MPA英语课后练习词汇篇

词汇1. Whether they are republics or constitutional monarchies, it is government agencies putting into practice legislative acts that represent the will of the people.2. While the executive, legislative, and judicial branches are separate and distinct in the United States, all sides struggle to influence the others.3. Most of what an executive does is to manage existing programs, to run the bureaucracy.4. These appointees, while functioning as top managers significant management responsibilities, are seldom professional managers and seldom think of themselves as management experts.5. These middle managers, despite their disparity in functions and technical backgrounds, largely continue the management specialty of public administration.6. They spend their working lives fighting as officers in the administrative wars started by their political leaders.7. Mickey Mouse is often used to mean red tape, the symbol of excessive formality and attention to routine.8. Organization create and retain such seemingly rigid “practices and features” because they promote efficiency and equity on the whole-even though this may not be true in many individual cases.9. Although he ended as the chief of staff of the . Army, he is on nobody’s list of great generals.10. If you want to be a leading actor, you must only play leading parts--“much better to play Hamlet in Denver than Laertes on Broadway.”11. Often this calls for the creation of organizations, public agencies, and bureaus, which in turn need to create more policies that give guidance to th e organization’s employees on how to put into practice the overall public policy.12. Their democracy consisted of rule by an elite group of male citizens, whose well-being was maintained by politically suppressed women and a large slave population (which was not a desirable situation if you were a woman and worse if you were a slave).13. In a democracy the people meet and exercise the government in person; in a republic, they assemble and administer it by their representatives and agents.14. Because of the necessities of both hot and cold wars, the President has been unusually strong vis-à-vis the Congress.15. As Aristotle had warned, time and again throughout history these pure democracies had been captured by demagogues and had degenerated into dictatorial tyrannies.16. After all, it has the greatest number of enumerated powers and the executive and judicial branches must enforce its laws.17. He was disdainful of those who asserted the presence of a “residuum of power” when he clearly saw none.18. A president, according to this view, could at least for a short while even assume dictatorial powers.19. However, when recent Presidents have sought extraordinary powers, even with claims of national security and executive privilege, they have been “checked” by the Supreme Court.20. The important thing to remember is that this theory of executive power is quietlyreserved to support the efforts of a leader who sees the nation through in a time of crisis, or, alternately, it lurks in the hands of an unprincipled opportunist or demagogue to stifle republican institutions.21. A constitution provides the basic political and legal structure, the architecture, which prescribes the rules by which a government operates.22. Only the realm of foreign affairs has substantially escaped this tendency, although the war on terror has increasingly brought back questions of the rights of prisoners to the American courts.23. Unlike the British parliamentary machinery of government that evolved over hundreds of years, the American machinery was created at one moment in time for its specific purpose.24. The Court unanimously declared its support for red tape, the treasured procedural safeguards that protect us even when we do wish to be protected, and the law’s delay.25. While the inefficiency of the separation of powers is to be highly valued for its protection of basic liberties, this is no excuse for individual agencies to be inefficient as organization.26. This is an institution whose existence rests on custom rather than constitutional provision, even though its chief members, the secretaries of the federal executive departments, must be approved by the Senate.27. The American machinery of government, which requires cabinet secretaries to be responsible both to the President and the Congress (with its competing interests) makes that virtually impossible.28. Some Presidents have convened their cabinet only for the most formal and routinematters, while others have relied on it for advice and support.29. While all cabinet secretaries are equal in rank and salary, the missions of those in the inner cabinet tend to give them an advantage in prestige, access, and visibility denied to those who head the rest of, or the “outer,” cabinet.30. Thus all such commissioners can serve to the end of their fixed terms unless impeached by Congress.31. Similarly, the Constitution makes explicit the limits of federal intervention in state matters, including restrictions on the federal government’s ability to tax interstate commerce (Article I, Section 9).32. This amendment, commonly known as the reserved powers clause, has been at the heart of numerous debates on the balance of power between the national and state governments.33. Sometimes a community is so dominated by one ethnic group that this impacts their relations--their intergovernmental relations--with their levels of government.34. For example, the United States has long practiced the art of gerrymandering, the reshaping of an electoral district to enhance the political fortunes of the party in power, as opposed to creating a district with geographic compactness.35. This encouraged a spate of affirmative gerrymandering, redistricting to consolidate minority votes so that a minority group member will most likely win the next election.36. However, in the 1995 case of Louisiana v. Hays, the Supreme Court seemed to put severe inhibitions on this when it ruled that congressional district lines are unconstitutional if race is the “predominant factor” in drawi ng them. Nevertheless, the Court did not say that race could not be a factor at all.37. Marble-cake federalism is usually associated with Morton Grodzins, who made a famous example out of case of rural country health officials called sanitarians.38. Sanitarians are appointed by the state government under merit standards established by the federal government, and while their base salaries come from state and federal funds, the country provides them with offices and office amenities and pays a portion of their expenses.39. He is a federal officer when impounding impure drugs shipped from a neighboring state; a federal-state officer when distributing typhoid immunization serum; a state officer when enforcing standards of industrial hygiene; a state-local officer when inspecting the city’s water supply; and (to complete the circle) a local officer when insisting that the city butchers adopt more hygiene methods of handling their garbage.40. It takes wise legislators at each level to comprehend how their legislation will fit in with that being developed at other levels--and officials working at each level may find it a major task to see that their work is compatible with that of people working on similar topics in other levels of government.41. The staff concept evolved to overcome the inherent limitations of a single mind and ever-fleeting time.42. Organizational structures and production systems needed constant tinkering and refining to take best advantage of ever-evolving technology.43. Just as industrial engineers sought to design “the best” machines to keep factories productive, industrial and mechanical engineering-type thinking dominated theories about “the best way” to organize people for their role as part of the overall industrial machine.44. The concept was first formally instituted in the military, and it can be traced back tothe ancient Greek armies of Alexander the Great.45. While generals have always had aides-de-camp, the modern military general staff principally originates from the Prussian military reforms that transformed an inefficient army into the foremost military machine in Europe by the middle of the nineteenth century.46. The general staff then developed the strategies and tactics that Germany would use in future wars.47. The traditional staff concept, modified to reflect local conditions, was increasingly adopted by burgeoning industrial and governmental organizations.48. Premised upon the notion that there was “one best way” of accomplishing any given task, Taylor’s scientific ma nagement sought to increase output by using special staff to discover the fastest, most efficient, and least-fatiguing production methods.49. At first Taylor was reluctant to use the phrase “scientific management” because it sounded too academic.50. Tayl or’s duties seemed so obvious today, but they were revolutionary in 1912.51. The components of performance management are long-established management tools that encompass most of the other senses in which the term performance is used in the language of public sector management.52. This, in its simplest terms, plots against a calendar the main management actions that must be taken in the coming year.53. This reflects the de facto role of the budget in many organizations as the central focus of decision making concerning resource allocation for the coming year.54. A management cycle not only forces decisions to be made with a calendar in mind, but it also serve as a conceptual diagram, which implies a logical interaction, sequencing,and above all, linking of related categories of management activity.55. The citizens literally vote for the plans espoused by elected political executives in their campaign promises.56. Whether this was caused by changing demographics or better police management, nobody really knows.57. And opposition party President Bill Clinton was no less ambitious with his reinventing government plans to significantly reduce federal employment.58. All he had to do was to read the newspaper accounts of increasing criticisms of mail services, of members of Congress calling for the dismemberment of the Postal Service, and of business leaders calling for an end to the government’s first-class-mail monopoly.59. For many of the previously discussed areas of government performance it is necessary to retain quality employees.60. The more an organization’s stakeholders, the people affected directly or indirectly by the organization’s activities, work toward their own separate goals, as opposed to the “official” goals of the organization, the more incompetent the organization must necessarily become.介词1. Whether they are republics or constitutional monarchies, it is government agencies putting into practice legislative acts that represent the will of the people.2. They actively compete to influence that will and to fight for the enactment of programs they are anxious to implement.3. Top managers make the big decisions and are responsible for the overall success ofthe organization.4. In government the top managers are always the political leaders of society whether they gain power by election, appointment, of assassination.5. Its legal basis allows public administration to exist, but without its management aspect, not much of the public’s business would get alone.6. Although he ended up as th e chief of staff of the . Army, he is on nobody’s list of great generals.7. Just because you have a master’s or even a doctorate in public administration or a related field doesn’t mean that you can function as a high-level administrator.8. Appointing authorities may not have heard of the historical Halleck, but they have all seen a Halleck--and don’t want to see one in the administrative structure of their group.9. The ribbon has disappeared, but the practices it represents linger on.10. The term is also applied to politics or regulations felt to be needless, insane, silly, or mildly offensive.11. A public program consists of all those activities designed to implement the public policy.12. If she stands for one thing more than another, it is for the sovereignty of self-governing people.13. But democracy is not a simple or constant concept. Instead, it is an evolving notion regarding the relationship between the people and government.14. The development of popular or universal democracy in the eighteenth century led to revolutionary conceptions of democracy that called for the placing of all power in the hands of the people --at first just white males.15. While the founders specifically wanted a government structure that was insulated from a pure democracy, they also wanted a governing arrangement that, unlike the city-states of ancient Greece, could function over a large area.16. He was disdainful of those who asserted the presence of a “residuum of power” when he clearly saw none.17. This power, as Lincoln saw it, might not only exceed constitutional bounds but act against the Constitution.18. Similarly, during the Korean War President Harry S. Truman’s attempts to exert executive power over labor and industry were blocked by a skeptical judicial branch.19. Two decades later the Court in United States v. Nixon(1974) rejected President Richard M. Nixon’s claim that the Constitution provided the President with an absolute and unreviewable executive privilege--specifically, the right not to respond to a subpoena in connection with a judicial trial.20. This is President Theodore Roosevelt’s view that the President, because he represents and holds in trust the interests of all the people, should be free to take any actions in the public interest that are not specifically forbidden by the Constitution or statutory law.21. Most significantly, it denies certain powers to the national government by reserving them for the states and the people.22. The Court unanimously declared its support for red tape, the treasured procedural safeguards that protect us even when we do wish to be protected, and the law’s delay.23. American politics has grown up around the Constitution and has been, thereby, “constitutionalized”.24. “Let the end be legitimate, let it be wi thin the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional”.25. Because of their experiences under British rule, Americans have historically been suspicious of a too-efficient government, feeling that an overly efficient administration of public affairs could eventually eat into political liberties.26. Indeed, the whole thrust of American public administration reform over the past century has been to create efficient subunits within an overall inefficient system.27. The GAO would be severely diminished if its functions were located within the executive branch, as it frequently is within democracies based on the British parliamentary system.28. The Executive Office of the President (EOP) is an umbrella office consisting of the top presidential staff agencies that provide the President with help and advice in carrying out major responsibilities.29. The American machinery of government, which requires cabinet secretaries to be responsible both to the President and the Congress (with its competing interests) makes that virtually impossible.30. But unlike administrators of independent executive agencies, they serve for fixed terms and cannot be removed at the pleasure of the President.31. When functions are shared between levels of government, how will each function be divided among national, state, and local governments?32. Should a national government have an objective of redistributing revenues to reduce the differential between the richest and poorest regions of a nation?33. As we said earlier, the Constitution itself is the best place to go for answers to these questions.34. In fact, The Constitution can be particularly vague in laying out the balance of power between the levels of government.35. Marble-cake federalism is usually associated with Morton Grodzins, who made a famous example out of case of rural country health officials called sanitarians.36. It is not simply a question of dividing the work between the levels: of assigning local issues to local government, and national issues to federal government.37. It is impossible from moment to moment to tell under which government the sanitarian operates.38. His work of inspecting the purity of food is carried out under federal standards; but he is enforcing state laws when inspecting commodities that have not been in interstate commerce; and somewhat perversely, he also acts under state authority when inspecting milk coming into the country from producing areas across the state border.39. Bus drivers, police officers, and teachers are all caught up in the intergovernmental maze.40. It takes wise legislators at each level to comprehend how their legislation will fit in with that being developed at other levels--and officials working at each level may find it a major task to see that their work is compatible with that of people working on similar topics in other levels of government.41. This traditional use of staff was followed by the staff principle (or staff concept), which created a specific unit in the larger organization whose primary responsibility was to think and plan, to ponder over innovations and plan for their implementation.42. Individual officers and supervisors, competent enough under stable conditions, became less competent under revolutionary conditions.43. The basic traditional problem with the traditional hierarchical organization was that it was dependent on the proper enculturation of individual supervisors at every level for its success.44. Beginning with the Industrial Revolution (and Napoleonic era military organizations) the staff concept has made ever-increasing inroads into the public and private sector.45. The concept was first formally instituted in the military, and it can be traced back to the ancient Greek armies of Alexander the Great.46. It consisted of a small group of the most intellectually able officers, drawn from the main officer corps relatively early in their careers, who then spent their professional lives in the central planning unit known as the general staff.47. Taylor sought “to prove that the best management is a true science, resting upon clearly defined laws, rules, and principles, as a foundation."48. Many people unfamiliar with Jomini think that Clausewitz was the greatest nineteenth century theoretician of war.49. Replacing traditional, rule-of-thumb methods of work accomplishment with systematic, more scientific methods of measuring and managing individual work elements.50. Taylor’s comprehensive statement of scientific management principles was focused on what he called the “duties of management.”51. What makes performance management different from mere management is this emphasis on systematic integration.52. This reflects the de facto role of the budget in many organizations as the centralfocus of decision making concerning resource allocation for the coming year.53. A management cycle not only forces decisions to be made with a calendar in mind, but it also serves as a conceptual diagram, which implies a logical interaction, sequencing, and above all, linking of related categories of management activity.54. In the public sector, plans often begin out of a political necessity.55. The citizens literally vote for the plans espoused by elected political executives in their campaign promises.56. He was, and he did-but then his successor, Ronald Reagan, used an executive order to abolish zero-based budgeting for the federal government on his first day in office.57. During his first year in office, crime-especially the murder rate-declined.58. And opposition party President Bill Clinton was no less ambitious with his reinventing government plans to significantly reduce federal employment.59. A recent focus of performance management at the federal level has been toward the area of human resources.60. And people, despite the fact that they create or join organization with professed goals, all too often have goals of their own that do not coincide with the ostensible goals of the organization.。