have enthalpies of melting,vaporization,transition,and sublimation for organic and inorganic compounds.All values are given in SI units(joule)and have been extracted from the latest sources such as JANAF Ther-mochemical Tables,3d ed.(1986);Thermochemical Data of Organic Compounds,2d ed.(1986); and Enthalpies of Vaporization of Organic Compounds,published underthe auspices of the IUPAC (1985).Also updated is the material on critical properties of elements and compounds.The section on Spectroscopy has been expanded to include ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy,fluorescence,Raman spectroscopy,and mass spectroscopy.Retained sections have been thoroughly revised:in particular,the tables on electronic emission and atomic absorption spectroscopy,nuclear magnetic resonance,and infrared spectroscopy.Detection limits are listed for the elements when usingflame emission,flame atomic absorption,electrothermal atomic absorption,argon ICP,and flame atomicfluorescence.Nuclear magnetic resonance embraces tables for the nuclear properties of the elements,proton chemical shifts and coupling constants,and similar material for carbon-13, boron-11,nitrogen-15,fluorine-19,silicon-29,and phosphorus-31.Section8now combines all the material on electrolytes,electromotive force,and chemical equi-librium,some of which had formerly been included in the old“Analytical Chemistry”section of earlier editions.Material on the half-wave potentials of inorganic and organic materials has been thoroughly revised.The tabulation of the potentials of the elements and their compounds reflects recent IUPAC(1985)recommendations.An extensive new Section10is devoted to polymers,rubbers,fats,oils,and waxes.A discussion of polymers and rubbers is followed by the formulas and key properties of plastic materials.For each member and type of the plastic families there is a tabulation of their physical,electrical, mechanical,and thermal properties and characteristics.A similar treatment is accorded the various types of rubber materials.Chemical resistance and gas permeability constants are also given for rubbers and plastics.The section concludes with various constants of fats,oils,and waxes.The practical laboratory information contained in Section11has been gathered from many of the previous sections of earlier editions.This material has been supplemented with new material under separation methods,gravimetric and volumetric analysis,and laboratory solutions.Significant new tables under separation methods include:properties of solvents for chromatography,solvents having the same refractive index and the same density,McReynolds’constants for stationary phases in gas chromatography,characteristics of selected supercriticalfluids,and typical performances in HPLC for various operating conditions.Under gravimetric and volumetric analysis,gravimetric factors,equations and equivalents for volumetric analysis,and titrimetric factors have been retainedPREFACE TO FOURTEENTH EDITION xiii along with the formation constants of EDTA metal complexes.In this age of awareness of chemical dangers,tables have been added for some common reactive and incompatible chemicals,chemicals recommended for refrigerated storage,and chemicals which polymerize or decompose on extended storage at low temperature.Updated is the information about the U.S.Standard Sieve Series.Ther-mometry data have been revised to bring them into agreement with the new International Temper-ature Scale–1990,and data for type N thermocouples are included.Every effort has been made to select the most useful and most reliable information and to record it with accuracy.However,the editor’s many years of involvement with handbooks bring a realiza-tion of the opportunities for gremlins to exert their inevitable mischief.It is hoped that users of this handbook will offer suggestions of material that might be included in,or even excluded from,future editions and call attention to errors.These communications should be directed to the editor at his home address(or by telephone).John A.DeanPREFACE TOFIRST EDITIONThis book is the result of a number of years’experience in the compiling and editing of data useful to chemists.In it an effort has been made to select material to meet the needs of chemists who cannot command the unlimited time available to the research specialist,or who lack the facilities of a large technical library which so often is not conveniently located at many manufacturing centers. If the information contained herein serves this purpose,the compiler will feel that he has accom-plished a worthy task.Even the worker with the facilities of a comprehensive library mayfind this volume of value as a time-saverbecause of the many tables of numer ical data which have been especially computed forthis pur pose.Every effort has been made to select the most reliable information and to record it with accuracy. Many years of occupation with this type of work bring a realization of the opportunities for the occurrence of errors,and while every endeavor has been made to prevent them,yet it would be remarkable if the attempts towards this end had always been successful.In this connection it is desired to express appreciation to those who in the past have called attention to errors,and it will be appreciated if this be done again with the present compilation for the publishers have giventheir assurance that no expense will be spared in making the necessary changes in subsequent printings.It has been aimed to produce a compilation complete within the limits set by the economy of available space.One difficulty always at hand to the compilerof such a book is that he must decide what data are to be excluded in order to keep the volume from becoming unwieldy because of its size.He can hardly be expected to have an expert’s knowledge of all branches of the science nor the intuition necessary to decide in all cases which particular value to record,especially when many differing values are given in the literature for the same constant.If the expert in a particularfield will judge the usefulness of this book by the data which it supplies to him fromfields other than his specialty and not by the lack of highly specialized information in which only he and his co-workers are interested(and with which he is familiar and for which he would never have occasion to consult this compilation),then an estimate of its value to him will be apparent.However,if such specialists will call attention to missing data with which they are familiar and which they believe others less specialized will also need,then works of this type can be improved in succeeding editions.Many of the gaps in this volume are caused by the lack of such information in the literature.It is hoped that to one of the most important classes of workers in chemistry,namely the teachers,the book will be of value not only as an aid in answering the most varied questions with which they are confronted by interested students,but also as an inspiration through what it suggests by the gaps and inconsistencies,challenging as they do the incentive to engage in the creative and experimental work necessary to supply the missing information.While the principal value of the book is for the professional chemist or student of chemistry,it should also be of value to many people not especially educated as chemists.Workers in the natural sciences—physicists,mineralogists,biologists,pharmacists,engineers,patent attorneys,and librar-ians—are often called upon to solve problems dealing with the properties of chemical products or materials of construction.For such needs this compilation supplies helpful information and will serve not only as an economical substitute for the costly accumulation of a large library of mono-graphs on specialized subjects,but also as a means of conserving the time required to search forxvxvi PREFACE TO FIRST EDITIONinformation so widely scattered throughout the literature.For this reason especial care has been taken in compiling a comprehensive index and in furnishing cross references with many of the tables.It is hoped that this book will be of the same usefulness to the worker in science as is the dictionary to the worker in literature,and that its resting place will be on the desk rather than on the bookshelf. Cleveland,Ohio nge May2,1934。
机械工程专业英语-交流与沟通EnglishCommunicationforMechanicalEngineers教学课件作者康兰Preface
Better prepare yourself to work in an increasingly diverse and international workplace;
为能在一个越来越多样化及国际化的工作环境中工作而更好地做好准备； Prepare的用法: （1）v．准备，配制 1．prepare sth 准备某事 2. prepare for sth 为某事而准备 3. prepare sb for sth 使某人为某事做好准备 例：we have prepared for the text。 4. prepare sb to do sth 让某人准备做某事 （2）. preparation 准备，预备，准备工作 短语：make preparations for sth 为某事做准备 Under preparations 在准备中 （3）. prepared adj. 准备好，有所准备 Be prepared to do sth 愿意做某事
机械工程专业英语 --交流与沟通
What do we learn? 我们学习什么？
Part 1: Introduction to Mechanical Engineering
机械工程导论
Part 2: Machine Elements and Mechanisms
机械零件及机构
Part 3: Communication Skills in Mechanical Engineering
机械工程专业英语 --交流与沟通
The following topics maybe used as a guide. 以下主题可以作为指南。
Topic 4: Introduce an example of the advanced technology used in mechanical engineering. … …All topics related to mechanical engineering are welcome.
大学英语英国文学选读
Preface (The Development of British Literature)1. Early and Medieval Literature (5th century-1485)2. The Period of English Renaissance (the end of 15th century-the beginning of 17th century)3. 17th Century Literature4. The Period of Enlightenment (the end of 17th century-the middle of 18th century)5. English Romanticism (1798-1832)6. The Age of Realism (1830s-1918)7. The Age of Modernism (1918-1945)8. Contemporary British Literature (1945- )Unit 1 Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400)Lived in the 14th centuryThe greatest writer in this century and the 14th century is usually known as “The Age of Chaucer”Was acclaimed as “father of English poetry”◆Literary Career1. From 1360 to 1372 (French period)Translations: The Romance of the Rose2. From 1373 to 1386 (Italian period)Major works: 1380 The Parliament of Fowls《百鸟议会》1384 The House of Fame《声誉之堂》1385 Troilus and Criseyde《特洛勒斯与克丽西德》1386 The Book of the Duchess《公爵夫人之书》The Legend of Good Women3. From 1387 to 1400 (English period)Masterpiece: The Canterbury Tales1700lines—about half of Chaucer’s entire literary productionThe whole poem is a collection of tales and stories strung together according to a simple plan, which shows the influence of Boccaccio’s Decameron.◆The PrologueThe Prologue is a splendid masterpiece of realistic portrayal, the first of its kind in the history of English literature. We see the whole cavalcade, as it rides out on a fine spring morning.The pilgrims are people from various parts of England, representatives of various walks of life and social groups, with various interests, tastes and predilections. (preference)◆CommentsChaucer makes English the language of literature. The language he used, known as Middle English now, is vivid and smooth.Chaucer’s contribution to English poetry i s that he greatly enriched the rhyme schemes by introducing from France the rhymed stanzas of various types.◆TermsIambic Pentameter:五音步抑扬格It refers to a poetic line consisting of metrical foot in poetry consisting of one short or unstressed syllable followed by one long or stressed syllable.Heroic Couplet:英雄双韵体It refers to a pair of rhymed iambic pentameter lines. A stanza composed of two heroic couplets is called a heroic quatrain.Alliteration:头韵It refers to the repetition of similar sounds, usually consonants or consonant clusters, in a group of words. Sometimes, the term is limited to the repetition of initial consonant sounds.Unit 2 William Shakespeare (1564-1616)William Shakespeare is the most popular and most widely respected writer in all English literature. Comedy Tragedy Historical Play38/39 plays; 154 sonnets; 2 narrative poemsTwo tragedies:Romeo and Juliet；The Life and Death of Julius Caesar 《凯撒大帝》Great tragedies: Hamlet, Prince of DenmarkThe two long narrative poems Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece were respectively published in 1593 and 1594.His Sonnets were published in 1609. They are divided into two groups. One is about the conflicted lover for a young man of superior beauty and the other about the uncontrollable love for a mysterious “dark lady” of irresistible beauty.◆HamletHamlet is considered to be the summit of Shakespeare’s art.Hamlet i s the profoundest expression of Shakespeare’s humanism and his criticism of contemporary life. Major Characters:Hamlet, the Ghost, Claudius, Gertrude, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, Polonius, Ophelia, Laertes◆Some of the Problems Troubling Hamlet1. His father was murdered by his uncle who has become the king of Denmark.2. His mother was married to his uncle right after his father’s death.3. The Ghost of his father urged him to seek revenge for his murder, but Hamlet was not quite sure that the ghost was h is father’s spirit, for he feared it might have been a devil sent to torment him.4. His former friends Rosencrantz & Guildenstern were dispatched by the king to spy on him (A betrayal of friendship! As a humanist he attached great importance to friendship).5. His girl friend Ophelia was sent as a tool to find out whether or not he was really mad (A betrayal of love!).◆What do you learn about Hamlet’s mental conflict and character through this soliloquy独白? Further AnalysisIn this soliloquy, Hamlet is detached, reflective, analytic and moral. His thoughts were philosophical rather than practical; his concerns were on the nature of things rather than any specific plans for actions; his feelings were of a deep sorrow over the injustice and vanity, “a sea of troubles” which brought pains into human life. His melancholy and procrastination are also revealed. Here he is pondering on the question of life and death.He is thinking of committing suicide. But he hesitates for he doubts whether death can give him rest and peace. Besides, he is not sure whether the world of death would be better than this one. He gives the reasons why he wants to commit suicide.Apart from his personal revenge (He hasn’t mentioned it in this soliloquy), he cannot bear the social injustices and grievances. He is conscious of his own weakness of thinking too much which makes him dilatory, allowing many opportunities to slip away.◆SonnetA fourteen-line lyric poem, usually written in rhymed iambic pentameter.It includes three Quatrains and a concluding Couplet, with rhyme scheme abab cdcd efef gg.Each quatrain deals with a different aspect of the subject and the couplet either summarizes the theme or makes a final comment.Unit 3 Francis Bacon (1561-1626)◆Literary CareerBacon’s works ma y be divided into three classes: the philosophical, the literary, and the professional works.1. Philosophical works:1605 The Advancement of Learning (in English)1620 Novum Organum (in Latin)2. Literary works:1597-1625 Essays(Of Truth, Of Death, Of Revenge, Of Friendship)3. Professional works:1630 Maxims of the Law1642 Reading on the Statue of Uses◆Of Studies“Of Studies” is the one of the shortest, but probably the most popular of Bacon’s 58 essays.1. It analyzes the major functions of studies and the different ways of pursuing studies by different people.2. It probes into the effects studies have upon human character.3. Forceful and persuasive, compact and precise, the essay best reveals Bacon’s mature attitude towards learning.The essay starts with the general use and benefits of studies, namely, delight, ornament and ability.Then it goes on to relate studies to experience and reveals the mutual-promoting relation between them.Bacon also points out that studies need to be treated properly and conducted in right ways.By doing it right, he reckons, our characters shall be improved in different aspects.The whole essay seems to be a manifesto of the Renaissance and a declaration of the beginning of the coming Age of Reason.◆CommentsBacon was a representative of the Renaissance in England.He was a prominent philosopher and scientist as well as an essayist.He contributed to the foundation of modern science with his scientific way of thinking and fresh observation rather than authority as a basis for knowledge.Although he wrote much in Latin, he was capable of varied and beautiful styles in English and there is a peculiar magnificence and picturesque-ness in much of his writing.Many of his sentences in Essays have assumed almost the character of proverbs.His Essays is the first example of that genre in English literature, which has become a landmark in the development of English prose.Unit 7 Jane Austen (1775-1817)◆Main works:《理智与情感》（Sense and Sensibility，1811)《傲慢与偏见》（Pride and Prejudice，1813)《曼斯菲尔德庄园》（Mansfield Park，1814)《爱玛》（Emma，1816)《诺桑觉寺》（Northanger Abby，1818)《劝导》（Persuasion，1818)◆Pride and PrejudiceThe whole story portrays life in the genteel rural society of the day, and focuses on the relationship between Elizabeth Bennet and the haughty Darcy. Their relationship begins with the initial misunderstandings and ends with their mutual enlightenment. Finally they learn that their first impressions, based on pride and prejudice, were incorrect.◆Major Characters:Mr. Bennet＋Mrs. Bennet五个女儿：Jane（Mr. Bingley）; Elizabeth（Mr. Darcy）; Mary; Kitty; Lydia（Mr. Wickham）Lady Catherine（Mr. Darcy的姨妈）Charlotte（Elizabeth最好的朋友，和Mr. Collins结婚）◆人物分析Mr. BennettHe is a queer, sarcastic man.Being the father of 5 daughters, he is destined the responsibility for the future of them. But when a prospective catch comes, he keeps reserved and calm; he even teases his wife inconsiderately when she urges him to visit the new comer.This and his other oddities can only be accounted for that Mr. Bennett is regretful for his own marriage and thus becomes hesitant about his daughters. But he is now at a loss to help it, since there is such a gossipy and garrulous（唠叨，爱管闲事的）wife in the house. That is why he rarely talks to his wife as an equal and prefers to have the privacy of his library, his country and his self-entertaining irony.After all, he is a lively character.Mrs. BennettShe fails by all relevant criteria.empty-headed, snobbish, inconsiderate, ill-mannered, vulgar, foolish…She has no feminine charm.As a parent, she is partly responsible for the superficial characters of her 3 younger daughters. Lydia is clearly in her mother’s mold.She thinks of marriage mainly as a means of social and economic advancement.JaneThe eldest of the Bennett girls has two distinguishing characteristics: she is very beautiful, and she is very unperceptive, or, she is so pure of heart and mind that she will go to any length not to believe evil of any one.On the most superficial level, the plot is the story of the romance of Jane and Bingley; but actually their story provides only the occasion for the real interest of the novel.Jane and Bingley exhibit neither pride nor prejudice. The themes of social status arise only indirectly in their case. Choice for them is never problematic. Their function rather is to show how people can suffer from the pride and prejudice.◆CharacterizationWhich of these methods does Jane Austen employ? Cite examples to illustrate your choices.1. Physical description of a character by the author;2. A description of another character;3. The use of dialogue or conversation;4. An explanation of a character’s inner thoughts;5. The behavior or actions of a character;6. The reactions of a character to another character or to a situation◆Theme: Love and MarriageIn this novel, Austen provides 4 different marriages. They are utilitarian marriage, sex-oriented marriage, moral marriage and perfect marriage.It is analyzed that one’s character reflects his/her marriage and attitudes towards love and social mores are reflected in their marriage’s formation.The conditions for love and marriage: material wealth and social position; beauty and passion; true love with consideration of the partner’s personal virtue as well as his economic and social status.It is wrong to marry just for money, or beauty; it is also wrong to marry without it.Elizabeth thinks she is happier than Jane.◆Writing StyleIn style, Austen is a classicism advocate, upholding those traditional ideas of order, reason, and gracefulness in novel writing. She writes within a very narrow sphere. The subject matter, the character range, the social setting and plot are all restricted to the provincial life of the late 18th century England, concerning three or four landed gentry families with their daily routine life.Irony（反讽）A contrast or an incongruity between what is stated and what is really meant, or between what is expected to happen and what actually happens.“It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.”In this statement, Austen cleverly illustrates 3 points: she declares that the main subject of the novel will be courtship and marriage; she has established the humorous tone of the novel by taking a simple subject to elaborate and to speak intelligently of; she has prepared the reader for a chase in the novel of either a husband in search of a wife, or a woman in pursuit of a husband.The first line also defines Jane’s book as a piece of literature that connects itself to the 18th century period, in which, the emphasis on man in social environment was important, and the use of satire and wit was a common form of the 18th century literature.Unit 8 Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)◆Ode (颂)1. It refers to a complex and often lengthy lyric poem, written in a dignified formal style on some lofty or serious subject.2. Odes are often written for a special occasion, to honor a person or a season or to commemorate an event.◆Ode to the West Wind1. Talking about the poem, Shelley says that it was his emotional response to a strong hailstorm in which he happened to be swallowed one autumn evening in 1819 on the Arno near Florence.2. Shelley sees, in the storm of the natural world, an apt metaphor for the storm of revolution in the human world. The poet had been feeling depressed at the triumph of the reactionary Holy Alliance over Napoleon and the French Revolution and was emphatic in his forecast that the storm of revolution would make a powerful comeback yet.◆The Form1. This ode contains five 14-lined stanzas of iambic pentameter, each containing four tercets and a closing couplet.2. The rhyme scheme in each part follows a pattern known as terza rima, the three-line rhyme scheme first used by Dante in his well-known The Divine Comedy.3.In the three-line terza rima stanza, the first and third lines rhyme, and the middle line does not; then the end sound of that middle line is employed as the rhyme for the first and third lines in the next stanza. The final couplet rhymes with the middle line of the last three-line stanza.4. Thus, each of the five stanzas follows the rhyme scheme aba, bcb, cdc, ded, ee.5. Function: This linked chain gives a feeling of onward motion and the verse has a breathless quality which is in keeping with the onward motion of the wind’s movement.Ⅰ哦，狂暴的西风，秋之生命的呼吸！你无形，但枯死的落叶被你横扫有如鬼魅碰到了巫师，纷纷逃避：黄的，黑的，灰的，红得像患肺痨，呵，重染疫疠的一群：西风呵，是你以车驾把有翼的种子催送到黑暗的冬床上，它们就躺在那里，像是墓中的死穴，冰冷，深藏，低贱，直等到春天，你碧空的姊妹吹起她的喇叭，在沉睡的大地上响遍，（唤出嫩芽，像羊群一样，觅食空中）将色和香充满了山峰和平原。
丘吉尔《英语国家史略》英文Preface
PrefaceIt is nearly 20years ago that I made the arrangements which resulted in this book. At the outbreak of the war about a million words were duly delivered. Of course, there was still much to be done in proof reading when I went to the Admiralty on September 3.1939. All this was set aside. During 6 years of war, and an even longer period in which I was occupied with my war memoirs, the book slumbered peacefully. It is only now when things have quietened down that I present to the public A HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES.If there was need for it before, that has certainly not passed away. For the second time in the present century the British Empire and the United States have stood together facing the perils of war on the largest scale known among men, and since the cannons ceased to fire and the bombs to burst we have become more conscious of our common duty to the human race. Language, law, and the processes by which we have come into being already afforded a unique foundation for drawing together and portraying a concerted task. I thought when I began that such a unity might well notably influence the destiny of the world. Certainly I do not feel that the need for this has diminished in any way in the twenty years that have passed.On the contrary, the theme of the work has grown in strength and reality, and human thought is broadened. Vast numbers of people on both sides ofthe Atlantic and throughout the British Commenwealth of Nations have felt a sense of brotherhood. A new generation is at hand. Many practical steps have been taken which carry us far. Thinking primarily of the English-speaking peoples in no way implies any sense of restriction. It does not mean canalizing the development of world affairs, nor does it prevent the erection of structures like United Europe or other similar groupings which may all find their place in the world organization we have set on foot. It rather helps to invest them with life and truth. There is a growing feeling that the English-speaking peoples might point a finger showing the way if things went right, and could of course defend themselves, so far as any of us have the power, if things went wrong. This book does not seek to rival the works of professional historians. It aims rather to present a personal view on the processes whereby English-speaking peoples throughout the world have achieved their distinctive position and character. I write about the things in our past that appear significant to me and I do so as one not without some experience of historical and violent events in our own time. I use the term “English-speaking peoples” because there is no other that applies both to the inhabitants of the British Isles and to those independent nations who derive their beginnings, their speech, and many of their institutions from England, and who now preserve, nourish, and develop them in their own ways.This first volume traces the history of the English-speaking peoples from the earliest times to the eve of the European discovery of the New World. It concludes upon the field of Bosworth, the last battle of the tumultuous English Middle Ages. The year is 1485, and a new dynasty has just mounted the English throne. Seven years later Columbus landed in the Americas, and from this date, 1492, a new era in the history of mankind takes its beginning.Our story centers in an island, not widely sundered from the continent, and so tilted that its mountains lie all to the west and north, while south and east is a gently undulating landscape of wooded valley, open downs, and slow rivers. It is very accessible to the invader, whether he comes in peace or war, as pirate or merchant, conqueror or missionary. Those who Dwelt there are not insensitive to any shift of power, any change of faith, or even fashion on the mainland, but they give to every practice, every doctrine that comes to it from abroad its own peculiar turn and imprint. A province of the Roman Empire, cut off and left to sink or swim in the great convulsion of the Dark Ages; reunited to Christendom, and almost torn away from it once more by the heathen Dane; victorious, united, but exhausted, yielding, almost without resistance, to the Norman Conqueror; submerged, it might seem, within the august framework of Catholic feudalism, was yet capable of reappearing with an individuality of its own.Neither its civilization nor speech is quite Latin nor quite Germanic it possesses a body of custom which, whatever its ultimate sources may be—folkright brought from beyond the seas by Danes, and by Saxons before them, maxims civil jurisprudence called from Roman cocks—is being welded into one Common Law. This is England in the thirteenth century, the century of Magna Carta, and of the first Parliament.As we gaze back into the mists of time we can very faintly discern the men of the Old Stone Age, and the New Stone Age; the builders of the great megalithic monuments; the newcomers from the Rhineland, with their beakers and tools of bronze. Standing on a grassy down where Dover now is, is pointing to the valley at his feet, one of them might have said to his grandson. “T he sea comes farther up that creek than it did when I was a boy.”And the grandson might have lived to watch a flood-tide, a roaring swirl of white water, sweeping the valley from end to end, carving its grassy sides into steep chalk edges, and linking the North Sea with the Channel. No wanderings, henceforth, of little clans, in search of game or food-yielding plants, from the plains of France or Belgium, to the wooded valleys and downs of Southern England; no small ventures in dugout canoes across narrow inlets at slack water. Those who now must come in ships, and bold and wary they must be to face and master the Channel Fogs and the Channel tides, and all that may lie beyond them.Suddenly the mist cleans. For a moment the Island stands in the full light of historic day. In itself the invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar was an episode that had no sequel; but it showed that the power of Rome and the civilization of the Mediterranean world were not necessarily bounded by the Atlantic coast. Caesar’s landing at Deal bridged the chasm which nature had cloven. For a century, while the Roman world was tearing itself to pieces in civil war, or slowly recovering under a new Imperial form, Britain remained uneasily poised between isolation and union with the continent, but absorbing, by way of trade and peaceful intercourse, something of the common culture of the West. In the end Rome gave the word and legions sailed. For nearly 400 years Britain became a Roman province. This considerable period was characterized for a great part of the time by that profound tranquility which leaves little for history to reveal. It stands forth sedate, luminous, and calm. And what remained? Noble roads, sometimes overgrown with woodland; the stupendous work of the Roman Wall, breached and crumbling; fortresses, market towns, country houses, whose very ruins the next comers contemplated with awe. But of Roman speech, Roman low, Roman institutions, hardly a vestige. Yet we should be mistaken if we therefore supposed that the Roman occupation could be dismissed as an incident without consequence. It had given time for the Christian faith to plant itself. Far in the West, though severed from the world by the broad flood of barbarism, there remained,sorely beset, but defended by its mountains, a tiny Christian realm. British Christianity converted Ireland. From Ireland the faith recrossed the seas to Scotland. Thus the newcomers were enveloped in the old civilization: while at Rome men remembered that Britain had been Christian once, and might be Christian again.This island world was not wholly cut off from the mainland. The south-east at all events kept up a certain intercourse with its Frankish cousins across the straits, and hence came the Roman missionaries. They brought with them a new set of beliefs, which, with some brief, if obstinate, resistance here and there, were accepted with surprising readiness. They brought a new political order, a Church which was to have its own rulers, its own officers, its own assemblies, and make its own laws, all of which had somehow or other to be filled into the ancient customs of the English people. They planted the seed of a great problem, the problem of Church and State, which will grow until a thousand years later it almost rives the foundations of both asunder. But all this lies in the future. What mattered at the moment was that with her conversion England became once more part of the Western World. Very soon English Missionaries would be at work on the Continent; English pilgrims would be making their way across the Alps to see the wonders of Rome, among them English princes who, their work in this world being done, desired that their bones should rest near the tomb of the Apostles.Nor was this all, because the English people now have an institution which overrode all local distinctions of speech, or custom, or even sovereignty. Whatever dynastic quarrels might go on between the kingdoms, the Church was one and Indivisible. Its rites are everywhere the same, its ministers are sacred. The kingdom of Kent may lose its ancient primacy, Northumbria make way for Mercia, but Canlerbury and York remain. The contrast is startling between the secular annals of these generations, with their meagre and tedious records of forays and slaughter, and the brilliant achievements of the English Church. The greatest scholar in Christendom was a Northumbrian monk. The most popular stylist was a West Saxon abbol. The apostle of Germany was Boniface from Devon. The revival of learning in the Empire of Charlemagne was directed by Alcuin of York.But this youthful, flourishing, immature civilization lacked any solid military defence. The North was stirring again: from Denmark up the Baltic, up the Norwegian fiords, the pirate galleys were once more pushing forth in search of plunder, and of new homes for a crowded people. An island without a fleet, without a sovereign to command its scattered strength, rich in gold pieces, in cunning metal-work, and rare embroideries, stored in defenceless churches and monasteries, was a prize which the heathen men might think reserved for them whenever they chose to lay hands on it. Those broad, slow rivers of the English plaininvited their galleys into the very heart of the country, and once on land how were rustics hurriedly summoned from the plough to resist the swift and disciplined march of armed hands, mounted or on foot? When the storm broke the North, the Midlands, the East, went down under its fury. If Wessex had succumbed all would have been lost. Gradually however it became manifest that the invaders had come not only to ravage but to settle.At last the hurricane abated and men could take count of their losses. A broad strip of land along the middle of the eastern coast and stretching inland as far as Derby was in Danish hands; seafarers turned farmers were still holding together as an army. But London, already one of the great ports of Northern Europe, had been saved, and all the South, and here was the seat and strength of the royal house. The tie with the mainland had not been severed. Year by year, sometimes by treaty, sometimes by hard fighting, king Alfred’s dynasty laboured to establish its ascendancy and reunite the land; so successfully that the temporary substitution of a Danish for an English king made little mark on history. He too was a Christian; he too made the pilgrimage to Rome. After this brief interlude the old line returned to the throne, and might have remained there from one generation to another. Yet in three short winter months, between October and Christians day in 1066, the astounding event had happened. The ruler of one French province—and that not the largest or mostpowerful—had crossed the Channel and made himself King of England.The structure into which the Norman enters with the strong hand was a kingdom, acknowledged by all who spoke the King’s English, and claiming some vague sovereignty over the Welsh and the Scots as well. It was governed, we may say, by the king in Council consisted of his wise men, laymen and cleries; in other words, bishops and abbots, great landowners, officers of the Household. In all this it departed in no way from the common pattern of all kingdoms which had been built out of fragments of the Roman Empire. It had also been slowing, since the last of the strong kings died, a dangerous tendency to split up into provinces, or earldoms, at the expense of the Crown and the unity of the nation; a tendency only, because the notion still persisted that the kingdom was one and indivisible, and that the King’s Peace was over all men alike. Within this peace man was bound to man by a most intricate network of rights and duties, which might vary almost indefinitely from shire to shire, and even from village to village. But on the whole the English doctrine was that a free man might choose his lord, following him in war, working for him in peace, and in return he lord must protect him against encroaching neighbours ad back him in the courts of law. What is more, the man might go from one lord to another, and hold his land from his new lord. And these lords, taken together, were the ruling class. The greatest of them, aswe have seen, sat in the King’s Council. The lesser of them are the local magnates, who took the lead in shire or hundred, and when the free men met in the shire or hundred court to decide the rights and wrongs of a matter it was their voice which carried weight. We cannot yet speak of nobility and gentry, because the Saxons distinguished sharply between nobles and peasants and there was no room for any middle rank. But there were the makings of a gentry, to be realized hereafter.Such was the state of England when the new Norman order was imposed on it. The Conqueror succeeded to all the rights of the old kings, but his Council now is mainly French born, and French speaking. The tendency to provincialisation is arrested; the King’s Peace is everywhere. But the shifting pattern of relationships is drastically simplified to suit the more advanced, or more logical, Norman doctrine, that the tie of man to lord is not only moral and legal, but material, so that the status of every man can be fixed by the land he owns, and the services he does for it, if he is a tenant, or can demand, if he is a lord. In Norman days far more definitely than in Saxon the governing class is a landowning class.In spite of its violent reannexation to the continent, and its merger in the common feudalism of the West, England remained a positive individuality, expressed in institutions gradually shaped in the 5 or 6 hundred years that had passed since its severance, and predestined to a most remarkable development. The old English nobility of office made way for theNorman nobility of faith and landed wealth. The lesser folk throve in a peaceful but busy obscurity, in which English and Norman soon blended, and from them will issue in due course the Grand Jurors, the Justices of the Peace, the knights of the shire; ultimately overshadowing, in power if not in dignity, the nobility, and even the crown itself. These days are far off. In the meantime we may picture the Government of England in the reign of HenryⅡ, let us say, somehow thus. A strong monarchy, reaching by means of its judges and sheriffs into every corner of the land; a powerful church that has come to a settlement with the Crown, in which the rights of both sides are acknowledged; a rich an self-willed nobility, which the Crown is bound by custom to consult in all matters of State; a longer body of gentry by whom the local administration is carried on; and the king’s household, his personal staff, of men experienced in the law and in finance. To these we must add the boroughs, which are growing in wealth and consequence now that the peace is well kept, the roads and seaways sate, and trade is flourishing.Stand at this point, and peering forward into the future, we see how much depends on the personality of the sovereign. In the period after the Conquest we have had 3 powerful rulers: in William a ruthless and determined soldier-prince who stamped the Norman pattern on the land: in his son Henry 1 a far-sighted, patient and administrator: in Henry’s grandson, the second Henry, a great statesman who had seen that nationalunity and the power of the Crown hung together, and that both could only be served by offering, for a price, even justice to all men, and enforcing it by the royal authority. Certain strains are developing in that compact fabric of Plantagenet England. The Crown is pressing rather hard on the nobility; the king’s Household is beginning to oust the ancient counselors of the kingdom. We need a strong king who will maintain the law, but a just king who will maintain it for the good of all, and nor only for his private emolument or aggrandizement. With King, Jogh we enter on a century of political experiment.Everyone who has heard from childhood of Magna Carta, who has read with what interest and reverence one copy of it was lately received in New York, and takes it up for the first time, will be strangely disappointed, and may find himself agreeing with the historian who proposed to translate its title not as the Great Charter of Liberties, but the Long List of Privilege—privileges of the nobility at the expense of the State. The reason is that our notion of law is wholly different from that of our ancestors. We think of it as something constantly changing to meet new circumstances; we reproach a Government if it is slow to pass new legislation. In the Middle Ages circumstances changed very gradually; the pattern of society was settled by custom or Divine decree, and men thought of the law rather a fixed standard by which rights and duties could in case of wrongdoing or dispute be enforced or detemined.The Great Charter therefore is not in our sense of the word a legislative or constitutional instrument. It is an agreed statement of what the law is, as between the kings and his barons; and many of the provisions which seem to us to be trilling and technical indicate that points at which the king had encroached on their ancient rights. Perhaps, in their turn, the victorious barons encroached unduly on the rights of the Crown. No one at the time regarded the Charter a final settlement of all outstanding issues, and its importance lay not in details but in the broad affirmation of the principle that there is a law to which the Crown itself is subject. The King should not be below man, but below God and the law. This at least is clear. He has his sphere of action, within which he is free from human control. If he steps outside he must be brought back. And he will step outside it if, ignoring the ancient Council of the kingdom, and refusing to take the advice of his wise men, he tries to govern through his Household, his favorites, or his clerks.In other words, personal government, with all its latent possibilities of oppression and caprice, is not to be endured. But it is not easy to prevent. The king is strong, far stronger than any great lord, and stronger than most combinations of great lords. If the Crown is to be kept within its due limits some broader basis of resistance must be found than the ancient privileges of the nobility. About this time, in the middle of the thirteenth century, we begin to have a new word, parliament. It bears a very vaguemeaning, and some of those who first used it would have been startled if they could have foreseen what it could some day come to signify. But gradually the idea spreads that if it is not enough for the king to “talk things over” with his own Council; so, on the other hand, it is not enough for the barons to insist solely on their right to be considered the Council of the kingdom. Though they often claim to speak for the community of the realm, in fact they only represent themselves, and the king, after all represents the whole people. Then why not call in the lesser gentry and the burgesses? They are always used in local matters. Why not use them in national concerns? Bring them to Westminster, two gentlemen from every shire, two tradesmen from every borough. What exactly they are to do when they got there no one quite know. Perhaps to listen while their betters speak; to let them know what the grievances of the country are; to talk things over with one another behind the scenes; to learn what the king’s intentions are in Scotland and France, and to pay the more cheerfully for knowing. It is a very delicate plant, this Parliament. There is nothing inevitable about its growth, and it might have been dropped as an experiment not worth going on with. But it took root. In 2 or 3 generations a prudent statesman would no more think of governing England without a Parliament than without a king. What its actual powers are it could be very hard to say. broadly, its consent is necessary to give legal sanction to any substantial act of authority; an important change ofancient custom can only be effected by Act of Parliament; a new tax can only be levied with the approval of the Commons. What more it can do the unfolding of time will show. But its authority is stabilized by a series of accidents. Edward Ⅲneeded money for this French wars. Henry Ⅳneeded support for his seizure of the crown. And in the Wars of the Roses both the contending parties wanted some sort of public sanction for their actions, which only Parliament could provide.Thus when in the fifteen century the baronial structure perished in faction and civil war there remained not only the Crown in Parliament, now clearly shaped into its two divisions, the Lords sitting in their own right, and the Commoners as representatives of the shires and boroughs. So are nothing has changed. But the destruction of old nobility in battle or on the morrow of battle was to tip the balance of the 2 Houses, and the Commons, knights and burgesses, stood for those elements in society which suffered most from anarchy and profited most by strong government. There was a natural alliance between the Crown and the Commons. The Commons had little objection to the Crown extending its prerogative at the expense of the nobility, planting Councils of the North and Councils of Wales, or in the Star Chamber exercising a remedial jurisdiction by which the small man could be defended against the great. On the other hand, the Crown was willing enough to leave localadministration to the Justices of the Peace, whose interest it was to be loyal, to put down study beggars, and to grow quietly and peacefully rich. As late as 1937 the Coronation service proclaimed the ideal of Tudor government in praying that the sovereign may be blessed with “a loyal nobility, a dutiful gentry, and an honest, peaceable, and obedient commonalty.”Some day perhaps that commonalty might ask whether they had no more to do with Government than to obey it.Thus by the end of the fifteenth century the main characteristics and institutions of the race had taken shape. The rough German dialects of the Anglo-Saxon invaders had been modified before the Norman Conquest by the passage of time and the influence of Church Latin. V ocabularies had been extended by many words of British and Danish root. This broadening and smoothing process was greatly hastened by the introduction into the islands of Norman French, and the assimilation of the 2 languages went an apace. Writing survive from the early thirteenth century which the ordinary man today would recognize as a form of English, even if he could not wholly understand them. By the end of the fourteenth century, the century of Geoffrey Chaucer, it is thought that even the great magnates had ceased to use French as their principal language and commonly spoke English. Language moreover was not the only institution which had achieved a distinctively English character.Unlike the remainder of Western Europe, which still retains the imprint and tradition of Roman law and the Roman style of government, the English-speaking peoples had at the close of the period covered by this volume achieved a body of legal and what might almost be called democratic principles which survived the upheavals and onslaughts of the French and Spanish Empires. Parliament, trial by jury, local government run by local citizens, and even the beginnings of a free Press, may be discerned, at any rate in primitive form, by the time Christopher Columbus set sail for the American continent.Every nation or group of nations has its own tale to tell. Knowledge of the trials and struggles is necessary to all who would comprehend the problems, perils, challenges and opportunities which confront us today. It is not intended to stir a new spirit of mastery, or create a mood in the study of history which would favour national ambition at the expense of world peace. It may be indeed that an inner selective power may lead to the continuous broadening of our thought. It is the hope that contemplation of the trials and tribulations of our forefathers may not only fortify the English speaking peoples of today, but also play some small part in uniting the whole world, that I present this account.W.S.CCharwellKentJanuary 15,1956。
Preface
缺点
力学试验技术
1）单点、单向测量，不能进行全域性测量 单点、单向测量， 2）得到的是平均应变 3〕在温度变化大、强磁场下，必须采取一定措施， 在温度变化大、强磁场下，必须采取一定措施， 保证精度
2、光测弹性法 、
力学试验技术
1816 Bruce发现置于偏振光场内的玻璃板在受力 Bruce发现置于偏振光场内的玻璃板在受力 后出现彩色条纹，且随载荷变化而变化。 后出现彩色条纹，且随载荷变化而变化。 1841 Newman和1853年Maxwell建立应力～光学 Newman和1853年Maxwell建立应力 建立应力～ 定律（主折射率与主应力成线性关系） 定律（主折射率与主应力成线性关系） 1906 用赛路铬作模型材料（酚醛树脂、环氧树脂） 用赛路铬作模型材料（酚醛树脂、环氧树脂） 1931 出版“光测弹性力学”一书 出版“光测弹性力学” 目前 使用酚醛树脂、环氧树脂作模型已是一种有效、 使用酚醛树脂、环氧树脂作模型已是一种有效、 成熟的试验方法
2
My σT = IZ
有限元计算
1.30
4
力学试验技术
1.25
ILS-Stress concentrator f
3
1.20 1.15 1.10 1.0mm)
2
Classical beam theory Outside at X=7mm Inside at X=7mm
应力、应变测量（接触、非接触测量）、三闭环 应力、应变测量（接触、非接触测量）、三闭环 ）、 控制系统、 控制系统、高低温测量
基本力学实验装置
冲击加载系统
力学试验技术
冲击装置、 （冲击摆、SHPB冲击装置、落锤） 冲击摆、SHPB冲击装置 落锤）
力学试验技术
什么叫结构功能主义
Preface：【1、哥伦比亚学派是结构功能主义范式】【2、范式：学科内科学家所普遍遵守的共同信念和基本准则。
对于解决各种具体问题起到定向作用。
当范式发生改变时，科学家借以观察世界的整个概念结构都将发生变化。
】【3、本文主体部分来自北大猫哥，学长也不是很懂，大家了解一下就好。
】结构功能主义学派的主要观点传播的过程观和传播模式的建立是在20世纪结构功能主义影响下出现的。
1、结构功能主义是西方社会学的一个理论流派，崛起于二战后的美国。
早期开拓者孔德、斯宾塞、涂尔干以及人类学家拉德克利夫-布朗、马林诺夫斯基等，20世纪40年代美国社会学家帕森斯提出结构功能主义这一名称，默顿进行了完善。
（集大成者是帕森斯和默顿。
）20世纪60年代该流派衰落，代之以“社会冲突理论”。
他们把社会看作类似于生物体的结构体系，强调对社会结构的功能分析，尤其重视对“社会团结”（涂尔干术语）机制的研究。
认为社会是具有一定结构的系统，社会的各组成部分以有序的方式相互关联，并对整体发挥必要的功能。
重点研究社会的结构及其各组成部分之间在功能上的差异和相互关系。
2、拉德克利夫-布朗认为，社会存在和发展的必要条件之一是其组成部分最低限度的整合；功能就意味着这一最低限度整合的过程。
功能分析的首要任务是分析部分对系统的维持作用。
每个社会都是具有自我调节机制的相对稳定的结构，可以自发的调节被内部和外部力量破坏干扰的系统平衡。
但这是一种渐进的动态平衡，因此并不意味着社会系统一成不变，但也不意味着革命性的突变。
3、帕森斯的结构功能主义：帕森斯认为，社会系统中行动者之间的关系结构形成了社会系统的基本结构。
社会角色，作为角色系统的集体，以及由价值观和规范构成的社会制度，是社会的结构单位。
社会系统为了保证自身的维持和存在，必须满足4种功能条件：适应，目标达成，整合，潜在模式维系。
帕森斯认为，社会系统是趋于均衡的，四种必要功能条件的满足可以使系统保持稳定性。
preface
d)百分率的表示（percentage)
百分率可以用单词percent或per cent表示，也可用%表示。 单一的百分率表示： 2%，2p.c.,2 per cent ,2 percent, two percent; 连个数值之间的百分率表示 10%-20%，10-20 percent，from 10% to 20%,from 10 to 20 percent.
2、本门课程的授课特点
① 双语教学使用母语的同时，可以使用外语，在我国以英语 为主。包括：英语教材、英语命题、英语板书等 (the use of a second of language for teaching ) 为什么开设双语教学？ 国家教育部有规定：高校必须开出双语课程 a.
b.
在我国，以汉语为主，英语为次，英语在我国还不能普 遍的应用，所以只能算foreign language，而不是second language.
2、语态 语态表示句中主语和谓语的关系，主语是施动者则 是主动语态，主语是动作的承受者则是被动语态。 科技英语中被动语态应用较多。原因有以下两个方 面： 避免使用I，YOU，WE，之类的第一、第二人称代 词，常用来描述事实、现象或过程等，突出动作的 对象。 便于扩展句子，而不至于把句子弄得头轻脚重。 In the digital computer the numbers to be manipulated are represented by sequences of digits.
科技英语的语法
1、时态（英语动词有16种时态） 科技英语中常有的有：一般现在时、一般将来时、现在完成时， 其用法单一。 1）一般现在时在科技文章中最常见，主要有三种用法。
一般叙述过程，叙述客观事实或科学定理，通常或习惯发生的行为。
消化系统总论
X线特点(X-ray characteristic)： 线特点( ) 软组织：缺乏自然对比( 1 软组织：缺乏自然对比(natural contrast)； ) 两端开口，能运动：可引入造影剂 造影剂； 2 两端开口，能运动：可引入造影剂； 粘膜面：双对比( 发现早期 早期病变 3 粘膜面：双对比(double contrast)发现早期病变 消化腺：实质脏器，适于CT MRI、超声、 CT、 4 消化腺：实质脏器，适于CT、MRI、超声、血 管造影等项检查。 管造影等项检查。
b、全消（中上消化道）：食管 、全消（中上消化道）：食管 ）： 回盲部
小肠系钡剂造影： 小肠系钡剂造影：
a:钡餐后； a:钡餐后； 钡餐后 b:小肠钡灌 小肠钡灌（ b:小肠钡灌（Small intestine barium enema,SBE）
结肠造影：钡剂灌肠： 结肠造影：钡剂灌肠：Barium enema
1 粘膜破坏：粘膜皱襞消失 、中断，见于恶性肿 粘膜破坏： 中断， 瘤 2 粘膜平坦：粘膜及粘膜下水肿：逐渐移行与正 粘膜平坦：粘膜及粘膜下水肿： 常无明显分界 肿瘤浸润：固定，分界截然。 肿瘤浸润：固定，分界截然。 3 粘膜纠集：放射状向病灶集中，见于慢性溃疡 粘膜纠集：放射状向病灶集中，
31
4 增宽和迂曲（肥厚）：炎症、肿胀、结缔组 增宽和迂曲（肥厚）：炎症、肿胀、 ）：炎症 织增生所致。 织增生所致。见于慢性胃炎和静脉曲张 5 微皱襞改变： 微皱襞改变： 炎症时：小区增大， 炎症时：小区增大，小沟增宽 伴糜烂时：小区小沟破坏、消失，呈散在点 伴糜烂时：小区小沟破坏、消失， 状钡影 癌瘤时：局部小区、小沟完全破坏、消失 癌瘤时：局部小区、小沟完全破坏、
Preface
PrefaceLuciano FloridiThe information revolution has changed the world profoundly, irreversibly and problematically, at a pace and with a scope never seen before. It has provided a wealth of extremely powerful tools and methodologies, created entirely new realities and made possible unprecedented phenomena and experiences. It has caused a wide range of unique problems and conceptual issues, and opened up endless possibilities hitherto unimaginable. It has also deeply affected what philosophers do, how they think about their problems, what problems they consider worth their attention, how they conceptualise their views, and even the vocabulary they use (see Bynum and Moor 1998 and 2002, Colburn 2000, Floridi 1999, and Mitcham and Huning 1986 for references). The information revolution has made possible fresh approaches and original investigations. It has posed or helped to identify new crucial questions and given new meaning to classic problems and traditional topics. In short, information-theoretic and computational research in philosophy has become increasingly innovative, fertile, and pervasive. It has already produced a wealth of interesting and important results. This Guide is the first attempt to map systematically this new and vitally important area of research. Owing to the novelty of the field, it is an exploration as much as an introduction.As an introduction, the twenty-six chapters in this volume seek to provide a critical survey of the fundamental themes, problems, arguments, theories and methodologies constituting the new field of philosophy of computing and information (PCI). The chapters are organised into eight sections. The introductory chapter offers an interpretation of the new informational paradigm in philosophy and prepares the ground for the following chapters. The project for the Guide was based on the hermeneutical frame outlined in that chapter, but the reader may wish to keep in mind that I am the only person responsible for the views expressed there. Other contributors in this Guide may not share the same perspective. In t h e second section, four of the most crucial concepts in PCI, namely computation, complexity, system, and information are analysed. They are the four columns on which the other chapters are built, as it were. The following six sections are dedicated to specific areas: the information society (computer ethics; communication and interaction; cyberphilosophy and internet culture; and digital art); mind and intelligence(philosophy of AI and its critique; and computationalism, connectionism and the philosophy of mind); natural and artificial realities (formal ontology; virtual reality; the physics of information; cybernetics; and artificial life); language and knowledge (meaning and information; knowledge and information; formal languages; and hypertext theory); logic and probability (non-monotonic logic; probabilistic reasoning; and game theory); and, finally, science, technology and methodology (computing in the philosophy of science; methodology of computer science; philosophy of IT; and computational modelling as a philosophical methodology). Each chapter has been planned as a self-standing introduction to its subject. For this purpose, the volume includes an exhaustive glossary of technical terms.As an exploration, t h e Guide attempts to bring into a reasonable relation the many computational and informational issues with which philosophers have been engaged at least since the fifties. The aim has been to identify a broad but clearly definable and well delimited field where before there were many special problems and ideas whose interrelations were not always explicit or well understood. Each chapter is meant to provide not only a precise, clear and accessible introduction but also a substantial and constructive contribution to the current debate.Precisely because the Guide is also an exploration, the name given to the new field is somewhat tentative. Various labels have recently been suggested. Some follow fashionable terminology (e.g. “cyberphilosophy”, “digital philosophy”, “computational philosophy”), the majority expresses specific theoretical orientations (e.g. “philosophy of computer science”, “philosophy of computing/computation”, “philosophy of AI”, “philosophy and computers”, “computing and philosophy”, “philosophy of the artificial”, “artificial epistemology”, “android epistemology”). For this Guide, the philosophy editors at Blackwell and I agreed to use “philosophy of computing and information”. PCI is a new but still very recognisable label, which we hope will serve both scholarly and marketing ends equally well. In chapter one, I argue that philosophy of information (PI) is philosophically much more satisfactory, for it identifies far more clearly what really lies at the heart of the new paradigm. But much as I hope that PI will become a useful label, I suspect that it would have been premature and somewhat obscure as the title for this volume.Because of the innovative nature of the research area, working on this Guide has been very challenging. I relied on the patience and expertise of so many colleagues, friendsand family members that I wish to apologise in advance if I have forgotten to mention anyone below. Jim Moor was one of the first people with whom I discussed the project and I wish to thank him for his time, suggestions and support. Jeff Dean, philosophy editor at Blackwell, has come close to instantiating the Platonic idea of editor, with many comments, ideas, suggestions and the right kind of support. This Guide has been made possible also by his farsighted faith in the project. Nick Bellorini, also editor at Blackwell, has been equally important in the last stage of the editorial project. I am also grateful to the two anonymous referees who provided constructive feedback. Many other colleagues, most of whom I have not met in real life, generously contributed to the shaping of the project by commenting on earlier drafts through several mailing lists, especially hopos-l@, philinfo@, philos-l@, philosop@, and silfs-l@list.cineca.it. I am grateful to the list moderators and to Bryan Alexander, Colin Allen, Leslie Burkholder, Rafael Capurro, Tony Chemero, Ron Chrisley, Stephen Clark, Anthony Dardis, M. G. Dastagir, Bob Di Falco, Soraj Hongladarom, Ronald Jump, Lou Marinoff, Ioan-Lucian Muntean, Eric Palmer, Mario Piazza, John Preston, Geoffrey Rockwell, Gino Roncaglia, Jeff Sanders and Nelson Thompson. Unfortunately, for reason of space, not all their suggestions could be followed in this context. Here are some of the topics left out or only marginally touched upon: information science as applied philosophy of information, social epistemology and the philosophy of information; visual thinking; pedagogical issues in PCI; the philosophy of information design and modelling; the philosophy of information economy; lambda calculus; linear logic; fuzzy logic; situation logic; dynamic logic; common-sense reasoning and AI; the hermeneutical interpretation of AI. J. C. Beall, Jonathan Cohen, Gualtiero Piccinini, Luigi Dappiano and Saul Fisher sent me useful feedback on an earlier draft of the Glossary.Members of four research groups have played an influential role in the development of the project. I cannot thank all of them but I wish to acknowledge the help I have received from IACAP, the International Association for Computing and Philosophy, directed by Robert Cavalier (/caae/CAP/), with its meetings at Carnegie Mellon (CAP@CMU); INSEIT, the International Society for Ethics and Information Technology; the American Philosophical Association Committee on Philosophy and Computers (/apa/governance/committees/computers/); and theEpistemology and Computing Lab, directed by Mauro Di Giandomenico at the Philosophy Department, University of Bari (www.uniba.it). I am also grateful to Wolfson College (Oxford University) for the IT facilities that have made possible the organization of a web site to support the editorial work (/~floridi/blackwell/index.htm). During the editorial process, files were made available to all contributors through this web site and I hope it will be possible to transform it into a permanent resource for the use of the Guide. The Programme in Comparative Media Law and Policy at Oxford University and its founding director Monroe Price greatly facilitated my work. Research for this project has been partly supported by a grant from the Coimbra Group, Pavia University. Finally, I wish to thank all the contributors for bearing with me as chapters went through so many versions; my father, for making me realize the obvious, namely the exploratory nature of this project; and my wife Kia, who not only implemented a wonderful life for our family, but also listened to me patiently when things were not working, provided many good solutions to problems in which I had entangled myself, and went as far as to read my contributions and comment carefully on their contents. The only thing she could not do was to take responsibility for any mistake still remaining.Luciano FloridiChicago, 3 April, 2002ReferencesBynum, T. W. and Moor, J. H. (eds.) 1998, The Digital Phoenix: How Computers are Changing Philosophy (New York - Oxford: Blackwell).Bynum, T. W. and Moor, J. H. (eds.) 2002, CyberPhilosophy: The Intersection of Philosophy and Computing (New York - Oxford: Blackwell).Colburn, T. R. 2000, Philosophy and Computer Science (Armonk, N.Y.- London: M.E. Sharpe).Floridi, L. 1999, Philosophy and Computing – An Introduction (London – New York: Routledge).Mitcham, C. and Huning, A. (eds.) 1986, Philosophy and Technology II - Information Technology and Computers in Theory and Practice (Dordrecht/Boston: Reidel).。
常见词根词缀整理
一.常见的前缀1.表示否定意义的前缀1)完全否定前缀un-：unable, unemployment, unacceptable, unaccountable无法理解的，难以解释的, unaccustomed, unadjusted, unashamed, unavoidable, uncertain, uncomfortable, uncommon, unconventional新奇的, uncover, unfair, unfamiliardis-：dishonest, dislike, disappear, disagree, dislike, discontinue, disconnect, distract，disadvantage, discontent, discourage, disorder, disobey, dissatisfiedin-：incapable, inability, inaccurate, inactive, inadequate, inadvertent, inadvisable, inappropriate, inaudible, incomprehensible, inconvenient, incorrect, incurable, independent, indirect, indifferent, indistinct不清晰的inexhaustible, inexpensive, inexperience, innumerable, insignificant, intolerant, invalid无效的；病弱的, invaluable, invariable;i g-,ignoble卑劣的, ignominy, ignominious, ignominiously,im-, impossible, immoral, immortal, immature, immobile, immoderate, impatient, imperfect, impersonal, import, impractical, improbable, impolite, improper,il-, illusive, illiberal狭隘的, illegible无法辨认的,illegal, illiterate, illogical,ir-, irregular，irresponsible, irrational, irrelevant, irreligious, irresistible, irreverent, irrecoverablene-, n-：none, neither, never, nevertheless,non-：nonsense, non-existence, non-profit, non-professional, non-academic, non-commercial, non-smokerneg-：neglect, negligent疏忽的，造成过失的, negligible微不足道的2)表示错误的意义male-, mal-：malfunction发生故障, maladjustment(失调), malnutrition营养不良, maltreat 虐待, maladministration, malformation畸形, malware恶意软件mis-：mistake, mislead, misunderstand, misfortune, misuse, mistrust, mistranslate, mismatch不匹配,pseudo-：pseudonym(假名), pseudoscience3)表示反动作的意思de-：defend, demodulation(解调), decode, decompress, decontaminate消毒，消除…的污染, degrade, degenerate恶化，衰退dis-：disarm, disconnect （见第一条）un-：unload, uncover （见第一条）4)表示相反，相互对立意思anti-, ant-：antiknock( 防震), anti-foreign,(排外的), anti-racism, antiracist, antireligious, anti-terrorist, anti-warcounter-：counteract抵抗, counterreaction, counterbalance抵消,counterculture, counter-revolutionwith-, withdraw, withstand承受住, withhold拒付，不予,2. 表示空间位置、方向关系/时间、序列/对比、差别的前缀1) 表示“在...之上，在上面，转上”a- 表示“在……之上”，“向……” aboard, aside,over-,①表示“在上面，在外部，向上”overlook, overhead在空中, overboard向船外, overflow, overseas, overwrite写在…上面,②表示“超过，过度，太”overeat, overdress, ove rsleep, overcharge对…要价过高, overpopulated, overload使…超载, overpraise, overproduction, overspend超支, overtime③表示“完全，全”overall, overview概述super-, sur-,①表示“在…..之上”superficial, surface, supervision;②表示“超过, 超级的”supernature, superpower, superman, superstar, supersensitive, supermarket, surplus剩余, surpass胜过up-, 表示“向上，向上面，在上”upward, uphold维持, uphill(上坡), upload, upland高原, uplift 振奋，上升, upright垂直的, upside积极方面, upstairstrans-, 表示“移上，转上，在那一边”translate, transform, transoceanic, transaction, transplant, transport,2) 表示“在...下面，在下部”sub-(sup-),①表示“在下面，下” subway, submarine, subconscious, suppress,②表示“低，次，副，亚” subeditor, subordinate, subtropical(亚热带) subtitle, subculture, subdivide, under-,①表示“在…..下面，下的”underline, underground, underwater, underwear, underfoot, undersea,②表示“低劣，低下”undersize矮小的, undergrown, underproduction(生产不足), underestimate, underdeveloped, underachieve未发挥水平的, down-, 表示”向下，在下面” downfall, downhill, download, downpour倾盆大雨, downriver, downside, downstairs, downward, downtown3）表示“在前面，先前”pre-, 表示"在前, 在前面,事先”prefix, preface , prearrange, precondition先决条件, prepaid, preschool, pre-war, prewash, prehistory, pre-readingfore-表示“在前面，先前”forehead, forearm, foreground, forefinger, forefoot, forefront最前列, foreleg, foremost, forepaw, forerunner先驱，先导, foresee预见, foresight先见之明, foretaste预先体验, forewarn预先警告, foreword 前言, forecast, foretell(预言)4) 表示“向后，在后边”post-, 表示"向后，在后边，次”postscript附言, postdoctoral, post-earthquake, postgraduate, post-tax, post-war.5)表示“向内，在内部”in-, im-,表示“向内，在内，”inland, invade, inside, , income, import6)表示“在外部，向外，额外”ex-,表示“外部，外” exit, expand, export, external, expose, express,out-,①表示“在外部，在外”outline, outside, outward, outdoor. ②表示“超过，过分”outdo(超过), outbid(出价过高的人), outweigh, outnumber在数量上超过,extra-, 表示“额外”extraction （提取）, extraordinary, extra-curricular课外的7)表示“在……之间，相互”inter-,intel-, international, interaction, internet, intercommunication, intercity, intercontinental, intercultural, interdependent, interpersonal, interview,8) 表示“中，中间”medi-, med-, mid-：Mediterranean, mid-position, midday, midfield, midway 中途的, midnight, midsummer.9) 表示“在...旁边，附近；副的，次的”by-①表示“附近，邻近，边侧” bypath, bypass(弯路), byroad小路, bystander旁观者, byway 偏僻小路;②表示“副，次要的”byproduct, bywork(副业),10)表示“再一次，重新”re-, retell, rewrite, readjust, reapply, rebuild, recycle, reform, refresh, replace, reset, resettle, restart, restate,11) 表示“副，次”vice-：vice-president, vice-chairman3. 表示共同，相等/分离，离开意思的前缀1)表示共同，相等意思的前缀com-, con-, cor-, co- 表示“共同，一起” connect, combine,combat, collect, coexist, cooperate, correlationsyn-, syl-,sym-,表示“同，共，和，类” symmetry, sympathy, synthesis(合成), synonym, 2). 表示分离，离开意思的前缀a- ab-, abs-,表示“分离，离开” away, apart, abstract, abstainde-表示“离去，处去”depart, decolo ur, debar把…排除在外, decontrol, deformdis-, di-, dif-,表示“分离，离开” divorce, disarm(缴械)ex-, e-, 表示“离开，分离”expel, exclude, expatriate(驱出国外)for- 表示“离开，脱离”forget, forgivere-表示“离开”release, resolvese-表示“分离，隔离”separate, seduce, select4. 表示变换词类作用的前缀1) be-：befriend,2) en-：enslave, enable, enrich3) a-：adapt, accord, affix, aggression, arrive, assist, attend, attract, arrange, assign(委派)5. 表示数量关系的前缀1)表示“单一”，“一”uni-：uniform, unicellular(单细胞), unique, unilingual, unilateral, unicycle2)表示“二，两，双”ambi-：ambiguous, amphibian(两栖类), ambivalent矛盾的bi-：bin-：bicycle, bilateral, bilingual, binoculars,twi-：twice, twin, twinset两件套, twilight3)表示“三”tri：triangle，tricolor三色旗, tricycle, trilateral, trilingual, trilogy三部曲, trinity三件套, triple 三倍的4)表示"百，百分之一"centi-：centimeter，centigram5)表示"千” kilo-：kilometer, kilogram, kilobyte, kilowatt千瓦6)表示"微，微小的”micro-：microvolt (微伏特)，microsoft，microbiology, microblog, microcomputer, microscope, microwave,7) 表示“大，宏大”macro-macroscopic(宏观)8)表示"许多，复，多数”multi-：multilingual, multicellular, multicultural, multifunction, multilateral, multilevel, multimedia, multiple,poly-：polysyllable,9)表示“半，一半”hemi-：hemisphere半球,semi-：semiconductor, semitransparent，semicircle, semicolon, semi-final半决赛,6. 表示术语的前缀1)eco,表示“生态的”ecology, ecologist, ecosystem, ecosphere, ecotype2)bio-, 表示“生命，生物”biography(传记) , biology, biologist, biosphere3)geo-, 表示“地球，大地”geography, geographer, geographic, geological地质的, geology4)tele-, 表示“电,电的”television, telephone, teleconference, telegram, telegraph, telecast电视节目二. 常见的后缀1. 名词后缀(1) 具有某种职业或动作的人1)-an, -ian,表示"……地方的人，精通……的人, 从事…职业的人”American, historian, musician, librarian, magician, physician, civilian, pedestrian, Canadian, guardian, technician, logician, electrician2)-arian,表示"……派别的人，……主义的人”humanitarian, vegetarian, utilitarian,3)-ant,-ent,表示"……者” merchant, servant, accountant, assistant, applicant,immigrant, attendant, consultant, inhabitant, participant, pollutant, descendant, agent, student, president, parent, adolescent, opponent, nutrient, recipient4)-ar, 表示"……的人” scholar, liar, beggar, registrar5)-ary,表示"从事……的人" secretary, missionary, adversary, luminary杰出人物6)-ate,表示"具有……职责的人" candidate, graduate, private二等兵，delegate, advocate, doctorate, electorate7)-or,表示"……者, 做……的人" educator, speculator(投机者), operator, actor, conductor, professor, visitor, inventor, sailor, conqueror, director, administrator, editor, inspector, instructor, governor, contributor, competitor, collector8)-ee,表示"动作承受者, 被…的人" employee, examinee, interviewee, trainee, addressee, rejectee, appointee, trustee受托人9)-er,表示"从事某种职业的人, 某地区，地方的人" banker, observer, Londoner, villager, teacher, worker, commander, composer, dreamer, explorer, carpenter, driver, boxer, player, swimmer, organizer10)-ese,表示" ……国人，…..地方的人”Japanese, Chinese, Sudanese, Portugese, Vietnamese11)-ess, 表示"阴性人称名词，actress, hostess, waitress, manageress, hostess, Duchess, empress, princess, authoress, conductress12)- ist,表示"……家, …….者, …….能手”physicist, pianist, communist, dentist, artist, chemist, scientist, economist, journalist, novelist, environmentalist, optimist, 悲观呢？13)-ic,表示"……者，……师" mechanic, critic, academic, mystic, comic喜剧演员14)-logist,表示"……学家，研究者" biologist, geologist(地质学家), biologist, sociologist, psychologist, technologist, archeologist考古学家15)-crat, 表示”某种政体，主义的支持者” democrat, bureaucrat, aristocrat, autocrat独裁者, theocrat神权主义(2) 带有场所，地方的含义1)-age, 表示"住所，地点" village, cottage, harborage, storage, cage, stage, garage, orphanage2)-ary, 表示"住所，场地" library, granary (谷仓), seminary神学院, apiary养蜂场, sanctuary 圣所，避难所, dispensary药房,3)-ery, ry, 表示"工作场所，饲养所，地点" laundry, nursery, surgery(手术室),bakery, grocery, greenery, gallery,4)-ory, 表示"工作场所，住处" factory, dormitory, laboratory, observatory天文台, manufactory, armory, territory(3) 带有学术，科技含义1)-grapy, 表示"……学，写法” geography, biography, calligraphy书法2)-ic, ics, 表示"……学……法" physics, politics, logic, mechanics, optics光学, electronics, economics, mathematics, linguistics, aesthetics, statistics, genetics3)-ology, 表示"……学……论”biology, zoology, technology, ecology, psychology, archeology, geology, neurology, anthropology, astrology, sociology, mythology,4)-ry,-ery表示"学科，行业" chemistry, cookery, machinery, fishery, industry, forestry, pottery, jewelry, poetry, slavery(4) 构成具有抽象名词的含义1)-acy, 表示"性质，状态，境遇" accuracy, diplomacy外交, privacy accuracy, literacy, intimacy2)-age, 表示"状态，行为，身份及其结果，总称" courage, storage, marriage, percentage, bandage, baggage/luggage, carriage, breakage, average, coverage, language, package3)-ala) 表示"事物的动作，过程”refusal, arrival, survival, denial, approva l, disposal处理, proposal, burial, removal, interval, dismissal, withdrawalb) 表示具体的事物manual, signal, editorial, journal, criminal, terminal4)-ance, -ence表示"性质，状况，行为，过程，总量，程度” endurance, importance, diligence, difference, obedience, acceptance, significance, acquaintance, allowance, appearance, insurance, conscience, resistance, convenience, entrance, existence, occurrence, preference, guidance, assistance, influence, violence, instance, distance, innocence, competence5)-ancy, -ency, 表示"性质，状态，行为，过程" frequency, urgency, efficiency, tendency, pregnancy, emergency, fluency, sufficiency, constancy6)-ity, -bility, 表示"动作，性质，状态, 程度" possibility, feasibility, capability, probability, responsibility, reliability, flexibility, stability；purity, reality, ability, punctuality, popularity, activity, sensitivity, equality, stupidity7)-cracy, 表示"统治，支配" bureaucracy, democracy, aristocracy, autocracy, theocracy8)-cy, 表示"性质，状态，职位，级别" bankruptcy(破产), emergency, accuracy, advocacy, agency, intimacy, literacy, privacy9)-ion, -sion, -tion表示"行为的过程，结果，状况"(动词→名词) action, solution, conclusion, destruction, expression, correction, collection, selection, action, inspection, discussion, impression, education, liberation, invasion, provision,admiration, preparation, satisfaction, modification,decision, division,admission, permission, transmission10)-ism, 表示"制度，主义，学说，信仰，行为" socialism, criticism, colloquialism, heroism, communism,optimism,pessimism,realism11)-ment, 表示"行为，状态，过程，手段及其结果treatment, movement, judgment, punishment, argument, development, amazement, excitement, disappointment, astonishment, achievement, payment, advertisement, government, equipment, agreement, statement12)-ness, 表示"性质，状态，程度" goodness, kindness, tiredness, friendliness，happiness, cleverness, shyness, politeness, coldness, carefulness, sadness, darkness, illness, selfishness,rudeness, loneliness, laziness13)-ship, 表示"情况，性质，技巧，技能及身份，职业” hardship, membership, friendship, ownership, relationship, championship, scholarship14)-th, 表示"动作，行为" warmth, growth, health, truth, death, birth, depth, length, width, youth, strength, breadth15)-ure, 表示"行为，结果" pleasure, exposure, pressure, failure, mixture, signature, fixture, departure, closure, creature, moisture16)-y, 表示"行为的结果，状态，性质” glory, victory, inqu iry, difficulty, discovery, recovery, jealousy, modesty, mystery, fantasy, summary, honesty17)-ty, 表示“性质，情况，状态”specialty, certainty, safety, cruelty, entirety, loyalty, novelty, poverty,2. 形容词后缀(1)带有“属性，倾向，相关”的含义1)-able, -ible：(v./n.+able→adj.) movable, applicable, responsible, reliable, drinkable, readable, adjustable, adaptable, thinkable, avoidable, respectable, considerable, remarkable, available, sensible; comfortable, visible, valuable, reasonable, knowledgeable, favorable,terrible, horrible, possible2)-al：natural, additional, educational, environmental, cultural, seasonal, personal, national, global, economical, universal, logical, national, sensational, spiritual, mental, central, racial, typical, fundamental, practical, medical3)-ant, -ent：distant, important, significant, instant, brilliant, pleasant, constant, permanent, excellent, patient, independent, different, confident, silent, absent4)-ar：similar, popular, regular,particular, peculiar, familiar, solar, lunar5)-ary：contrary, military, voluntary, necessary, imaginary, ordinary, revolutionary6)-ic：Arctic, electric, plastic, politic, systematic, historic, economic, public, scientific, energetic, enthusiastic, fantastic, classic, comic, tragic, magic, strategic, ironic, optimistic, pessimistic, characteristic7)-ive：native, passive, expensive, attractive, active, impressive, expressive, decisive, sensitive, positive, negative, creative, effective, productive, conservative, addictive, aggressive, defensive, attentive, progressive8)-y表示“具有……特征的”、“多……的”funny,lucky,snowy,thirsty,windy,sunny,rainy,cloudy,dirty,dusty9)-ory：satisfactory, compulsory, illusory(2) 表示“相象，类似”的含义1)-ish：boyish, childish, womanish, foolish, selfish【拓】加在颜色词后面，表示“略带...颜色”greenish, reddish, yellowish2)-ly：(注意词性：n.+ly→adj.) manly, womanly, fatherly, scholarly, motherly, friendly,brotherly, sisterly, wifely, childly, comradely, lordly, princely, scholarly, knightly,3)-some：troublesome, handsome, tiresome(3) 表示“充分的，充满的”含义1)-ful：(n./v.+ful→adj.) beautiful, wonderful, helpful, truthful, peaceful, forgetful, colorful, useful, careful, harmful, hopeful, meaningful, joyful, delightful, spoonful, mouthful, grateful,powerful, wonderful, successful, painful, shameful2)-ous：dangerous, generous, courageous, various, curious, famous, poisonous, humorous, glorious, harmonious, generous, serious, delicious, anxious, nervous, envious, luxurious, prosperous, continuous(4)-en：表示“由...形成，制成或生产的”含义wooden, golden, woolen, silken(5)表示“方向的”含义1)-ern：eastern, western, southern, northern, earthen2)-ward：eastward, southward, westward, northward, forward, backward,inward, outward, upward,downward(6)-less,表示“否定的”含义countless, wireless, helpless, careless, harmless, useless, hopeless, homeless, sleepless, endless, tireless, restless3. 动词后缀1)-ize, ise, 表示"做成，变成，……化“modernize, mechanize, organize, recognize, realize, advertise, civilize, normalize, sympathize, fertilize, equalize2)-en, 表示"使成为，引起，使有” quicken, weaken, soften, harden, darken, widen, heighten, lengthen, strengthen, fasten, broaden, deepen, sicken, shorten, frighten, brighten, loosen, tighten, whiten, blacken,3)-fy, 表示"使……化, 使成”beautify, pu rify, intensify, signify预示,表明, simplify, clarify, satisfy, classify, glorify, qualify, specify, unify,4)-ate, 表示“动作，处理，作用” separate, operate, indicate, educate, graduate, associate, communicate, investigate, celebrate, translate, calculate, cooperate, isolate, illustrate, populate, regulate, terminate, originate,generate4. 副词后缀1)-ly：possibly, easily, simply, especially, politely, terribly, heavily, angrily, truly, safely2)-ward, -wards：onward, backward, leftward, sideward向一侧, afterward, coastward, shoreward, downward, inwards, upward, towards3)-ways,在...方向, 以...方式：always, sideways向旁边, crossways交叉地, lengthways 纵长地, coastways沿海岸线地4)-wise, 在...方向, 以...方式：otherwise, clockwise顺时针地, likewise。
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Five
LeadLead-in: Rules in the College Classroom
1. You should be prepare for class. (Read your assignments and finish your homework before coming to class) 2. You should be punctual and attend class regularly. 3. You should be courteous and considerate. (Don't talk, chew gum, or eat in class) 4. Don't walk around or leave the class before asking the instructor. 5. Please turn off your cell phone in class.
Welcome back to school
College English bjypcenglish@ Passworse Code: 99011009 Course Title: College English Course Status: Required elective Teaching week: 1-5 week, 8-18week Class Hours: 4 per week; 64 in total Textbook: Comprehensive English Exercise book: Access To Practical
Conclusion
What shall we learn in this term? One Assignment: online Grammar reading report points Two Three Film editings English
Songs
Four
Units of textbook
Focus material amount speed Method
Words and pronunciation Meaning Often difficult; teacher chooses Not much Slower Must finish; use dictionary Easy; students choose mainly A lot faster Stop if students don't like it; no dictionary │
English Note-Taking
Teaching methods: class practice
Teaching objectives:
1. To improve students' language ability, especially reading ability. 2. To grasp the main idea and structure of the text and practice critical thinking ability through further discussion on the topic mentioned in the text 3. To understand west culture and society and encourage comparisons of our own culture and experience with that of the foreigner.
Report :Online Reading Tests
Class: No. Name: Deadline: Nov. 10th Suggested website:_______________________________, ___________________________, _________________________, ( at least 3 websites) Text type:__________________( essay, story, news, letter, advertisement, lecture, etc.) Difficulty level:_________________________ (easy, difficult, normal) Items Count:_______________ (MC, T-F; yes/no, Gap –filling, Short-answer, Guessing meaning, Inference, etc.) Time Count:________________ Marks: _______________________ Evaluation: ___________________________________________________ ______________________________ (website, passage, items)
Teaching contents:
The textbook contains eight units, which introduces many important hot issues of today's society. They include Job hunting, Trends, Advertising , Manners , Men and Women, Work and Lifestyle , Starting Your Own Business Success . Each chapter falls into five closely related sections: listening, speaking, reading, grammar, writing.
Assessment
Assessment: attendance and participation(10%),assignments(10),quiz and dictation(10%), and final examination (close book) (70%)
Teaching Plan
College English
Listening----- Part Ⅰ(Textbook) 4 English songs Speaking-----3 film editings ( no more than 20 min) Reading------intensive reading Part Ⅲ Text one & two (Textbook) ------extensive reading Part Ⅲ Additional reading (Textbook) Writing ------Part V (Textbook) Grammar----subjunctive mood, non-finite verb (infinitive, gerund, participle) ----- Part Ⅳ (Textbook)----self-study Assignment----online reading(10 passages)
Now let's call the roll! let'
Unit One Job Hunting
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A simple and graphic way of explaining the differences between intensive reading and extensive reading is to build up a chart as in Figure 2.1 (Roberta Welch, 1997). Type of reading Class goal Reading purpose Intensive reading │Read accurately Translate; answering questions Extensive reading Read fluently Get information; enjoy