科技英语第二次课_game_theory
Nash equilibrium
纳什均衡，又称为非合作博弈均衡 纳什均衡 又称为非合作博弈均衡 A Nash equilibrium, named after John Nash, is a set of strategies, one for each player, such that no player has incentive to unilaterally change her action.
Game theory was pioneered by Princeton mathematician John von Neumann.
更多具有代表性的例子可能会导致共同得利博弈和共同损 失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。 失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。
Princeton
当我们把博弈的结果表述为一种均衡的时候，并不能假 当我们把博弈的结果表述为一种均衡的时候， 定博弈的每个参与者的个人最佳策略将带来共同的最优 化结果。 化结果。
Nash’s notion of equilibrium remains an incomplete solution to the problem of circular reasoning in simultaneous-move games.
Prisoners’ dilemma
Two suspects are arrested by the police. The police have insufficient evidence for a conviction, and, having separated both prisoners, visit each of them to offer the same deal. If one testifies (defects from the other) for the prosecution against the other and the other remains silent (cooperates with the other), the betrayer goes free and the silent accomplice receives the full 8-year sentence. If both remain silent, both prisoners are sentenced to only one year in jail for a minor charge. If each betrays the other, each receives a five-year sentence. Each prisoner must choose to betray the other or to remain silent. Each one is assured that the other would not know about the betrayal before the end of the investigation. If we assume that each player cares only about minimizing his or her own time in jail, how should the prisoners act?
Hale Waihona Puke 在考虑其他博弈者会如何应对时，博弈者必须能设身处 在考虑其他博弈者会如何应对时， 地地换位思考，而不能把自己的主观判断强加于人。 地地换位思考，而不能把自己的主观判断强加于人。
tic-tac-toe 井字棋
Tic-tack-toe is a penciland-paper game in which two players alternately put crosses(0) and circles(×) in one of the compartments of a square grid of nine spaces. The player who succeeds in placing three respective marks in a horizontal, vertical or diagonal row wins the game.
When we say that an outcome is an equilibrium, there is no presumption that each person’s privately best choice will lead to a collectively optimal result.
它试图以数学和逻辑的方法帮助博弈者作出决策， 它试图以数学和逻辑的方法帮助博弈者作出决策，使他 以数学和逻辑的方法帮助博弈者作出决策 们在一系列纷繁复杂的博弈中保证利益的最大化。 们在一系列纷繁复杂的博弈中保证利益的最大化。
zero-sum games
In game theory and economic theory, zerosum describes a situation in which a participant's gain or loss is exactly balanced by the losses or gains of the other participant(s). Examples:赌博 赌博
More typical are games with the potential for either mutual gain or mutual harm, as well as some conflict.
更多具有代表性的例子可能会导致共同得利博弈和共 同损失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。 同损失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。
John von Neumann
A Hungarian-born American mathematics and made contribution to quantum physics, functional analysis, set theory, economics, computer science, topology, numerical analysis, hydrodynamics, statistics and may other mathematical fields as one of word history’s outstanding mathematicians.
Prisoners’ dilemma
囚徒困境
In game theory, the prisoners’ dilemma is a type of non-zero game in which two players can cooperate with or defect the other player.
Unit 1
Mathematics
Warming-up
Mathematics has a wide application, such as computer, economy. Now it has been broaden theoretically and applied to many social problems. It has driven a revolution in economic theory. It has also found application in sociology and psychology, and established links with evolution and biology. One significant application is Game Theory which received special attention with the awarding of the Nobel Prize in economics to John Nash.
It attempts to determine mathematically and logically the actions that “players” should take to secure the best outcomes for themselves in a wide array of “games”.
纳什关于均衡的概念还不能完全解决联立策略博弈中逻 辑循环的问题。 辑循环的问题。
And the dynamic process that can lead to an equilibrium is left unspecified.
纳什均衡还没有清除地说明关于导致均衡的动态过程。 纳什均衡还没有清除地说明关于导致均衡的动态过程。
Text A
Game Theory
博弈论
Game Theory
Game theory is the mathematical analysis of any situation involving a conflict of interest, with the intent of indicating the optimal choices that, under given conditions, will lead to a desired outcome.
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League and is considered one of the Colonial Colleges.
When thinking about how others will respond, one must put oneself in their shoes, and think as they would; one should not impose one’s own reasoning on them.
40_game_theory_ch_2
Chapter2Nim and combinatorial games2.1Aims of the chapterThis chapter•introduces the basics of combinatorial games,and explains the central role of the game nim.A detailed summary of the chapter is given in section2.5.Furthermore,this chapter•demonstrates the use of abstract mathematics in game theory.This chapter is written more formally than the other chapters,in parts in thetraditional mathematical style of definitions,theorems and proofs.One reason fordoing this,and why we start with combinatorial games,is that this topic and styleserves as a warning shot to those who think that game theory,and this unit inparticular,is‘easy’.If we started with the well-known‘prisoner’s dilemma’(whichmakes its due appearance in Chapter3),the less formally inclined student might belulled into a false sense of familiarity and‘understanding’.We therefore startdeliberately with an unfamiliar topic.This is a mathematics unit,with great emphasis on rigour and clarity,and on usingmathematical notions precisely.As mathematical prerequisites,game theory requiresonly the very basics of linear algebra,calculus and probability theory.However,gametheory provides its own conceptual tools that are used to model and analyseinteractive situations.This unit emphasises the mathematical structure of theseconcepts,which belong to‘discrete mathematics’.Learning a number of newmathematical concepts is exemplified by combinatorial game theory,and it willcontinue in the study of classical game theory in the later chapters.2.2Learning objectivesAfter studying this chapter,you should be able to:•play nim optimally;•explain the concepts of game-sums,equivalent games,nim values and the mex rule;•apply these concepts to play other impartial games like those described in the exercises.40Game theory2.3Essential readingThis chapter of the guide.2.4Further readingVery few textbooks on game theory deal with combinatorial games.An exception ischapter1of the following book:•Mendelson,Elliot Introducing Game Theory and Its Applications.(Chapman& Hall/CRC,2004)[ISBN1584883006].The winning strategy for the game nim based on the binary system wasfirst describedin the following article,which is available electronically from the JSTOR archive:•Bouton,Charles‘Nim,a game with a complete mathematical theory.’The Annals of Mathematics,2nd Ser.,Vol.3,No.1/4(1902),pp.35–39.The definitive text on combinatorial game theory is the set of volumes‘WinningWays’by Berlekamp,Conway and Guy.The material of this chapter appears in thefirst volume:•Berlekamp,Elwyn R.,John H.Conway and Richard K.Guy Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays,Volume1,second edition.(A.K.Peters,2001)[ISBN1568811306].Some small pieces of that text have been copied here nearly verbatim,for example inSections2.7,2.9,and2.12below.The four volumes of‘Winning Ways’are beautiful books.However,they are notsuitable reading for a beginner,because the mathematics is hard,and the reader isconfronted with a wealth of material.The introduction to combinatorial game theorygiven here represents a very small fraction of that body of work,but may invite youto study it further.A very informative and entertaining mathematical tour of parlour games is•Bewersdorff,J¨o rg Logic,Luck and White Lies.(A.K.Peters,2005)[ISBN 1568812108].Combinatorial games are treated in part II of that book.2.5What is combinatorial game theory?This chapter is on the topic of combinatorial games.These are games with twoplayers,perfect information,and no chance moves,specified by certain rules.Familiargames of this sort are chess,go,checkers,tic-tac-toe,dots-and-boxes,and nim.Suchgames can be played perfectly in the sense that either one player can force a win orboth can force a draw.In reality,games like chess and go are too complex tofind anoptimal strategy,and they derive their attraction from the fact that(so far)it is notknown how to play them perfectly.We will,however,learn how to play nim perfectly.There is a‘classical’game theory with applications in economics which is verydifferent from combinatorial game theory.The games in classical game theory aretypically formal models of conflict and co-operation which cannot only be lost orWhat is combinatorial game theory? won,and in which there is often no perfect information about past and future moves.To the economist,combinatorial games are not very interesting.Chapters3–6of theunit are concerned with classical game theory.Why,then,study combinatorial games at all in a unit that is mostly about classicalgame theory,and which aims to provide an insight into the theory of games as usedin economics?The reason is that combinatorial games have a rich and interesting mathematical theory.We will explain the basics of that theory,in particular thecentral role of the game nim for impartial games.It is non-trivial mathematics,it isfun,and you,the student,will have learned something that you would most likelynot have learned otherwise.Thefirst‘trick’from combinatorial game theory is how to win in the game nim,using the binary system.Historically,that winning strategy was discoveredfirst(published by Charles Bouton in1902).Only later did the central importance of nim,in what is known as the Sprague–Grundy theory of impartial games,becomeapparent.It also revealed why the binary system is important(and not,say,theternary system,where numbers are written in base three),and learning that is more satisfying than just learning how to use it.In this chapter,wefirst define the game nim and more general classes of games withperfect information.These are games where every player knows exactly the state ofthe game.We then define and study the concepts listed in the learning outcomesabove,which are the concepts of game-sums,equivalent games,nim values and themex rule.It is best to learn these concepts by following the chapter in detail.Wegive a brief summary here,which will make more sense,and should be re-consulted,after afirst study of the chapter(so do not despair if you do not understand this summary).Mathematically,any game is defined by other‘games’that a player can reach in hisfirst move.These games are called the options of the game.This seemingly circulardefinition of a‘game’is sound because the options are simpler games,which needfewer moves in total until they end.The definition is therefore not circular,butrecursive,and the mathematical tool to argue about such games is that ofmathematical induction,which will be used extensively(it will also recur inchapter3as‘backward induction’for game trees).Here,it is very helpful to befamiliar with mathematical induction for proving statements about natural numbers.We focus here on impartial games,where the available moves are the same nomatter whether player I or player II is the player to make a move.Games are‘combined’by the simple rule that a player can make a move in exactly one of thegames,which defines a sum of these games.In a‘losing game’,thefirst player tomove loses(assuming,as always,that both players play as well as they can).Animpartial game added to itself is always losing,because any move can be copied inthe other game,so that the second player always has a move left.This is known asthe‘copycat’principle(lemma2.6).An important observation is that a losing gamecan be‘added’(via the game-sum operation)to any game without changing thewinning or losing properties of the original game.In section2.11,the central theorem2.10explains the winning strategy in nim.The importance of nim for impartial games is then developed in section2.12via thebeautiful mex rule.After the comparatively hard work of the earlier sections,wealmost instantly obtain that any impartial game is equivalent to a nim heap(corollary2.13).At the end of the chapter,the sizes of these equivalent nim heaps(called nim values)are computed for some examples of impartial games.Many other examples arestudied in the exercises.40Game theoryOur exposition is distinct from the classic text‘Winning Ways’in the followingrespects:First,we only consider impartial games,even though many aspects carryover to more general combinatorial games.Secondly,we use a precise definition ofequivalent games(see section2.10),because a game where you are bound to loseagainst a smart opponent is not the same as a game where you have already lost.Two such games are merely equivalent,and the notion of equivalent games is helpfulin understanding the theory.So this text is much more restricted,but to some extentmore precise than‘Winning Ways’,which should help make this topic accessible andenjoyable.2.6Nim–rulesThe game nim is played with heaps(or piles)of chips(or counters,beans,pebbles,matches).Players alternate in making a move,by removing some chips from one ofthe heaps(at least one chip,possibly the entire heap).Thefirst player who cannotmove any more loses the game.The players will be called,rather unimaginatively,player I and player II,with player Ito start the game.For example,consider three heaps of size1,1,2.What is a good move?Removingone of the chips from the heap with two chips will create the position1,1,1,thenplayer II must move to1,1,then player I to1,and then player II takes the last chipand wins.So this is not a good opening move.The winning move is to remove allchips from the heap of size2,to reach position1,1,and then player I will win.Hence we call1,1,2a winning position,and1,1a losing position.When moving in a winning position,the player to move can win by playing well,bymoving to a losing position of the other player.In a losing position,the player tomove will lose no matter what move she chooses,if her opponent plays well.Thismeans that all moves from a losing position lead to a winning position of theopponent.In contrast,one needs only one good move from a winning position thatgoes to a losing position of the next player.Another winning position consists of three nim heaps of sizes1,1,1.Here all movesresult in the same position and player I always wins.In general,a player in a winningposition must play well by picking the right move.We assume that players play well,forcing a win if they can.Suppose nim is played with only two heaps.If the two heaps have equal size,forexample in position4,4,then thefirst player to move loses(so this is a losingposition),because player II can always copy player I’s move by equalising the twoheaps.If the two heaps have different sizes,then player I can equalise them byremoving an appropriate number of chips from the larger heap,putting player II in alosing position.The rule for2-heap nim is therefore:Lemma2.1The nim position m,n is winning if and only if m=n,otherwise losing,for all m,n≥0.This lemma applies also when m=0or n=0,and thus includes the cases that oneor both heap sizes are zero(meaning only one heap or no heap at all).With three or more heaps,nim becomes more difficult.For example,it is notimmediately clear if,say,positions1,4,5or2,3,6are winning or losing positions.⇒At this point,you should try exercise2.1(a)on page28.Combinatorial games,in particular impartial games 2.7Combinatorial games,in particular impartial gamesThe games we study in this chapter have,like nim,the following properties:1.There are just two players.2.There are several,usuallyfinitely many,positions,and sometimes a particularstarting position.3.There are clearly defined rules that specify the moves that either player canmake from a given position to the possible new positions,which are called theoptions of that position.4.The two players move alternately,in the game as a whole.5.In the normal play convention a player unable to move loses.6.The rules are such that play will always come to an end because some player willbe unable to move.This is called the ending condition.So there can be nogames which are drawn by repetition of moves.7.Both players know what is going on,so there is perfect information.8.There are no chance moves such as rolling dice or shuffling cards.9.The game is impartial,that is,the possible moves of a player only depend onthe position but not on the player.As a negation of condition5,there is also the mis`e re play convention where a playerunable to move wins.In the surrealist(and unsettling)movie‘Last year atMarienbad’by Alain Resnais from1962,mis`e re nim is played,several times,withrows of matches of sizes1,3,5,7.If you have a chance,try to watch that movie andspot when the other player(not the guy who brought the matches)makes a mistake!Note that this is mis`e re nim,not nim,but you will be able tofind out how to play itonce you know how to play nim.(For games other than nim,normal play and mis`e reversions are typically not so similar.)In contrast to condition9,games where the available moves depend on the player(as in chess where one player can only move white pieces and the other only blackpieces)are called partisan games.Much of combinatorial game theory is aboutpartisan games,which we do not consider to keep matters simple.Chess,and the somewhat simpler tic-tac-toe,also fail condition6because they mayend in a tie or draw.The card game poker does not have perfect information(asrequired in7)and would lose all its interest if it had.The analysis of poker,althoughit is also a win-or-lose game,leads to the‘classical’theory of zero-sum games(withimperfect information)that we will consider later.The board game backgammon is agame with perfect information but with chance moves(violating condition8)because dice are rolled.We will be relatively informal in style,but our notions are precise.In condition3above,for example,the term option refers to a position that is reachable in onemove from the current position;do not use‘option’when you mean‘move’.Similarly,we will later use the term strategy to define a plan of moves,one for everyposition that can occur in the game.Do not use‘strategy’when you mean‘move’.However,we will take some liberty in identifying a game with its starting positionwhen the rules of the game are clear.40Game theory⇒Try now exercises2.2and2.3starting on page28.2.8Simpler games and notation for nim heapsA game,like nim,is defined by its rules,and a particular starting position.Let G besuch a particular instance of nim,say with the starting position1,1,2.Knowing therules,we can identify G with its starting position.Then the options of G are1,2,and1,1,1,and1,1.Here,position1,2is obtained by removing either thefirst or thesecond heap with one chip only,which gives the same result.Positions1,1,1and1,1are obtained by making a move in the heap of size two.It is useful to list the optionssystematically,considering one heap to move in at a time,so as not to overlook anyoption.Each of the options of G is the starting position of another instance of nim,definingone of the new games H,J,K,say.We can also say that G is defined by the movesto these games H,J,K,and we call these games also the options of G(byidentifying them with their starting positions;recall that the term‘option’has beendefined in point3of section2.7).That is,we can define a game as follows:Either the game has no move,and theplayer to move loses,or a game is given by one or several possible moves to newgames,in which the other player makes the initial move.In our example,G isdefined by the possible moves to H,J,or K.With this definition,the entire game iscompletely specified by listing the initial moves and what games they lead to,because all subsequent use of the rules is encoded in those games.This is a recursive definition because a‘game’is defined in terms of‘game’itself.We have to add the ending condition that states that every sequence of moves in agame must eventually end,to make sure that a game cannot go on indefinitely.This recursive condition is similar to defining the set of natural numbers as follows:(a)0is a natural number;(b)if n is a natural number,then so is n+1;and(c)allnatural numbers are obtained in this way,starting from0.Condition(c)can beformalised by the principle of induction that says:if a property P(n)is true for n=0,and if the property P(n)implies P(n+1),then it is true for all natural numbers.We use the following notation for nim heaps.If G is a single nim heap with nchips,n≥0,then we denote this game by∗n.This game is completely specified byits options,and they are:options of∗n:∗0,∗1,∗2,...,∗(n−1).(2.1) Note that∗0is the empty heap with no chips,which allows no moves.It is invisiblewhen playing nim,but it is useful to have a notation for it because it defines themost basic losing position.(In combinatorial game theory,the game with no moves,which is the empty nim heap∗0,is often simply denoted as0.)We could use(2.1)as the definition of∗n;for example,the game∗4is defined by itsoptions∗0,∗1,∗2,∗3.It is very important to include∗0in that list of options,because it means that∗4has a winning move.Condition(2.1)is a recursivedefinition of the game∗n,because its options are also defined by reference to suchgames∗k,for numbers k smaller than n.This game fulfils the ending conditionbecause the heap gets successively smaller in any sequence of moves.If G is a game and H is a game reachable by one or more successive moves from thestarting position of G,then the game H is called simpler than G.We will oftenprove a property of games inductively,using the assumption that the property appliesto all simpler games.An example is the–already stated and rather obvious–Sums of games property that one of the two players can force a win.(Note that this applies togames where winning or losing are the only two outcomes for a player,as implied bythe‘normal play’convention in5above.)Lemma2.2In any game G,either the starting player I can force a win,or player IIcan force a win.Proof.When the game has no moves,player I loses and player II wins.Now assumethat G does have options,which are simpler games.By inductive assumption,ineach of these games one of the two players can force a win.If,in all of them,thestarting player(which is player II in G)can force a win,then she will win in G byplaying accordingly.Otherwise,at least one of the starting moves in G leads to agame G where the second-moving player in G (which is player I in G)can force awin,and by making that move,player I will force a win in G.If in G,player I can force a win,its starting position is a winning position,and wecall G a winning game.If player II can force a win,G starts with a losing position,and we call G a losing game.2.9Sums of gamesWe continue our discussion of nim.Suppose the starting position has heap sizes1,5,5.Then the obvious good move is to option5,5,which is losing.What about nim with four heaps of sizes2,2,6,6?This is losing,because2,2and6,6independently are losing positions,and any move in a heap of size2can becopied in the other heap of size2,and similarly for the heaps of size6.There is asecond way of looking at this example,where it is not just two losing games puttogether:consider the game with heap sizes2,6.This is a winning game.However,two such winning games,put together to give the game2,6,2,6,result in a losinggame,because any move in one of the games2,6,for example to2,4,can be copiedin the other game,also to2,4,giving the new position2,4,2,4.So the secondplayer,who plays‘copycat’,always has a move left(the copying move)and hencecannot lose.Definition2.3The sum of two games G and H,written G+H,is defined asfollows:The player may move in either G or H as allowed in that game,leaving theposition in the other game unchanged.Note that G+H is a notation that applies here to games and not to numbers,evenif the games are in some way defined using numbers(for example as nim heaps).The result is a new game.More formally,assume that G and H are defined in terms of their options(via movesfrom the starting position)G1,G2,...,G k and H1,H2,...,H m,respectively.Then theoptions of G+H are given asoptions of G+H:G1+H,...,G k+H,G+H1,...,G+H m.(2.2) Thefirst list of options G1+H,G2+H,...,G k+H in(2.2)simply means that theplayer makes his move in G,the second list G+H1,G+H2,...,G+H m that hemakes his move in H.We can define the game nim as a sum of nim heaps,where any single nim heap isrecursively defined in terms of its options by(2.1).So the game nim with heaps ofsize1,4,6is written as∗1+∗4+∗6.40Game theoryThe‘addition’of games with the abstract+operation leads to an interestingconnection of combinatorial games with abstract algebra.If you are somewhatfamiliar with the concept of an abstract group,you will enjoy this connection;if not,you do not need to worry,because this connection it is not essential for ourdevelopment of the theory.A group is a set with a binary operation+that fulfils three properties:1.The operation+is associative,that is,G+(J+K)=(G+J)+K holds for allG,J,K.2.The operation+has a neutral element0,so that G+0=G and0+G=G forall G.3.Every element G has an inverse−G so that G+(−G)=0.Furthermore,4.The group is called commutative(or‘abelian’)if G+H=H+G holds for allG,H.Familiar groups in mathematics are,for example,the set of integers with addition,orthe set of positive real numbers with multiplication(where the multiplicationoperation is written as·,the neutral element is1,and the inverse of G is written asG−1).The games that we consider form a group as well.In the way the sum of two gamesG and H is defined,G+H and H+G define the same game,so+is commutative.Moreover,when one of these games is itself a sum of games,for example H=J+K,then G+H is G+(J+K)which means the player can make a move in exactly one ofthe games G,J,or K.This means obviously the same as the sum of games(G+J)+K,that is,+is associative.The sum G+(J+K),which is the same as(G+J)+K,can therefore be written unambiguously as G+J+K.An obvious neutral element is the empty nim heap∗0,because it is‘invisible’(itallows no moves),and adding it to any game G does not change the game.However,there is no direct way to get an inverse operation because for any game Gwhich has some options,if one adds any other game H to it(the intention beingthat H is the inverse−G),then G+H will have some options(namely at least theoptions of moving in G and leaving H unchanged),so that G+H is not equal to theempty nim heap.The way out of this is to identify games that are‘equivalent’in a certain sense.Wewill see shortly that if G+H is a losing game(where thefirst player to move cannotforce a win),then that losing game is‘equivalent’to∗0,so that H fulfils the role ofan inverse of G.2.10Equivalent gamesThere is a neutral element that can be added to any game G without changing it.By definition,because it allows no moves,it is the empty nim heap∗0:G+∗0=G.(2.3)However,other games can also serve as neutral elements for the addition of games.We will see that any losing game can serve that purpose,provided we considercertain games as equivalent according to the following definition.Equivalent games Definition2.4Two games G,H are called equivalent,written G≡H,if and only iffor any other game J,the sum G+J is losing if and only if H+J is losing.In definition2.4,we can also say that G≡H if for any other game J,the sum G+Jis winning if and only if H+J is winning.In other words,G is equivalent to H if,whenever G appears in a sum G+J of games,then G can be replaced by H without changing whether G+J is winning or losing.One can verify easily that≡is indeed an equivalence relation,meaning it is reflexive(G≡G),symmetric(G≡H implies H≡G),and transitive(G≡H and H≡K implyG≡K;all these conditions hold for all games G,H,K).Using J=∗0in definition2.4and(2.3),G≡H implies that G is losing if and only ifH is losing.The converse is not quite true:just because two games are winning doesnot mean they are equivalent,as we will see shortly.However,any two losing gamesare equivalent,because they are all equivalent to∗0:Lemma2.5If G is a losing game(the second player to move can force a win),thenG≡∗0.Proof.Let G be a losing game.We want to show G≡∗0By definition2.4,this istrue if and only if for any other game J,the game G+J is losing if and only if∗0+Jis losing.According to(2.3),this holds if and only if J is losing.So let J be any other game;we want to show that G+J is losing if and only if J islosing.Intuitively,adding the losing game G to J does not change which player in Jcan force a win,because any intermediate move in G by his opponent is simplycountered by the winning player,until the moves in G are exhausted.Formally,wefirst prove by induction the simpler claim that for all games J,if J islosing,then G+J is losing.(So wefirst ignore the‘only if’part.)Our inductive assumptions for this simpler claim are:for all losing games G that are simplerthan G,if J is losing,then G +J is losing;and for all games J that are simplerthan J,if J is losing,then G+J is losing.So suppose that J is losing.We want to show that G+J is losing.Any initial movein J leads to an option J which is winning,which means that there is acorresponding option J of J (by player II’s reply)where J is losing.Hence,whenplayer I makes the corresponding initial move from G+J to G+J ,player II cancounter by moving to G+J .By inductive assumption,this is losing because J islosing.Alternatively,player I may move from G+J to G +J.Because G is a losinggame,there is a move by player II from G to G where G is again a losing game,and hence G +J is also losing,by inductive assumption,because J is losing.Thiscompletes the induction and proves the claim.What is missing is to show that if G+J is losing,so is J.If J was winning,then therewould be a winning move to some option J of J where J is losing,but then,by ourclaim(the‘if’part that we just proved),G+J is losing,which would be a winningoption in G+J for player I.But this is a contradiction.This completes the proof.The preceding lemma says that any losing game Z,say,can be added to a game Gwithout changing whether G is winning or losing(in lemma2.5,Z is called G).Thatis,extending(2.3),Z losing=⇒G+Z≡G.(2.4)As an example,consider Z=∗1+∗2+∗3,which is nim with three heaps of sizes1,2,3.To see that Z is losing,we examine the options of Z and show that all ofthem are winning games.Removing an entire heap leaves two unequal heaps,whichis a winning position by lemma2.1.Any other move produces three heaps,two of40Game theorywhich have equal size.Because two equal heaps define a losing nim game Z,they can be ignored by(2.4),meaning that all these options are like single nim heaps and therefore winning positions,too.So Z=∗1+∗2+∗3is losing.The game G=∗4+∗5is clearly winning.By(2.4), the game G+Z is equivalent to G and is also winning.However,verifying directly that∗1+∗2+∗3+∗4+∗5is winning would not be easy to see without using(2.4). It is an easy exercise to show that in sums of games,games can be replaced by equivalent games,resulting in an equivalent sum.That is,for all games G,H,J,G≡H=⇒G+J≡H+J.(2.5)Note that(2.5)is not merely a re-statement of definition2.4,because equivalence of the games G+J and H+J means more than just that the games are either both winning or both losing(see the comments before lemma2.9below).Lemma2.6(The copycat principle)G+G≡∗0for any impartial game G. Proof.Given G,we assume by induction that the claim holds for all simpler games G .Any option of G+G is of the form G +G for an option G of G.This is winning by moving to the game G +G which is losing,by inductive assumption.So G+G is indeed a losing game,and therefore equivalent to∗0by lemma2.5.We now come back to the issue of inverse elements in abstract groups,mentioned at the end of section2.9.If we identify equivalent games,then the addition+of games defines indeed a group operation.The neutral element is∗0,or any equivalent game (that is,a losing game).The inverse of a game G,written as the negative−G,fulfilsG+(−G)≡∗0.(2.6) Lemma2.6shows that for an impartial game,−G is simply G itself.Side remark:For games that are not impartial,that is,partisan games,−G exists also.It is G but with the roles of the two players exchanged,so that whatever move was available to player I is now available to player II and vice versa.As an example, consider the game checkers(with the rule that whoever can no longer make a move loses),and let G be a certain configuration of pieces on the checkerboard.Then−G is the same configuration with the white and black pieces interchanged.Then in the game G+(−G),player II(who can move the black pieces,say),can also play‘copycat’.Namely,if player I makes a move in either G or−G with a white piece, then player II copies that move with a black piece on the other board(−G or G, respectively).Consequently,player II always has a move available and will win the game,so that G+(−G)is indeed a losing game for the starting player I,that is,G+(−G)≡∗0.However,we only consider impartial games,where−G=G.The following condition is very useful to prove that two games are equivalent. Lemma2.7Two impartial games G,H are equivalent if and only if G+H≡∗0.Proof.If G≡H,then by(2.5)and lemma2.6,G+H≡H+H≡∗0.Conversely,G+H≡∗0implies G≡G+H+H≡∗0+H≡H.Sometimes,we want to prove equivalence inductively,where the following observation is useful.Lemma2.8Two games G and H are equivalent if all their options are equivalent, that is,for every option of G there is an equivalent option of H and vice versa.。
科技英语词汇
科技英语词汇数学absolute value 绝对值acute angle 锐角aggregate集合algebra 代数；代数学algorithm 算法analysis 分析analysis of variance 方差分析analytic function分析函数；解析函数analytic geometry 分析几何analytic number theory 分析数论angle 角angular 角的area 面积arithmetic 算术axiomatic set theory 公理集合论calculus of finite difference 有限差演算calculus of variations 变分法cardinal number 基数category 范畴central limit theorem 中心极限定理circle 圆circular points at infinity 圆点class field theory 类域论classical group 典型群common factor公因数complex function 复变函数complex number 复数cone 圆锥体congruence 同余conjugate function 共轭函数constant 常数convolution 卷积coordinate system 坐标系correlation analysis 相关分析curve 曲线curve of second degree 二次曲线cylinder 圆柱体data anlysis 数据分析decimal 小数decision analysis 决策分析denominator 分母derivative 导数determinant 行列式developable surface 可展曲面differential 微分differential and integral calculus 微积分学differential calculus 微分学differential coefficient 导数differential topology 微分拓扑学dimension 维数divisibility 整除elementary function 初等函数elimination method 消元法ellipse 椭圆elliptic function 椭圆函数entropy 熵equal sign 等号equation 等式；方程式error 误差even number 偶数extract roots开方；求根extremum 极值field 域figure 图形finite field 有限域formula (pl. formulae) 公式function 函数functional 泛函数fuzzy logic 模糊逻辑game theory 博弈论generalized inverse matrix 广义逆矩阵geometry 几何学golden section 黄金分割harmonic function 调和函数hyperbola 双曲线improper integral 广义积分incenter 内心indeterminate 不定方程inequality 不等式infinitesimal 无穷小infinity无穷大integral 积分integral calculus 积分学integral equation 积分方程integration 积分法interval analysis 区间分析limit 极限linear 线性的；一次的linear algebra 线性代数linear operator 线性算子line segment 线段logical calculus 逻辑演算mapping 映射matrix 矩阵maximum function 极大函数minimal surface 极小曲面minus减去；负号model logic 模态逻辑moment矩nomogram 算图normal distribution 正态分布numerator分子numerical analysis 数值分析obtuse angle 钝角odd number 奇数optimization 最优化optimization method 优选学origin 原点parabola 抛物线paradox 悖论parallel 平行；平行线parallel algorithm 并行算法parallelogram平行四边形parameter 参数parity 奇偶性partial derivative 偏导数perpendicular bisector中垂线plane 平面polygon 多边形polyhedron 多面体polynomial 多项式positive sign 正号power 幂probability 概率quadratic 二次的radical sign根号random variable 随机变量real number 实数rectangle 长方形；矩形recursion theory 递归论right angle 直角rotundity圆形semicircle 半圆形series 级数set集；集合side 边simple equation 一次方程式sphere 球体；球面square 正方形；平方；直角尺straight line 直线supplementary 互补surface 曲面symmetry 对称taper 圆锥（形）trapezoid / trapezium 梯形triangle 三角形trigonometry 三角学unknown （未知）元；未知数variable 变量variance变方差vector 向量volume 体积物理absolute zero 绝对零度absorption 吸收acceleration 加速；加速度acoustics 声学activator 激活剂alkaline 碱的；碱性的alloy 合金alternating current (AC) 交流电ampere 安培ampere-meter 安培计annealing 退火antiparticle 反粒子atom原子atomic原子的atomic beam 原子束atmosphere 大气层beam splitter 分光膜boson 玻色子calorie 卡calorimetry 量热术cell 电池Celsius temperature 摄氏温度centripetal force 向心力centre of gravity 重心centre of mass 质心centrifugal force 离心力charge 电荷coating 涂层；覆盖collision 碰撞collider 对撞机compass 指南针conservation of energy能量守恒constraint 约束continuum 连续体；连续介质convex 凸起的cosmic ray 宇宙射线coulomb 库伦coupling 耦合critical state 临界状态cross section 截面crystal 晶体crystallization 结晶crystallography 晶体学cyclotron 回旋加速器damping 阻尼decay 衰变diamagnetism 抗磁性dielectrics 电介质；绝缘体diffraction 衍射diffusion 扩散direct current (DC) 直流电discharge 放电dislocation 位错dispersion 色散displacement 位移distortion 畸变divergence发散Doppler effect 多普勒效应drag 阻力drift 漂移dynamics 动力学eddy current 涡电流elastic force 弹性力elasticity 弹性力学electromagnetic 电磁的electret 驻极体electric circuits 电路electric current 电流electric field 电场electricity 电学electric polarization 电极化electric potential 电位electric power 电功率electroacoustics 电声学electrocaloric effect 电热效应electrolytic 电解的electromagnetic 电磁的electromagnetic induction 电磁感应electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射electromagnetic shielding 电磁屏蔽electromagnetic wave 电磁波electromagnetism 电磁学electron 电子electroscope 验电器electrostatic field 静电场elementary particle 基本粒子energy 能量enthalpy 焓；热函entropy 熵exciton 激子；激发子farad 法拉ferroelectricity 铁电性fiber optics 纤维光学first cosmic velocity第一宇宙速度fission裂变fluctuation 波动fluid mechanics 流体力学fluorescence 荧光；荧光性force 力free nergy 自由能friction 摩擦fusion聚合galvanometer 电流计gaseous discharge 气体放电generator 发电机；发生器gluon 胶子grating 光栅gravitational interaction 引力相互作用graviton 引力子gravity wve 重力波hadron 强子heat transfer 热传递heavy lepton 重轻子helium 氦holography 全息摄影术humidity 湿度hydrogen 氢hyperon 超子impulse 冲量incandescent lamp 白炽灯inductance 电感inertia 惯性inertial force 惯性力infrared ray 红外线insulator绝缘体ion 离子ionic离子的ionize 电离；使离子化isotope 同位素jet 喷注joule 焦耳kinetic energy 动能laser 激光latent heat 潜热lever 杠杆lens 透镜magnet 磁体；磁铁magnetic field 磁场magnetics 磁学magnetization 磁化（强度）mass 质量meson 介子microscope 显微镜molecule 分子moment 力矩momentum 动量multimeter 万用（电）表neucleon 核子neucleus 原子核neutrino 中微子neutron 中子nuclide 核素ohm欧姆ohmmeter欧姆计optics 光学ozone 臭氧层parity 宇称phase 相phosphor 荧光粉photon 光子plasma 等离子体pulley 滑轮pyrometer高温计quark 夸克quartz 石英quenching 淬火reacting force反作用力radar 雷达radiation 辐射radioactivity 辐射性raodiocarbon dating 碳定年recoil反冲reflection 反射resistance 电阻resonance 共振（态）reverberation 混响rolling 轧制screw 螺旋semi-conductor 半导体shock wave 激波；冲击波soild 固体sonar 声呐spectrum 光谱spin 自旋stress 应力superconductivity 超导电性swing振幅synchronizer 同步装置telescope 望远镜temperature 温度tension 张力transistor 晶体管ultrasonic 超声的ultraviolet ray 紫外线universal gravitation万有引力uranium 铀vacuum 真空velocity 速度vibration 振动viscosity 粘性急volt 伏特voltage 电压voltmeter 伏特计vortex 涡旋weld 焊接work 功X ray X射线化学acid 酸absorbate 吸附质aerosol 气溶胶alkali 碱alkaline 碱（性）的amino acid 氨基酸anode 阳极base 碱boiling point 沸点bubble point 泡点calorimetric entropy量热熵capillarity 毛细现象carbonification 碳化作用catalyst催化剂cathode 阴极chemical affinity 化学亲合势chemical potential 化学势clone 克隆（无性系繁殖）compound 化合物composite reaction复合反应condensation in capillary 毛细管凝结condensed state 凝聚态conductivity 电导率conductance电导consecutive reaction连串反应coulometer电量计；库伦计critical parameter临界参数cyclic process 循环过程decomposition voltage分解电压demulsification 胶凝作用dew point露点dispersion phase 分散相electrode potential 电极电势electrolytic cell 电解池electromotive force 电动势electrophoresis 电泳embryo 胚胎energy level能级entropy 熵enzyme 酶equilibrium state平衡态ethane 乙烷ethanol 乙醇eutectic point 低共熔点excess pressure 附加压力extensive property 广延性质ferment 发酵；酵素freezing point凝固点gelatin凝胶gene 基因genome 基因组half cell 半电池heat of dissociation 离解热heat of neutralization 中和热heat pump 热泵ionic strength离子强度internal energy内能intermolecular force 分子间力latent heat 潜热macromolecular solution高分子溶液mechanical equivalent of heat热功当量metabolism 新陈代谢methane 甲烷microstate 微态molecular distillation 分子蒸馏negative pole 负极negative adsorption 负吸附overheated liquid 过热液体oxidation 氧化（作用）oxidation-reduction 氧化还原partial pressure 分压pascal 帕斯卡phase change 相变photoreaction 光反应photosensitized reaction 光敏反应photosynthesis 光合作用polarization极化作用polyelectrolyte 聚（合）电解质polyethylene 聚乙烯polymer 聚合物rectify精馏reduced temperature 对比温度relative viscosity 相对粘度relative volatility 相对挥发度reversible process 可逆过程salting out 盐析saturated vapor饱和蒸气sedimentation 沉降solid phase line 固相线solid solution 固态混合物solution 溶液straight chain reactions 单链反应surface excess表面吸附量thermodynamics 热力学transgenic 转基因的triple point 三相点unimolecular reaction单分子反应vaporization 气化work content 功函yield 产率计算机专业access arm 磁头臂；存取臂access time 存取时间adder 加法器address 地址alphanumeric 字母数字的analog computer 模拟计算机analyst 分析员area 区域array 数组；阵列ASCII 美国信息交换标准码assembler 汇编程序audio音频band 区band width带宽batch processing 成批处理BBS 电子布告栏系统binary code 二进制码binary digit 二进制位；二进制数字bit 比特,二进制的一位branch 分支,支线browser 浏览器brush 电刷buffer storage 缓冲存储器byte 字节calculator 计算器call instruction 呼叫指令cancel 取消card punch 卡片穿孔机card reader 卡片阅读机；读卡机cell 单元channel 通道；信道character 字符check digit 校验数位chip 芯片circuit 电路；线路click 点击clear 清除；清零clock 时钟code 代码；编码coder 编码员；编码器command 指令；命令compact disk (CD)光盘compatible兼容的compatibility兼容性compiler 编译程序computer language 计算机语言control unit 控制器core storage, core store 磁心存储器counter 计数器CPU 中央处理器cybernetics 控制论cycle 循环cursor 光标data 数据data processing 数据处理debugging 调试decision 制定delete 删除desktop桌面display 显示屏dialog box 对话框digit 数字,数位,位digital computer 数字计算机disc, disk 磁盘display unit 显示装置driver驱动器drop-down menu 下拉菜单edit 编辑EMS memory 内存encode 编码erase 擦除；清洗；抹除feed 馈送；供给feedback 反馈field 字段；信息组,域file 文件fire wall 防火墙floppy disk软盘flush left 左对齐folder 文件夹font 字体format 格式frame 帧hack 黑客hard disk 硬盘help 帮助highlight 突出显示icon图标identifier 标识符index 索引information 信息inline processing 内处理input 输入inquiry 询问insert 插入interactive 交互式instruction 指令item 项目；项jump 转移key 键,关键码keyboard 键盘latency time 等待时间library 库,程序库linkage 连接line spacing single 单倍行距load 装入；寄存；写入；加载location 存储单元logger 登记器,记录器log in/on注册；登录loop 循环machine language 机器语言magnetic storage 磁存储器magnetic tape 磁带main frame主机matrix 矩阵memory 存储器menu 菜单message 信息；报文microcomputer 微型计算机module 组件；模块modify 修改monitor 监视器；监督程序；管程motherboard主板mouse 鼠标multimedia 多媒体nanosecond 毫微秒network 网络；网numeric, numerical 数字的；数值的octet 八位位组；八位字节operator 操作员optical character reader 光符阅读机optical scanner 光扫描器output 输出overflow 溢出；上溢panel 平板parameter 参数；参量perforator 穿孔机peripheral equipment 外围设备；外部设备personal computer 个人计算机printed circuit 印制电路printer 打印机printout 打印输出process 处理processor 微处理器processing unit 处理部件program 程序program 程序编制programmer 程序设计员programming 程序设计；程序编制punch 穿孔punch 穿孔punched card, punch card 穿孔卡片punch hole 孔；穿孔punched tape, punch tape 穿孔纸带random access 随机存取read 读取reader 阅读程序reading 阅读read-only file 只读文件real time 实时record, register 记录redundancy 冗余right-click 右击routine 例行程序selector 选择器,选择符sentinel 标记sequence 序列,顺序sequential 顺序的serial 串行的.连续的server 服务器shift 移位,移数signal 信号simulation 模拟simulator 模拟器；模拟程序software 软件；软设备sort 分类,排序sorter 分类人员；分类机；分类程序；排序程序sound box 音箱storage 存储器store 存储subroutine, subprogram 子程序switch 开关symbol 符号symbolic language 符号语言system 系统table 表格tabulator 制表机teleprinter 电传打字机terminal 终端terminal unit 终端设备timer 时钟；精密计时器time sharing 分时timing 定时toolbar 工具按钮track 磁道transducer 传感器；翻译机translator 翻译程序：翻译器tools 工具update保更新view 视图virus 病毒visual 视频window 窗口经贸acceptance 承兑acquisition 收购ad valorem duty 从价税after-sales service 售后服务amortization 分期偿还（欠款本息）anti-dumping 反倾销appreciation 升值arbitration 仲裁assessment 估价auction 拍卖auditing 审计average 海损bad debt 呆帐bail out 财政援助balance of payment 国际收支差额balance sheet 资产负债表bank credit 银行信贷bankrupt 破产bar chart 柱形图bar code 条形码bargain 讨价还价benchmark 基准beneficiary 受益人bill of entry 报关单bill of exchange 汇票bill of lading 提单blue chip 蓝筹股board 董事会bonded warehouse 保税仓库bonus 红利brainstorming 集思广益brand loyalty 品牌忠诚度break-even point 收支相抵点broker 经纪人budget 预算bulk goods 散装货byproduct 副产品telegraphic transfer 电汇capital gains 资本收益capital stock 股本carriage 运费certificate of origin 原产地证明chamber of commerce 商会claim 索赔commission 佣金consignee 收货人consumer durables 耐用消费品customize 定制dealer 经销商debit card 借记卡decision-making 决策declaration of income 收入申报deficit 赤字deflation 通货紧缩delivery note 交货单differentiation 产品差异化distribution 分销diversification 经营多样化Dow Jones Industrial Average 道琼斯工业平均指数down payment 首付；定金economic indicator 经济指数endorsement 背书enquiry 寻盘exchange control 外汇管制face value 面值floating rate 浮动汇率foreign exchange 外汇franchise 特许经营freelance 自由职业者free on board 离岸价futures market 期货市场gross domestic/national product 国内/国民生产总值hedging 套期保值idle money 闲置资金import licence 进口许可证industrial tribunal 劳资仲裁庭inflation 通货膨胀infrastructure 基础设施insurance policy 保险单interest rate 利率investment trust 投资信托公司joint venture 合资公司legal expense 诉讼费用letter of credit 信用证liquidation 清算management buyout 管理层够入全部股权marginal cost 边际成本marine insurance 海运保险marketing mix 营销组合market segmentation 市场细分merger 合并mortgage 抵押贷款net asset value 净资产值offer 报盘off-season 淡季的option 期权order 定单overdraft 透支overhead 经常费用patent 专利payoff 回报，赢利performance 业绩price discrimination 价格歧视portfolio 投资组合product life cycle 产品生命周期promotion 促销public relations 公共关系quotation 报价rate of returns 收益率rationalization 合理化改革real estate 房地产refund 退款retail price 零售价securities 证券stock exchange 股票交易所subsidy 补贴surplus 过剩tariff 关税trade deficit 贸易赤字transactions velocity of circulation 货币流通速度underwriter 承保人value added tax 增值税医学albomycin 白霉素allergen过敏原allergy过敏allergic reaction 过敏反应allergic rhinitis过敏性鼻炎anaphylactic shock过敏性休克anatomy解剖学anemia贫血anorexia厌食症apoplexy 中风arthritis 关节炎beriberi脚气病blood pressure 血压blood test 验血blood type A A血型；A型血brainwave脑波bronchitis 支气管炎cancer癌症cerebral apoplexy 脑溢血cholera霍乱circulatory system循环系统clinic 诊所color blindness 色盲common cold感冒computerized tomography CT扫描contraceptive避孕用具cough咳嗽dentin牙质dentist 牙科医生dermatologist 皮肤科医生detoxification解毒作用diabetes 糖尿病dialysis 透析diarrhea 痢疾dissection解剖eardrum / tympanic membrane鼓膜electrocardiogram (ECG) 心电图electroencephalogram (EEG) 脑电图ENT (ear-nose-throat) doctor 耳鼻喉科医生epilepsy癫痫erythromycin 红霉素gastric ulcers 胃溃疡glucose葡萄糖gynaecologist 妇科医生gynecology妇科学head nurse 护士长heat stroke 中暑hormone激素house surgeon 住院外科医生hospitalization 住院治疗immune system免疫系统infectious disease 传染病infertility不孕injection 注射in-patient住院病人in-patient department 住院部intern 实习医生in vitro fertilization试管内受精leukemia白血病life expectancy预期寿命lymph淋巴malnutrition营养不良me asles 麻疹migraine偏头痛nutrition营养obesity 肥胖症obstetrician 产科医生oculist 眼科医生oligocardia 心动徐缓oligoocholia 胆汁过少oligospermia 精子减少oligopnea 呼吸迟缓oligosideremia 血铁减少oligochromimia 血红蛋白过少oligocythmia 红细胞减少oligosteatosis 皮脂减少oncologist 肿瘤科医生ophthalmologist眼科专家ophthalmology眼科学ophthalmic眼炎orthopedist 骨科医生out-patient 门诊病人out-patient department 门诊部ovulation排卵paediatrician 儿科医生paralysis 瘫痪penicillin 青霉素perspiration排汗plastic surgeon 整形外科医生pneumonia 肺炎radiologist 放射科医生register / registration 挂号rejection排斥反应resident physician 住院内科医生resistance抵抗力rheumatoid arthritis类风湿性关节炎saturated fat饱和脂肪scarlatina 猩红热scurvy坏血病sinus窦sinusitis鼻窦炎skin test 皮试smallpox 天花sphygmomanometer 血压计stethoscope听诊器streptomycin 链霉素student nurse实习护士syphilis梅毒total lung capacity总肺活量transplant operation 移植手术tuberculosis (TB) 结核病tumor肿瘤typhoid fever伤寒ultrasonic diagnosis B B超urinalysis 尿检urologist 泌尿科医生vaccine 疫苗venous injection 静脉注射vomit 呕吐ward 病房生物学chrom颜色chromophore生色团chromosome染色体chromatography色谱法melan, melano, nigr 黑melanoma黑素瘤melanin黑色素melanophore黑色素细胞xantho, flavo, fla, flavi, lute黄xanthophyl叶黄素xanthous黄色的，黄色人种xathine黄嘌呤flavin(e)黄素flavone黄酮letein黄体素，叶黄素flavin adenine dinucleotide(FAD)黄素腺嘌呤二核苷酸erythro, rub, rubrm, ruf 红erythrocyte红细胞erythromycin红霉素erythropoitin(EPO)促红细胞生成素chloro, chlor绿，氯chlorophyll叶绿素chloride氯化物chloramphenicol氯霉素cyan, cyano 蓝，青紫色，氰cyanophyceae 蓝藻纲cyanobacteria蓝细菌cyanide氰化物aur, glid, chrys金色aureomycin金霉素chrysose 金藻淀粉chrysanthemum菊花glidstone 金沙石glid 镀金leu, leuco, leuk, leuko, blan, alb无色，白色leucine亮氨酸albomycin白霉素cephal, capit, cran 头，头颅cyte 细胞carn, my, mya, myo,肉，肌肉haem, haemat, hem, aem, sangul 血soma, corp 体，身体some, plast 体，颗粒hepa, hepat 肝heparin 肝素hepatopancreas肝胰腺hepatocyte 肝细胞hepatoma肝癌ren, nephr 肾adrnal肾上腺的nephridia肾管nephron肾单位card, cord 心cardiotoxin 心脏毒素cardiovascular center 心血管中枢electrocardiogram心电图concord一致，和谐ophthalm, ocell, ocul 眼bronchi 鳃filibranch丝鳃lamellibrnch瓣鳃sencondary branchium次生鳃brac, brachi 腕，手臂brachiolaria 短腕幼虫brachionectin臂粘连蛋白bracelet手镯dent, odont 牙齿dentin牙质odontphora 齿舌odontoblast成牙质细胞plum羽plumatus 羽状的plumule绒毛plumage （鸟的）羽毛foli, foil 叶follicle滤泡foiling叶形foliage 叶子foliose 多叶的Haplodermatitis 单纯皮炎haplolichen 单纯苔藓haploid 单倍体Haplomycosis 单孢子囊菌病pan agglutination 全凝集ultra micron 超微粒ultrasonic 超声波的ultraviolet 紫外线ultrasound 超声Subabdominal 腹下的subarchinoid 蛛网膜下腔的subaural 耳下的subscapular 肩胛下的subcapduloperiosteal 关节囊骨膜下的subclavicular 胸骨下的substratum 下层hypoderm 皮下组织cranium颅cranial bone颅骨cranial cavity 颅腔hip 髋coax bone / hip bone 髋骨hip girdle 髋带hip replacement 髋置换base pair盐基对base盐基hydrochloric acid 盐酸salts 盐类tooth decay龋齿dental caries 龋齿palatine bone 腭骨patella髌骨pulp cavity 髓腔medulla 髓质medulla 髓质myelin 髓磷脂cellulose纤维素fibrin 纤维蛋白fibrinogen 纤维蛋白原fibrous cartilage纤维软骨农业land, soil 土壤arable land, tilled land 耕地dry soil 旱田fertile soil 沃土，肥沃的土壤humus 腐殖质irrigable land 水浇地lean soil, poor soil 贫瘠土壤wasteland, barren land 荒地grassland 草地meadow 草甸prairie 大草原pasture land 牧场fallow 休闲地stubble, stubble field 亩茬地straw, hay 稿杆rural population 农村人口rural exodus 农村迁徙land reform, agrarian reform 土地改革mechanization of farming 农业机械化mechanized farming 机械化耕作cattle farm 奶牛场ranch 大农场，牧场hacienda 庄园holding 田产plot, parcel, lot 地块cooperative farm 合作农场collective farm集体农场country, countryside 农村countryman 农民，农夫countrywoman 农民，农妇agronomist 农学家latifundium, large landed estate 大农场主farmer 农户producer 农业工人landowner 地主，土地拥有者absentee landlord 外居地主smallholder, small farmer 小农rancher 牧场主tenant farmer, leaseholder 土地租用人sharecropper 佃农ploughman 农夫，犁田者farm labourers 农场工人，农业工人（美作：farm laborers）farm hand 农场短工cattle farmer 牧场工人cowherd, cowboy 牛仔shepherd 牧人fruit grower 果农vinegrower 葡萄栽植者vintager 采葡萄者farming, husbandry 农业animal husbandry, animal breeding 畜牧业dairy farming 乳品业，乳牛业horticulture 园艺market gardening 商品蔬菜种植业fruit growing 果树栽培vinegrowing, viticulture 葡萄栽培olive growing 油橄榄栽培arboriculture树艺silviculture 造林学agricultural products, farm products 农产品foodstuffs 食品dairy produce, dairy products 乳制品dairy industry 乳品加工业crop year, farming year农事年season 季节agricultural, commodities market 农业市场livestock 牲畜alfalfa 紫苜蓿apple 苹果apricot 杏子aquiculture 水产养殖asparagus 芦笋banana 香蕉barley 大麦bean 豆bee-keeping 养蜂beeswax 蜂蜡branch 树枝breed 繁殖，生育，饲养buffalo 水牛，野牛cabbage 洋白菜calf 小牛，仔camel 骆驼carp 鲤鱼carrot 胡萝卜cassava 木薯castor—bean 蓖麻籽castor—O¨蓖麻油cat fish 鲇鱼cattle 牛(总称)cauliflower 菜花chemical fertilizer 化学肥料cherry 樱桃chicken 小鸡chlorophyll 叶绿素cock 公鸡coconut 椰子cocoon 蚕茧cod 鳕鱼colony 蜂群compost 堆肥，混合肥料corn 玉米cotton 棉花COW 母牛cowboy 牛仔crop 农作物cross—breeding 杂交dairy farm 奶牛场desert 沙漠donkey 驴duck 鸭子egg 鸡蛋fertilizer 肥料fiber 纤维fig 无花果fish 鱼forest 森林fruit 水果game bird 可猎取的鸟garlic 大蒜gene—altered food(crop) 转基因食物(作物) gene—engineered food(crop) 转基因食物(作物)ginseng 人参GM(gene—modified) food(crop) 转基因食物(作物)goat 山羊graft 嫁接grain 谷物grape 葡萄hay 干草hen 母鸡herbicide 除草剂hive 蜂箱honey 蜂蜜honeycomb 蜂巢horse 马incubate 孵化insect pest 病虫，害虫insecticide 杀虫剂irrigation 灌溉lamb 羔羊leaf 树叶levee 大堤，堤livestock (总称)牲畜lobster 龙虾locust 蝗虫log 圆木．1umbering 伐木maize 玉米mating 交配milk 牛奶mink 水貂mule 骡mushroom 蘑菇mustard 芥末nectar 花蜜nitric acid 硝酸oat 燕麦onion 洋葱orange 广柑，橙子organic fertilizer 有机肥料ox 牛parched field 焦干的土地peach 桃peanut 花生persimmon 柿子pesticide 杀虫剂pet 供玩赏的动物，爱畜，宠物photosynthesis 光合作用pineapple 菠萝plum 李子pollen 花粉potato 土豆poultry farming 养鸡场queen wasp 蜂王raise 饲养ram 公羊ranch 牧场rattan 藤reservoir 水库root 树根royal jelly 王浆seed 种子silage 青贮饲料silk 丝silkworm 蚕soybean 大豆squash 南瓜stem 茎，树干straw 稻草strawberry 草莓sugarcane 甘蔗tangerine 红皮桔till 耕作tillable 可耕作的tillage 耕作tomato 西红柿trawler 拖网渔船turkey 火鸡vegetable 蔬菜wasp 黄蜂watermelon 西瓜weed 杂草well 井wheat 小麦石油化工oil field 油田wildcat 盲目开掘的油井percussive drilling 冲击钻探rotary drilling 旋转钻探offshore drilling 海底钻探well 井，油井derrick 井架Christmas tree 采油树crown block 定滑轮travelling block 动滑轮drill pipe, drill stem 钻杆drill bit钻头roller bit 牙轮钻头diamond bit 钻石钻头swivel 泥浆喷嘴turntable, rotary table 轮盘pumping station 泵站sampling 取样sample 样品，样本core sample 矿样storage tank 储油罐pipeline 油管pipe laying 输油管线oil tanker 油轮tank car, tanker （铁路）罐车，槽车tank truck, tanker （汽车）运油罐车，油罐车refining 炼油refinery 炼油厂cracking 裂化separation 分离fractionating tower 分馏塔fractional distillation 分馏distillation column 分裂蒸馏塔polymerizing, polymerization 聚合purification 净化hydrocarbon 烃，碳氢化合物crude oil, crude 原油petrol 汽油（美作：gasoline）LPG, liquefied petroleum gas 液化石油气LNG, liquefied natural gas 液化天然气octane number辛烷数，辛烷值vaseline 凡士林paraffin 石蜡kerosene, karaffin oil 煤油gas oil 柴油lubricating oil 润滑油asphalt 沥青benzene 苯fuel 燃料natural gas 天然气olefin 烯烃high-grade petrol 高级汽油plastic 塑料机械assembly line组装线layout布置图conveyer流水线物料板rivet table拉钉机rivet gun拉钉枪screw driver起子electric screw driver电动起子pneumatic screw driver气动起子worktable 工作桌OOBA开箱检查fit together组装在一起fasten锁紧(螺丝)fixture 夹具(治具)pallet栈板barcode条码barcode scanner条码扫描器fuse together熔合fuse machine热熔机repair修理QC品管cosmetic inspect外观检查inner parts inspect内部检查thumb screw大头螺丝lbs. inch镑、英寸EMI gasket导电条front plate前板rear plate后板chassis 基座bezel panel面板power button电源按键reset button重置键hi-pot test of SPS高源高压测试voltage switch of SPS 电源电压接拉键sheet metal parts 冲件plastic parts塑胶件SOP制造作业程序material check list物料检查表work cell工作间trolley台车carton纸箱sub-line支线left fork叉车planning department企划部QC Section品管科stamping factory冲压厂painting factory烤漆厂molding factory成型厂common equipment常用设备uncoiler and straightener整平机punching machine 冲床robot机械手hydraulic machine油压机lathe车床planer 'plein?刨床miller铣床grinder磨床driller铣床linear cutting线切割electrical sparkle电火花welder电焊机staker=reviting machine铆合机general manager总经理be put in storage入库pack packing包装to apply oil擦油to file burr 锉毛刺final inspection终检to connect material接料to reverse material 翻料wet station沾湿台Tiana天那水cleaning cloth抹布to load material上料to unload material卸料to return material/stock to退料scraped 'skr?pid报废scrape ..v.刮;削deficient purchase来料不良manufacture procedure制程deficient manufacturing procedure制程不良oxidation ' ksi'dei?n氧化scratch刮伤dents压痕defective upsiding down抽芽不良defective to staking铆合不良embedded lump镶块feeding is not in place送料不到位stamping-missing漏冲production capacity生产力education and training教育与训练proposal improvement提案改善spare parts=buffer备件forklift叉车trailer=long vehicle拖板车compound die合模die locker锁模器pressure plate=plate pinch压板bolt螺栓automatic screwdriver电动启子thickness gauge厚薄规gauge(or jig)治具power wire电源线buzzle蜂鸣器defective product label不良标签identifying sheet list标示单screwdriver holder起子插座pedal踩踏板stopper阻挡器flow board流水板hydraulic handjack油压板车forklift叉车pallet栈板band-aid创可贴iudustrial alcohol工业酒精alcohol container沾湿台sweeper扫把mop拖把vaccum cleaner吸尘器rag 抹布garbage container灰箕garbage can垃圾箱garbage bag垃圾袋chain链条jack升降机production line流水线chain链条槽magnetizer加磁器lamp holder灯架to mop the floor拖地to clean the floor扫地to clean a table擦桌子air pipe 气管packaging tool打包机packaging打包missing part漏件wrong part错件excessive defects过多的缺陷critical defect极严重缺陷major defect主要缺陷minor defect次要缺陷not up to standard不合规格dimension/size is a little bigger尺寸偏大(小) cosmetic defect外观不良slipped screwhead/slippery screw head螺丝滑头slipped screwhead/shippery screw thread滑手speckle斑点mildewed=moldy=mouldy发霉rust生锈deformation变形burr(金属)flash(塑件)毛边poor staking铆合不良excesssive gap间隙过大grease/oil stains油污shrinking/shrinkage缩水mixed color杂色scratch划伤poor processing 制程不良poor incoming part事件不良fold of pakaging belt打包带折皱painting make-up补漆discoloration羿色water spots水渍polishing/surface processing表面处理exposed metal/bare metal金属裸露lack of painting烤漆不到位delivery deadline交货期cost成本engineering工程die repair模修die worker模工to start a press开机classification整理regulation整顿cleanness清扫qualified products, up-to-grade products良品defective products, not up-to-grade products 不良品waste废料board看板feeder送料机sliding rack滑料架defective product box不良品箱die change 换模to fix a die装模to take apart a die拆模to repair a die修模packing material包材plastic basket胶筐isolating plate baffle plate; barricade隔板carton box纸箱to pull and stretch拉深to put material in place, to cut material, to input落料to impose lines压线to compress, compressing压缩character die字模to feed, feeding送料transportation运输。
科技英语翻译___课后答案
科技英语翻译6.1 介词的一般译法第1节翻译练习1In general, man serves as the source of infection while animals act as such only occasionally.An industrial robot shares many attributes in common with a numerical control machine tool.一般来说，人可作为感染源，而动物只是偶然如此。
工业用机器人与数控机床有许多共同的特性。
第1节翻译练习2With non-changeover control both the boiler plant and the chiller plant operate to provide simultaneous heating and cooling throughout the year.The online service delivers substantially more value to our global audience of e-business professionals in the chemical, plastics and allied industries.This device can mimic photosynthesis to produce usable energy from sunlight.采用非转换控制，锅炉设备和制冷装置都在运行，全年可同时供暖和制冷。
该网络服务主要向全球从事化学、塑料及相关工业的专业电子商务用户提供更有价值的服务。
这种装置能够模拟光合作用，利用阳光产生可用的能源。
第1节翻译练习3The longitudinal axis of the turbine generator is perpendicular to the axis of the steam generator. In the right conditions, membranes are self-assembling.Winding of the spring induces residual stresses through bending.汽轮发电机的纵轴与锅炉轴线垂直。
科技英语常用单词
objective function 目标函数observability index 可观测指数observable canonical form 可观测规范型on-line assistance 在线帮助on-off control 通断控制open loop pole 开环极点operational research model 运筹学模型optic fiber tachometer 光纤式转速表optimal trajectory 最优轨迹optimization technique 最优化技术orbital rendezvous 轨道交会orbit gyrocompass 轨道陀螺罗盘orbit perturbation 轨道摄动order parameter 序参数orientation control 定向控制originator 始发站oscillating period 振荡周期output prediction method 输出预估法oval wheel flowmeter 椭圆齿轮流量计overall design 总体设计overdamping 过阻尼overlapping decomposition 交叠分解Pade approximation 帕德近似Pareto optimality 帕雷托最优性passive attitude stabilization 被动姿态稳定path repeatability 路径可重复性pattern primitive 模式基元PR (pattern recognition) 模式识别P control 比例控制器peak time 峰值时间penalty function method 罚函数法perceptron 感知器periodic duty 周期工作制perturbation theory 摄动理论pessimistic value 悲观值phase locus 相轨迹phase trajectory 相轨迹phase lead 相位超前photoelectric tachometric transducer 光电式转速传感器phrase-structure grammar 短句结构文法physical symbol system 物理符号系统piezoelectric force transducer 压电式力传感器playback robot 示教再现式机器人PLC (programmable logic controller) 可编程序逻辑控制器plug braking 反接制动plug valve 旋塞阀pneumatic actuator 气动执行机构point-to-point control 点位控制polar robot 极坐标型机器人pole assignment 极点配置pole-zero cancellation 零极点相消polynomial input 多项式输入portfolio theory 投资搭配理论pose overshoot 位姿过调量position measuring instrument 位置测量仪posentiometric displacement transducer 电位器式位移传感器positive feedback 正反馈power system automation 电力系统自动化predicate logic 谓词逻辑pressure gauge with electriccontact电接点压力表pressure transmitter 压力变送器price coordination 价格协调primal coordination 主协调primary frequency zone 主频区PCA (principal componentanalysis)主成分分析法principle of turnpike 大道原理priority 优先级process-oriented simulation 面向过程的仿真production budget 生产预算production rule 产生式规则profit forecast 利润预测PERT (program evaluation andreview technique)计划评审技术program set station 程序设定操作器proportional control 比例控制proportional plus derivativecontroller比例微分控制器protocol engineering 协议工程prototype 原型pseudo random sequence 伪随机序列pseudo-rate-increment control 伪速率增量控制pulse duration 脉冲持续时间pulse frequency modulation control system 脉冲调频控制系统pulse width modulation control system 脉冲调宽控制系统PWM inverter 脉宽调制逆变器pushdown automaton 下推自动机QC (quality control) 质量管理quadratic performance index 二次型性能指标qualitative physical model 定性物理模型quantized noise 量化噪声quasilinear characteristics 准线性特性queuing theory 排队论radio frequency sensor 射频敏感器ramp function 斜坡函数random disturbance 随机扰动random process 随机过程rate integrating gyro 速率积分陀螺ratio station 比值操作器reachability 可达性reaction wheel control 反作用轮控制realizability 可实现性,能实现性real time telemetry 实时遥测receptive field 感受野rectangular robot 直角坐标型机器人rectifier 整流器recursive estimation 递推估计reduced order observer 降阶观测器redundant information 冗余信息reentry control 再入控制regenerative braking 回馈制动，再生制动regional planning model 区域规划模型regulating device 调节装载regulation 调节relational algebra 关系代数relay characteristic 继电器特性remote manipulator 遥控操作器remote regulating 遥调remote set point adjuster 远程设定点调整器rendezvous and docking 交会和对接reproducibility 再现性resistance thermometer sensor 热电阻resolution principle 归结原理resource allocation 资源分配response curve 响应曲线return difference matrix 回差矩阵return ratio matrix 回比矩阵reverberation 回响reversible electric drive 可逆电气传动revolute robot 关节型机器人revolution speed transducer 转速传感器rewriting rule 重写规则rigid spacecraft dynamics 刚性航天动力学risk decision 风险分析robotics 机器人学robot programming language 机器人编程语言robust control 鲁棒控制robustness 鲁棒性roll gap measuring instrument 辊缝测量仪root locus 根轨迹roots flowmeter 腰轮流量计rotameter 浮子流量计，转子流量计rotary eccentric plug valve 偏心旋转阀rotary motion valve 角行程阀rotating transformer 旋转变压器Routh approximation method 劳思近似判据routing problem 路径问题sampled-data control system 采样控制系统sampling control system 采样控制系统saturation characteristics 饱和特性scalar Lyapunov function 标量李雅普诺夫函数SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot arm) 平面关节型机器人scenario analysis method 情景分析法scene analysis 物景分析s-domain s域self-operated controller 自力式控制器self-organizing system 自组织系统self-reproducing system 自繁殖系统self-tuning control 自校正控制semantic network 语义网络semi-physical simulation 半实物仿真sensing element 敏感元件sensitivity analysis 灵敏度分析sensory control 感觉控制sequential decomposition 顺序分解sequential least squares estimation 序贯最小二乘估计servo control 伺服控制，随动控制servomotor 伺服马达settling time 过渡时间sextant 六分仪short term planning 短期计划short time horizon coordination 短时程协调signal detection and estimation 信号检测和估计signal reconstruction 信号重构similarity 相似性simulated interrupt 仿真中断simulation block diagram 仿真框图simulation experiment 仿真实验simulation velocity 仿真速度simulator 仿真器single axle table 单轴转台single degree of freedom gyro 单自由度陀螺single level process 单级过程single value nonlinearity 单值非线性singular attractor 奇异吸引子singular perturbation 奇异摄动sink 汇点slaved system 受役系统slower-than-real-time simulation 欠实时仿真slow subsystem 慢变子系统socio-cybernetics 社会控制论socioeconomic system 社会经济系统software psychology 软件心理学solar array pointing control 太阳帆板指向控制solenoid valve 电磁阀source 源点specific impulse 比冲speed control system 调速系统spin axis 自旋轴spinner 自旋体stability criterion 稳定性判据stability limit 稳定极限stabilization 镇定，稳定Stackelberg decision theory 施塔克尔贝格决策理论state equation model 状态方程模型state space description 状态空间描述static characteristics curve 静态特性曲线station accuracy 定点精度stationary random process 平稳随机过程statistical analysis 统计分析statistic pattern recognition 统计模式识别steady state deviation 稳态偏差steady state error coefficient 稳态误差系数step-by-step control 步进控制step function 阶跃函数stepwise refinement 逐步精化stochastic finite automaton 随机有限自动机strain gauge load cell 应变式称重传感器strategic function 策略函数strongly coupled system 强耦合系统subjective probability 主观频率suboptimality 次优性supervised training 监督学习supervisory computer controlsystem计算机监控系统sustained oscillation 自持振荡swirlmeter 旋进流量计switching point 切换点symbolic processing 符号处理synaptic plasticity 突触可塑性synergetics 协同学syntactic analysis 句法分析system assessment 系统评价systematology 系统学system homomorphism 系统同态system isomorphism 系统同构system engineering 系统工程tachometer 转速表target flow transmitter 靶式流量变送器task cycle 作业周期teaching programming 示教编程telemechanics 远动学telemetering system of frequencydivision type频分遥测系统telemetry 遥测teleological system 目的系统teleology 目的论temperature transducer 温度传感器template base 模版库tensiometer 张力计texture 纹理theorem proving 定理证明therapy model 治疗模型thermocouple 热电偶thermometer 温度计thickness meter 厚度计three-axis attitude stabilization 三轴姿态稳定three state controller 三位控制器thrust vector control system 推力矢量控制系统thruster 推力器time constant 时间常数time-invariant system 定常系统，非时变系统time schedule controller 时序控制器time-sharing control 分时控制time-varying parameter 时变参数top-down testing 自上而下测试topological structure 拓扑结构TQC (total quality control) 全面质量管理tracking error 跟踪误差trade-off analysis 权衡分析transfer function matrix 传递函数矩阵transformation grammar 转换文法transient deviation 瞬态偏差transient process 过渡过程transition diagram 转移图transmissible pressure gauge 电远传压力表transmitter 变送器trend analysis 趋势分析triple modulation telemetering system 三重调制遥测系统turbine flowmeter 涡轮流量计Turing machine 图灵机two-time scale system 双时标系统ultrasonic levelmeter 超声物位计unadjustable speed electric drive 非调速电气传动unbiased estimation 无偏估计underdamping 欠阻尼uniformly asymptotic stability 一致渐近稳定性uninterrupted duty 不间断工作制，长期工作制unit circle 单位圆unit testing 单元测试unsupervised learing 非监督学习upper level problem 上级问题urban planning 城市规划utility function 效用函数value engineering 价值工程variable gain 可变增益，可变放大系数variable structure control system 变结构控制vector Lyapunov function 向量李雅普诺夫函数velocity error coefficient 速度误差系数velocity transducer 速度传感器vertical decomposition 纵向分解vibrating wire force transducer 振弦式力传感器vibrometer 振动计viscous damping 粘性阻尼voltage source inverter 电压源型逆变器vortex precession flowmeter 旋进流量计vortex shedding flowmeter 涡街流量计WB (way base) 方法库weighing cell 称重传感器weighting factor 权因子weighting method 加权法Whittaker-Shannon sampling theorem 惠特克-香农采样定理Wiener filtering 维纳滤波work station for computer aided design 计算机辅助设计工作站w-plane w平面zero-based budget 零基预算zero-input response 零输入响应zero-state response 零状态响应zero sum game model 零和对策模型z-transform z变换。
《科技英语文献阅读与翻译》Unit-1-TextA
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约翰·冯·诺依曼 (1903-1957)
匈牙利裔美国数学家, 普林斯顿大学和普林斯顿 高等研究所教授,曾任研制原子弹的顾问，并参 加研制计算机,被称为计算机之父,1954年成为 美国原子能委员会委员.作为二十世纪最杰出的 数学家之一, 他在数理逻辑, 测度论, 格论和连 续几何学方面都有开创性的成果;在博弈论和控 制论,力学,经济学和计算机研制等领域做出了杰 出的贡献. 他同莫根·施特恩合作，写出《博弈 论和经济行为》(Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, 1947)一书，这是博弈论
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博弈论
博弈论有时也称为对策论是应用数 学的一个分支, 是研究具有斗争或竞 争性质现象的数学理论和方法,也是 运筹学的一个重要学科。目前在社 会学,生物学，经济学，国际关系， 计算机科学, 政治学，军事战略和其 他很多学科都有广泛的应用。
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Unit One
Princeton has traditionally focused on undergraduate education and academic research, it now offers a large number of top-rated professional Master's degrees and PhD programs in a range of subjects.
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Princeton
Princeton is a city in Green Lake County, NJ, United States.
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《科技英语阅读》课后名词解释和翻译
Unit1 mathematics名词解释绝对补集absolute complement / 代数algebra /代数式algebraic expression / 代数方程algebraic equation / 代数不等式algebraic inequality / 任意常数arbitrary constant / 数组array / 底数；基数base number / 连续函数continuous function / 函数function / 复合函数function of function / 函数记号functional notation / 集合aggregate / 子集subset /迭代函数iterative function/优先权之争priority battle/分形特征fractal properties/有意义make sense/以越来越小的规模重复同一模式patterns repeat themselves at smaller and smaller scales/混沌理论chaos theory/季刊a quarterly journal/数学界the mathematics community/波纹线crisp lines/会议公报proceedings of a conference翻译3. Translate the sentences into Chinese.1)他主要是因为用分形这个概念来描述（海岸线、雪花、山脉和树木）等不规则形状等现象而闻名于世，这些不规则形状在越来越小的规模上不断重复同一模式。
2)如果再仔细观察，就可以发现集的边界并没有呈波纹线，而是像火焰一样闪光。
3)但是，克朗兹在这场辩论中引入了一个新东西，他说曼德布洛特集不是曼德布洛特集发明的，而是早在“曼德布洛特集”这个术语出现几年以前就已经明确地在数学文献中出现了。
4)曼德布洛特同时也暗示即使布鲁克斯和马特尔斯基的论文先于他发表，但因为他们没有领会到其价值，仍然不能将他们看作是曼德布洛特集的发现者。
04UNIT2科技英语基础知识
翻译练习
4. 为了实现10位高性能和低功耗的流水线型 模数转换器，提出了基于0.6 μm CMOS混合 信号工艺的设计方法。
翻译练习
5. Despite of many standard process and design methods, performances of IC devices in use are always different , especially bipolar IC devices whose voltage and power are hard to match the standard design methods , are always designed separately .
翻译练习
5. 虽然有许多标准流程和设计方法，但在 实际应用中IC产品的性能是有很大区别的， 尤其是双极性IC产品，其电压和功率很难 与标准设计方法相匹配，总是需要单独设 计。
课后学习
阅读教材UNIT 3 Passage A； பைடு நூலகம்搜集专业术语。
表数词的前缀: “千”
“kilo - ” kiloampere (千安培) ; kilobyte (千字节) ; kilocalorie (千卡) ; kilogram (千克) ; kiloohm (千欧姆) ; kiloton (千吨) ;
表数词的前缀: “千”
“milli - ” 表“1/1000，毫 ” milligram毫克 milliampere 毫安培 millimeter 亳米
翻译练习
1. America’s plans didn’t seem to interest the eastern hemisphere.
2. Our team just scraped into the semifinals. 3. He was far from impressive in his semifinal
科技英语不同类型的范例解析2
The next section of the paper is the Introduction . In many journals this section is not given a title. As its name implies, this section presents the background knowledge necessary for the reader to understand why the findings of the paper are an advance on the knowledge in the field. Typically, the Introduction describes first the accepted state of knowledge in a specialized field; then it focuses more specifically on a particular aspect, usually describing a finding or set of findings that led directly to the work described in the paper. If the authors are testing a hypothesis, the source of that hypothesis is spelled out, findings are given with which it is consistent, and one or more predictions are given. In many papers, one or several major conclusions of the paper are presented at the end of this section, so that the reader knows the major answers to the questions just posed. Papers more descriptive or comparative in nature may begin with an introduction to an area which interests the authors, or the need for a broader database.
《科技英语翻译》课件
CATALOGUE
目录
Common problems and solutions in translating scientific EnglishTraining of Technical English Translation Talents
CHAPTER
Overview of Science and Technology English Translation
Developing reading habits in scientific English
By regularly reading scientific English literature, students can cultivate good reading habits in scientific English, improve reading speed and comprehension ability.
Understanding technical knowledge: Patent documents involve technical content in different fields. By translating patent documents, students can understand technical knowledge in different fields and improve their technical understanding ability.
Context Understanding
Technical English translation requires an understanding of the context in which the text is used Translators need to consider the intended audience, purpose, and domain specific knowledge to ensure accurate translation
科技 英语单词
科技英语单词《科技英语单词》一、解答在科技领域有众多的英语单词，以下是一些常见的：“technology（技术）”、“science（科学）”、“innovation（创新）”、“experiment（实验）”、“research（研究）”等。
二、中文翻译并英语解释1. technology- 中文翻译：技术；工艺；科技。
- 英语解释：The application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry.（为了实际目的，特别是在工业中的科学知识的应用。
）2. science- 中文翻译：科学；理科；学科。
- 英语解释：The intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.（通过观察和实验对物理和自然世界的结构和行为进行系统研究的智力和实践活动。
）3. innovation- 中文翻译：创新；革新；新事物。
- 英语解释：The introduction of new things, ideas, or ways of doing something.（新事物、新思想或做事新方法的引入。
）4. experiment- 中文翻译：实验；试验；尝试。
- 英语解释：A scientific procedure carried out to test a hypothesis, make a discovery, or demonstrate a known fact.（为检验假设、做出发现或证明已知事实而进行的科学程序。