语义学论文
英语毕业论文：语义学在英语教学中的应用
Teaching English as a Second LanguageTo Non-English Majors from Semantic PerspectiveA ThesisFor the MA. Degree in Chinese摘要大家都知道中国人学习英语特别难，有的人花十几年的时间来学习它，结果是时间没少用，精力没少费，效果却不尽如人意。
问题主要是学校单方面地强调机械模仿，死记硬背，而忽视了语言理论在语言习得方面的指导应用。
本文通过对中国学生在英语学习中常犯错误的分析分类，用语言学的分支学科语义学来指导教学活动，使课堂教学上升到新的理论高度，从而改进大学英语教学，使大学生少花时间和精力，更好地掌握英语这一武器，投入更多的精力学习其它科学知识。
本文将语义学在英语教学中的应用归纳为以下几点:1、语义学与词汇教学，运用语义学的上下意关系、同义词关系、反义词关系、语义场理论来指导词汇教学。
2、语义学的并置理论与英语教学，并置分为不合语法规则和不合语义规则两种，并置语义与搭配的关系、搭配的根本问题、语言中的非常规搭配、搭配理论与语言教学在本部分也有详细论述。
关键词:语义学英语教学并置理论词汇教学AbstractIt is well known that it is very difficult for Chinese to learn English. Some people spend years learning it, but the result is disappointing. Mainly because mechanical emulation and learning by heart are emphasized while the application of syntactic in the acquisition of a language is ignored. This article guides the teaching activities in classroom with this theory by analyzing and classifying mistakes of Chinese college students to improve teaching and learning, leaving them more time to develop their own interests. This article classifies the applications of syntactic theory in language acquisition as follows:1 .Syntactic and vocabulary learning involve superordinate, hyponym,synonym antonym and semantic field.2. Relationship of English teaching and collocation of the semantic theory dealswith regular and irregular collocation.Key Words: teaching English teaching vocabulary语义学是研究语言的意义的学科，它主要研究语义的各种性质、类型、语义关系、语义的结构和功能，以及语义的形成和演变等。
英语语义学论文
西南大学研究生课程考试答卷纸考试科目语义学院、所、中心外国语学院专业或专业领域英语语言文学研究方向认知语言学级别2011级学年2011—2012学期第一学期姓名翟蕾学号112011310000924类别全日制硕士（①全日制博士②全日制硕士③教育硕士④高师硕士⑤工程硕士⑥农推硕士⑦兽医硕士⑧进修)年月日研究生院(筹)制备注：成绩评定以百分制或等级制评分，每份试卷均应标明课程类别（①必修课②选修课③同等学力补修课）与考核方式（①闭卷笔试②口试③开卷笔试④课程论文）。
课程论文应给出评语。
Abstract：As we all know, preposition is one of the most active word classes with vital significance in both the English and Chinese languages. “C ong” is used frequently in modern Chinese; and in English, “from” is used frequently, too. Having a good master of the respective semantic functions and making cognitive semantic studies of the symmetries and asymmetries of their respective semantic functions without no doubt enable English learners to apply theory into practice and acquire the English usage well.Key words: English preposition “from”, Chinese preposition “cong”, cognitive, semantic function摘要：总所周知，英汉两种语言中，介词均属于最重要的虚词之一。
从认知语义学角度看英语习语
论文导读:：认知语义学研究表明,大部分习语的构成有系统的概念上的动因。
本文从认知语义学的角度出发来揭示英语习语的本质,并运用概念隐喻。
论文关键词：习语，认知语义学，隐喻概念习语是现代英语的一个重要组成部分,因其结构紧凑、表达力强得到语言使用者和研究者的重视。
但是英语习语大多与英语民族的历史发展、地理环境、风俗习惯等有关,很难从它的组成成分推测出来它的意思,这就是英语习语很难理解和掌握原因。
认知语义学研究表明,大部分习语的构成有系统的概念上的动因。
本文从认知语义学的角度出发来揭示英语习语的本质,并运用概念隐喻隐喻概念，转喻与常规知识分析英语习语的语义,以加深对习语的理解。
一、习语意义观传统语言学家从习语的语义整体性来研究习语,认为一句习语的意义是不可分割的统一体,其语义不能由构成各词的单独语义组成,各个词在组合中也失去了它们原先在语义上的独立性。
Gibbs将习语分为三类:第一类是不可分析的习语,第二类是可正常分析的习语,第三类是不可正常分析的习语。
接下来本文要从认知语义学的角度探讨习语的意义与其各组成部分的意义之间的关系。
二、习语的语义理据分析习语是认知机制的作用物构成习语的各个词及其句法特征和意义，组成这个习语的形式和字面意义,形成一个或多个概念域。
这种概念域通过认知机制的作用与习语的特殊意义相联系。
在这里起作用的认知机制常常是隐喻、换喻和常规知识等。
2.1隐喻认知作用的习语美国心理学家Gibbs 发现,概念隐喻有心理现实性,正是概念隐喻促使产生了习语表达方式;人们对习语隐喻基础有着心照不宣的知识,人们对理解习语一致性就是概念隐喻作用的结果。
例如:LOVE IS FIRE ----- I amburning with love.概念隐喻在这里作用于两个不同的知识范围,使它们一致起来。
人们可以使用能够直接体验到的、熟悉的东西,来谈论另一个较为抽象的、不大熟悉的东西。
2.2 转喻认知和常规知识作用的习语与隐喻不同,转喻只涉及一个概念域,是人们用熟悉的事物去表征与其相关的事物或用熟悉的一个方面去表征整个事物的一种认知方式发表论文。
语言学论文
语言学论文引言语言学是研究语言的科学领域，探讨语言的结构、历史、发展和使用等方面的问题。
语言学涵盖了语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学等多个子学科，通过研究语言现象和规律，揭示人类语言能力和语言行为的本质。
本文将介绍语言学的基本概念和研究方法，并探讨一些与语言学相关的热门话题。
语言学的基本概念语言语言是人类沟通的主要工具，用于表达思想、交流信息和传递文化。
语言可以通过声音、文字、手势等形式进行表达，并具有一定的结构和规则。
不同的语言具有不同的词汇、语法和语音特点，反映了不同社会群体的文化和价值观。
语音学语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和认知等方面的问题。
语音学家通过分析语音的声音特征和发音方式，揭示语音的音位系统和音韵规律。
语音学对于理解语言的音素、音韵和音系等基本要素具有重要意义。
词汇学词汇学是研究词汇的学科，包括词汇的形态、词义、构词法和词汇变化等方面的内容。
词汇是语言的基本单位，通过词汇的组合和变化，人们可以构建不同的表达方式和意义。
词汇学的研究对于理解语言的语义结构和表达方式具有重要参考价值。
句法学句法学是研究句子的结构和语法规则的学科，包括句子成分、句子类型和句法关系等方面的内容。
句法学家通过分析句子的组织和成分之间的关系，揭示语言的语法结构和句法规则。
句法学的研究对于理解语言的句法结构和语法变化具有重要意义。
语义学语义学是研究语言的意义和人类思维的学科，涉及词义、句义和篇章意义等方面的内容。
语义学家通过分析词汇和句子的意义，探讨语言表达的逻辑关系和语义关联。
语义学对于理解语言的意义和语篇逻辑具有重要参考价值。
语言学的研究方法语言学的研究方法主要包括田野调查、统计分析和实验研究等。
以下将简要介绍这些研究方法：田野调查田野调查是语言学研究中常用的一种方法，通过对自然环境和语言使用情况的观察和记录，获取真实的语言数据。
研究人员可能会采访当地的居民，记录他们的口头语言和方言等。
语义学论文
的分析。“图形-背景分离原则”不但是空间组织的一个基本认知原则，也是语言组织概念内容的一个基本认知原则。
句法分析是语言研究的一个重要内容,句法研究的方法也是多种多样。本文将从认知语言学中的图形-背景理论出发,探讨图形-背景这一认知结构如何从时间和空间的角度对传统意义上的简单句和复合句进行诠释,以加强对这一领域的认知理解。
从语言学的角度看，研究图形-背景的选择及其之间的关系在语言结构中是如何表征的，这是很有价值且非常有趣的事情。自Talmy率先把图形-背景论用于语言研究以来，认知语言学家就把图形-背景分离原则看成是语言组织信息的一个基本认知原则。langacker根据感知突显的程度对图形和背景进行了这样的论述：“从印象上来看，一个情景中的图形是一个次结构，它在感知上比其余部分（背景）要‘显眼’些，并且作为一个中心实体具有特殊的突显，情景围绕它组织起来，并为它提供一个环境”。他还揭示了图形与背景区别的一种自然体现：“与环境形成鲜明对比的一个相对密集的区域，具有被选作图形的强烈倾向”。Langacker的这番话实际上道出了一个实质性的问题，那就是“内包”这一概念：图形必须恰当地包含在背景中，因此它比背景小。这也就很好的证明了上述的例子，book的体积明显小于桌子，桌子就成为了背景，书就成了图形。
语义学(原创-本科 文学院&外国语学院 期末论文)
语义学专业年级XX学号：XXXXXXXX 语义学语义学实际上是跨学科的交叉性学科。
语义学（Semantics），也作“语意学”，是一个涉及到语言学、逻辑学、计算机科学、自然语言处理、认知科学、心理学等诸多领域的一个术语。
语义学是一门既古老又年轻的学科。
中国有很悠久的语义学研究传统，从最早的《尔雅》、《方言》，到后来的《说文解字》等等都是对词汇和汉字的意义的研究。
还有中国的注疏训诂学的研究实际上涉及到词汇学以及历史词汇学的很多内容。
王力先生的巨著《汉语史》中就有词汇意义发展变化的一个专门部分。
20世纪50年代，以义素分析和语义场理论的产生为标志，语义学才成为一门相对独立的学科。
语义学是研究语言单位和话语的意义的科学，是语言学的分支学科。
主要研究语义的各种性质、类型、语义关系、语义的结构和功能，以及语义的形成和演变等等。
语义学的研究对象是自然语言的意义，这里的自然语言可以是词汇，句子，篇章等等不同级别的语言单位。
但是各个领域里对语言的意义的研究目的不同。
语义学主要有三大分支：一是语言学的语义学，即狭义语义学。
二是哲学的语义学，即语义哲学。
三是逻辑学的语义学，即逻辑语义学。
作为语言学分支的语义学，大体上可以分为语汇语义学和句法语义学两大分支。
语言学的语义学语言学的语义学研究目的在于找出语义表达的规律性、内在解释、不同语言在语义表达方面的个性以及共性。
若从严格意义上的语言学研究来分类，在现代语言学的语义学中，可以分为结构主义的语义学研究和生成语言学的语义学研究。
结构主义语义学是从20世纪上半叶以美国为主的结构主义语言学发展而来的，研究的内容主要在于词汇的意义和结构，比如说义素分析，语义场，词义之间的结构关系等等。
这样的语义学研究也可以称为词汇语义学，词和词之间的各种关系是词汇语义学研究的一个方面，例如同义词、反义词，同音词等，找出词语之间的细微差别。
生成语义学是20世纪六七十年代流行于生成语言学内部的一个语义学分支，是介于早期的结构主义语言学和后来的形式语义学之间的一个理论阵营。
【英语】自考论文论英语词义的变化
文档来源为:从网络收集整理.word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持. 【关键字】英语毕业论文题目：论英语词义的变化准考证号：学生姓名：指导老师：武汉大学外语学院制On the Meaning Change of English Words文档来源为:从网络收集整理.word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.论文摘要语义学是关于意义的学问，它旨在研究语言单位，特别是单词和句子的意义。
词是语言中具有意义的，最小的能够独立运用的单位，所以关于词的意义（即词汇语义学）在语言学中占用重要的位置。
单词一直处在不断的变化过程当中，形式上的或是内容上的，常常是后者发生变化。
正像Quirk在1963年指出的那样，“…几乎我们现在使用的每一个词与其在一个世纪以前的意义稍有不同,而一个世纪以前的单词又和它在一个世纪之前的意义稍有差别” 。
广泛的讲，意义的变化指的是现行词义的变化，或是对现行词语添加新的义项。
这种变化随着时间的流逝而产生。
本论文探究了英语词义变化的方式、类型及原因。
希望本论文可以帮助英语专业的学生更好地学习英语词义。
关键词：词义; 变化; 方式; 类型; 原因文档来源为:从网络收集整理.word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.AbstractThe subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics, which targets at the study of the meanings of linguistics units, such as words and sentences. A word is the minimum free form with certain meaning, thus the study of word meaning (lexical semantics) occupies an important position in linguistics study. Word has been constantly undergoing the process of changes，either in forms or in meanings, with the latter being more frequent. Just as Quirk said in 1963, “… almost every word we use today has a different meaning from the one it had a century ago, and a century ago it had a slight different meaning from the one it had a century bef ore that”. Broadly speaking, meaning change refers to the alternation of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. This change occurs along with time. This thesis explores the approaches, modes, causes of word meaning change. Hopefully, it may help us English majors study English word meaning better.Keywords: meaning；change；approach; mode; cause文档来源为:从网络收集整理.word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.ContentsI. Introduction (1)II. Approaches to meaning change of English words (2)2.1 extension approach (2)2.2 figurative approach (3)2.3 merger approach (3)III. Modes of meaning change of English words (4)3.1generalization (5)3.2 specialization (6)3.3 elevation (7)3.4 degradation (7)IV. Causes of meaning change of English words (8)4.1 extra –linguistics factors (8)4.2 linguistics factors (10)V. Conclusion (11)Bibliography (12)On the Meaning Change of English WordsI. IntroductionAs a branch of semantic study, the lexical semantics has been long regarded as the focal point. And the question as to what is the meaning of word becomes the first inquiry for language leaners. The objective matters, which exclude human mind, including all the living creatures, unanimated objects, events and their behavior, state and characteristics, etc. are reflected, thus sensation, perception, representation are produced first. Human mind then will generate the abstract preliminary products into concepts. Then man fixes the concepts in the vehicle of language, enabling us human beings to exchange our thoughts through these signs with certain meaning individually. Thus, words come into being. In other words, the meaning of words is endowed by men. As British linguist Eric Partridge once pointed out, “words have no meanings, p eople have meaning for them”. This process is generally agreed upon by all linguists. However, different people may hold different opinions on the sub-structure of word meaning.One difficulty in the study of meaning is that the word “meaning” itself has different meanings. In their book The meaning of meaning written in 1923, C.K Odgen and I.A Richards presented “a representative list of the main definition which reputable students of meaning have favored” (Odgen & Richards, 2003: 186). There are 16 majo r categories of them, with sub-categories totaling up to 22.The edifice of any language could be observed as a grand project composed of three elements: sound, lexicon, and grammar, among which sound is the physical shell of a language; lexicon serves as the “brick” and “concrete”; while grammar functions as the ways and principles by which linguistic elements are organized and oprate. So word meaning above all can be divided into two big categories: grammatical meaning and lexical meaning.Grammatical meaning corresponding with grammar signifies the grammatical aspect of a word. For example, “girl” is a single form, while “girls” represents the plural form in meaning.Lexical meaning, on the other hand, is the study of word meaning at its content level. For example, in the group of words “go, goes, gone, went, going”, each word has different grammatical meaning obviously, but their lexical meaning is the same, namely “to move or travel from one place to another” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1998:746). Foreign linguists have different classifications on word meaning. Geoffrey Leech, a world famous Britishlinguist, categorizes seven types of meaning, as follows: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, thematic meaning, with conceptual meaning being the center of word meaning. And connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning and thematic meaning can be brought together under the heading associative meaning(Leech.,1981).In the following sections, we are going to explore the approaches to meaning change, the modes of meaning change and the causes accounting for the meaning change. And with some basic knowledge of word meaning change in the thesis, it may cast light on how to gasp word meaning and help us English majors study English language better.II. Approaches to meaning change of English wordsThe change of word meaning refers to the process in which the existing word has some changes either in number of its meaning items or its content in its application or development. In this section we will take a glimpse at the trace of changes in word meaning. There are mainly three types as follows：2.1 Extension approachExtension refers to a way a word derived from a new through certain connections based on its original meaning, or its existing meaning items. For example, the word “hoe”（noun）meant “ a garden tool with a handle and a blade ,used for breaking up soil and re moving weds” and then a related meaning was produced , “to break up soil, remove plants, etc, with a hoe”, such as in the phrase “ to hoe a flowers”(Oxford Advanced Learner’ s English-Chinese Dictionary, 1997: 838), so “hoe” here is used as a verb. Howev er, we can easily see the close connection in meaning between the noun “hoe” and the verb “hoe”. Some words can create new meaning through extending or narrowing the scope of reference, which is also very common. For example, the word “journal” originally meant “a written record that you make of the things that happen to you each day (diary) (Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, 1997: 775). Let us look at another example, the word “wedge” (noun) originally meant “a piece of wood, robber, me tal, etc, with one thick end and a thin pointed end that you use to keep a door open, to keep two things apart, or to split wood or rock”, then its verbal meaning came into being, namely “ to put or squeeze something tightly into a narrow space, so that it can not move easily”(ibid).2.2 Figurative approachWhether the scope of reference extends or narrows, the type of object a word denotes has not changed. However, when a word has changed its literal meaning to its figurative meaning, the type of object is utterly different, and then semantic shift has occurred in word meaning. This is also a very important style of meaning changes.Abundant examples can serve as the illustrations of the figurative approach. For example, the word “burden” originally meant“a heavy load that is difficult to carry” and then people tended to use it for referring to “ a duty ,responsibility ,etc, that causes worry, difficulty or hard work”, for example, in the sentence “The main burden of caring for old people falls on the state”. This abstract sense of “burden” is very vivid and concise in the effect of expression, which will certainly leave a deep impression on the listener’s mind.2.3 Merger approachThis way of change in word meaning refers to another way of change in word meaning, reflecting the relationship between two words under certain circumstances. When one word’s scope of reference expands into that of another related word, meaning may then be annexed, making the latter one lose its status of independence. Comparatively speaking, this approach is less in frequency in word meaning change than the previous two approaches, which however should not be ignored by us English learners. In the study of antonyms, we come to know the concept of “gradable antonyms” first, the co mmonest type of antonyms. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other, and there is no absolute criterion of judgments by which we may say something is good or bad, long or short, big or small. Usually, the term of the higher degree serves as the “cover term”. For example, we ask somebody “how old are you?” and the person asked may not be old in any sense. He may be as young as twenty or three. The word “old” is used here to cover both old and young. The sentence above means the same as “what is your age?”. Technically, the “cover term” is called “unmarked”, i.e. usual; and the covered “marked”, or unusual. That means, in general, it is the “cover term” that is more often used. If the covered is used, then it suggests that is something odd, unusual here. The speaker may already know that something or somebody is young, small, near, and he wants to know the extent in greater detail. This characteristic is also reflected in the corresponding nouns, such as length, height, width, and depth.Because of the differences, a lot of word meanings are different. For example, in CambridgeInternational Dictionary of English, the word ‘individual’ is defined as ‘the idea that freedom of thought and action for each person is the most important quality of a society, rather than shared effort and responsibility’. It is positive. However, in The English-Chinese Dictionary, there is a sentence ‘These poets were individualists, wanting to explore their own thoughts and feelings, not content with the general truth’. Obviously, the meaning of ‘individualists’ is negative.III. Modes of meaning change of English wordsGenerally speaking, the development and change of word meaning is ever-increasing in number of meaning items almost in every language system, due to social development and word meaning development itself. However it becomes complicated as each individual word is concerned. For some, the number of meaning item may increase, and for others, just the reverse. And some words’ meaning may disappear, or reduce to morphemic meaning, etc.3.1 GeneralizationThe generalization of meaning is a process by which a word originally having a specialized meaning has now extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meaning extended sometime in the course of development. Let us refer to some example as illustrations. The word “manuscript” today means “an author’s writing whether by hand or typed with a type writer or a word-procession”. But its old meaning referred to “handwriting”(written by hand)only. The word “fabulous” originally meant “resembling a fable” or “based on a fable”, but then it meant “incredible” or “marvelous”, since as we all knew that something incredible or marvelous often only existsd in fables, not in reality. Another example is the word “barn”. It meant “a place for stor ing only barley”, but now its meaning extends to “storeroom”. More examples are available here to cast light on the generalization of meaning.Word Old meaning Extended meaningbutcher one who kills goats one who kills animalsbonfire fire on bones a fire in the open madeby burning anything What is more, “thing” is often associated with “any”, “some”, and “no”, namely “anything”, “something”, and “nothing” respec tively. The frequency of these three words is high in both written and spoken form, the latter one especially. I have oncecounted and amazed at the high frequency one tend to employ “something” when he or she tries to introduce or explain a certain object, event, idea, etc. Other words like business, concern, matter, article, and circumstance have undergone similar process of meaning generalization.3.2 SpecializationSpecialization of language is a process by which a word which is used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English. A typical example is the word “ deer”, which was used to refer to all kinds of animals, for example in Shakespeare’s sentence “ rats a nd mice and such small dear”; i n British English, “corn” was once used as “grain”, but in present-day American English, it only refers to “maize”; w hen “garage” was first borrowed from French, it meant more other than “any safe place”, but at present “garage” narrows down to “ a place for storing cars”—a shelter for cars only. Here are more examples:Word Old meaning Specialized meaning girl young person of either sex female young person wife woman married womanaccident event unfortunate eventChange of meaning is frequently brought about by two tendencies in a language system: toward ellipsis and toward analogy. Ellipse as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj + n. or attributive + n, in which the noun is often deleted and only the first element(the attributive) is left, but retaining the sense of the whole phrase.For example, “a gener al” comes f ro m “ a general officer”, “bugle” from “ bugle horn”, “gold” from “gold me t al”, “uniform” f ro m “uniform dress”, “ transistor” f rom “transistor radio”, “daily” f ro m “ daily newspaper”, etc.Another case of specialization occurs when a common noun changes into a proper one, and its meaning specializes correspondingly. For example, the City refers to “London business center”; The Peninsula refers to “Iberian Peninsula” only; and the word “Prophet” refers to Muhammad, who founded the religion of Islam.3.3 ElevationElevation of meaning is a process by which words rise from humble beginning to a position of importance. In other words, some words in their early history signified something low or humble, but as time goes by, the meaning changed to designate something agreeable or pleasant. A typical case in point is the word “nice”. It originally meant “ignorant”, then “foolish”, but later it was dramatically eleva ted to“delightful, pleasant”;Marshal(high—ranking army officer) and Constable(police man) were both once referred to “keeper of horses”. More relevant examples are also provided here：Word Old meaning Elevated meaningknight servant rank below baronetangel messenger messenger of Godminister servant head of ministryNobody nowadays is reluctant to be described as “shrewd” perhaps, or “nimble”. However, for some time these two words are rather derogatory in meaning.A shrewd man was once often associated with “evil” or “wickedness”, while a nimble man is considered as someone taking something without certain permission; and the word “success”, a desirabl e destination for anyone to reach, was once only a simply neutral “result”.3.4 DegradationContrary to elevation, degradation of word meaning is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. An interesting fact is that many addresses for common people have taken on derogatory color. For example, “churl”which used to refer to “peasant” or “free man” has changed into “uncultivated or mean person”;“wench” once referred to “country girl”, but now it has degraded into “prostitute”;“villain”once referring to “person who worked in a villa”has now changed into “evil or wi cked person or scoundrel”. The following words have also undergone similar changes: Word Old meaning Degraded meaningknave boy dishonest personlust pleasure sexual desirelewd ignorant lecherousAs statistics shows that it is much more common for word meaning to change in denotation from neutral to pejorative than it is for them to go to the other way.The above-mentioned four types are the main types of word meaning changes, excluding transference, comparatively taking a small percentage in word meaning change, which thus is not within the framework of the present thesis discussion. IV. Causes of meaning change of English wordsWith the ever-changing human society, language as the vehicle of communication is also in the process of change and development. Both linguistic and extra-linguistic factors are exerting influence on word meaning changes. We can find out certain rules beneath the surface of meaning variations, which will deeper our understanding of word meaning.4.1Extra-linguistic factorsMeaning has always been a centre topic in human scholarship, though the term “semantics” has only a history of a little over a hundred years, let alone lexical semantics. There were discussions of meaning in the works of the Greek philosopher Plato as early as in the fifth century before Christ. In China, Lao Zi had discussed similar question even earlier. The fact that over the years numerous dictionaries have been produced with a view to explaining the meaning of words also bears witness to its long tradition. The research on word meaning has been drawing attention from linguists, philosophers and anthropologists, psychologists, and so on. This also exemplifies the fact that many extra-linguistic factors contribute to the change of word meaning.1.Historical reason. It often happens that a word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. The famous linguist Ullman once said “language should be more conservative than either material or spiritual civilization. Objects, styles, points of view and scientific concept have all changed in the course of time. But in many cases, the names were retained which helpto ensure that the tradition and continuity of a language.”(Zhou, 2007: 198). Take “pen” as a example. “Pen” in the beginning refer red to “feather”, since people in the West used feather to make a “pen”. Nowadays, we have already said farewell to the age of using a feather pen, and we prefer to use ball pen or fountain pen. But we still stick to employ the name “pen”; “car”once referred to “two-wheel cart drawn by horses and used in war”. With the development of modern automobile technology, “car” has changed to refer to “automobile”; similarly, “computer” originally mean t “person who computes”, but now it is another case. When we talk about computer, the first image jumping into our minds is definitely “a electric machine” instead of“a person”.Increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors that account for the change of word meaning. For example, people believed in ancient times that the sun was one of the seven planets revolving the earth. And this meaning could still be seen in the sentence “The sun rises and sets”, although people nowadays have alread y accepted Copernicus’ theory that “sun is a star around which the earth and other planets revolve”.2.Class reason. Language is a mirror perfectly, reflecting everything in the human society, which records speeches and attitudes of people from all walks of life. And various social variants have then come into being. The attitudes of different classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation. The so-called “King’s English”is a typical example. There are a considerable number of words of different professions, which often have derogatory meaning. Since in the eyes of the aristocrats, the working people are ignorant, stupid, and rude in behavior. For example, words “churl, hussy, wench, and villain” have all degrade d from neutral sense into “ill-mannered or bad people”. What is more, words like “democracy, revolution, liberation, human rights and communism” have quite different meanings to different people or in different society.3. Psychological reason. The associated transfers of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. For example, in American Civil War, Copperhead (a kind of poisonous snake) was used to refer to someone whosupported the Southerners secretly. As to the latter usage above (euphemistic), many humble and despised occupations often taking more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons. Americans are especially fond of using euphemistic expressions. For example, “garbage collector”is called “sanitation engineer”in America and “disposal” in Britain; “g ardener” changes into “landscape architect”; and “servant” changes into “domestic engineer”. As statistics shows, the so-called “engineer” is more than two hundred among respectful addresses in English.Besides, religious influence is another kind of psychological reason. As Cardinal Trench once said, “ange l”, “martyr” and “paradise” have their meanings elevated due to the influence of the Christianity.4.2 Linguistic factorsThere are exterior reasons for the change of word meaning, and also the interior reason, i.e. the development of language itself. Here as the follows.Firstly, a phrase is often be shortened to a word without losing the original entire meaning. For example, “gold” is used for “gold medal”, “gas” for “ coal gas”, “bulb” for “light bulb”, and “private” for “private soldier”. Under these circumstances, whatever is left, a noun or an adjective, is used as a noun to be the equivalent of the original expression.Secondly, the influx of borrowing words in great number has also resulted in the change of word meaning. For example, “deer” once referred to all kinds of animals. With the coming of Latin word “animal” and the French word “beast”, these three words were forced to re-identify their status as they all have the same denotation. As a result, “animal” kept its original sense, and “deer” shortened its meaning reference scope, while “beast” changed its semantic color into derogatory.At last, analogy can also bring about meaning changes. For example, the word “fortuitous” once meant “happening by chance, accidental”. But later it extend ed to have the meaning of “fortunate”. Is there a logical explanation for that? Perhaps, this is a process of the demonstration of “analogy”. “Fru ition” originally meant “a pleasure we obtain from using or possessing something” and ha d no relationship in meaning with “fruit”. However, one of its meaning items “the bearing of fruit” isprobably the result of association based on “fruit”.Besides, cultural psychology is the study of the way cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the human psyche, resulting less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic divergences in mind, self, and emotion. When one learns a language, it is important to learn its cultural psychology. For example, when Chinese people observe a thing, they will start from the whole, but the westerners will start from the part.V. ConclusionThis thesis explores the approaches, modes, causes of word meaning change. Semantic change plays a very important role in widening the vocabulary of a language. Since language is symbolic, each word serves as a symbol in relation to a specific meaning. In this sense, we need infinite number of word or symbols to code the physical entities and our experiences, which will be ultimately proved impossible and obstruct the smooth operation of communication. So an old form is given a new concept, thus the meaning of a form is multiplied.The approaches in which word meaning changes represent the main types of changes and indicate both linguistic and extra-linguistic causes. After acquiring some basic knowledge of word meaning changes, one may could not help asking such a question “What measures can be adopted in daily study?”. Hopefully this thesis could cast new light on the study of English word meaning for us English majors and help us lay a solid foundation for the exploration of the wonders of the English language.BibliographyCambridge International Dictionary of English [D], Shanghai: ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press, 2008Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English [Z], Beijing: The CommercialPress, 1998Leech, G, A, Semantics: the study of meaning, 2nd edition, Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1981Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary[Z]. Beijing: TheCommercial Press, Oxford University Press, 1997Odgen,C,K,& Richards,I,A, The meaning of meaning, London: Routledge &Keganpaul, 2003The English-Chinese Dictionary[D], Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2005Zhou, Ruiying, A study of teaching English word meaning[M], Changsha:Hunan Normal University, 2007池昌海, <<现代语言学导论>>, 浙江: 浙江大学出版社，2004胡壮麟主编, <<语言学教程>>(修订版), 北京: 北京大学出版社，2001胡壮麟、姜望琪主编, <<语言学高级教程>>, 北京: 北京大学出版社，2004 李赋宁, <<英语史>>, 北京: 商务印书馆，2008汪榕培、卢晓娟, <<英语词汇学教程>>, 上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2007 此文档是由网络收集并进行重新排版整理.word可编辑版本！。
英语语言学方面论文
英语语言学方面论文英语是现代世界中最为广泛使用的语言之一。
随着全球化的进程加速，英语已经成为了国际交流和商业往来中的主要语言之一。
在这些背景下，英语语言学的研究显得越发重要。
本文旨在探索英语语言学的相关研究，包括其发展历程、研究内容以及未来研究方向。
发展历程英语语言学作为一门独立的学科出现于20世纪初。
在这之前，语言学多属于文学学科的一个分支，因此研究范畴较为狭窄。
20世纪初，西方国家开始出现语言学变革的思想，英语语言学也因此成为独立学科。
在本阶段中，学者们主要关注英语的语音、语法和词汇等方面的研究，同时也有一些学者开始研究非标准化的英语方言，如美国南部黑人英语等。
到了20世纪50年代，英语语言学进入了新的阶段，研究范围逐渐扩大到了应用领域，如如英语教学和翻译等。
随着科技的不断发展，英语语言学也得到了越来越多的应用。
例如由此出现了自然语言处理技术，这种技术旨在让计算机识别人类语言产生的信号，以完成人与计算机之间的交流。
研究内容英语语言学涉及的研究领域非常广泛。
以下是其中一些方面：1. 语音学语音学研究语音的产生、使用和描述。
这个领域的研究可以解释语言中不同音素之间细微差别的生理和物理机制。
语音学从英语学习的角度探讨点便是如何发音，音素之间的变异以及其他与英语发音有关的问题。
2. 语法学语法学是英语语言学的基础，用于研究言语产生的规则和机制，以及词汇和结构在句子中的使用。
语法学可以深入研究单词的结构以及其在句子中的功能，研究文化及其逻辑结构的规则，以及句子结构的研究等等。
3. 语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科领域。
这个领域的研究可以解释和分析个别语言单词的意义和该单词在上下文中的实际含义。
语义学深入到许多不同的领域，包括语言哲学、语言学和社会学。
4. 语用学语用学是研究语言在特定上下文中实际使用的学科领域。
语用学从语言学和社会学的角度来研究语言使用，研究语言在上下文中不同的意义，以及语言与文化、行为以及认知之间的联系。
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浅谈词的感情色彩
导言：
人类之间为唤起同类的行为而从喉咙里发出声音，听到的人则为了解说者的心意而对于这种声音加以意会，正因为心与心不能直接传情达意，这样才形成了语言，所以语言的功用一方面在于表示说话人的思想感情。
语言是音义结合的符号系统，语言单位的意义常常由各种要素结合在一起组成，本文侧重谈词义中的感情色彩。
关键词：
固定感情色彩临时感情色彩褒义词贬义词中性词
正文：
词义可分为理性义、伴随义、感情色彩、形象色彩、时间地域色彩、言语社团色彩等。
色彩义中最主要的就是感情色彩，用来表明说话人的思想感情和主观评论。
例如：“见义勇为”一词蕴含着敬佩、赞美的色彩意义；“偷鸡摸狗”一词则带有鄙视、厌恶的色彩意义。
我们熟知的三种感情色彩分类为褒义词、贬义词、中性词。
褒义词表明说话人对该词所表明的事物持赞许的态度；贬义词表示说话的人对该词所表示的事物持贬斥的态度；中性词则不特别表示说话人的感情。
人们运用语言进行交际，主要是交流思想达到互相了解。
理性义是语言单位所指对象的特征的反映。
它是稳定的，得到社会成员的一致公认，不会轻易改变，所以是封闭的。
而语言单位所传达的感情色彩都是建立在原有的理性义基础之上，并以体会作者话语的理性义为归宿的。
因此不管词的色彩义如何强烈，总是要人们理解它的真正的理性义所在，才能让人们达到能使用词语交际的目的。
正如上段所言，同作为意义的下位概念，同作为意义的一个组成部分，色彩义与理性义是不可分割的，并且会出现相互组合的关系。
一种是词的理性意义本身就蕴含着感情色彩，二者是结合关系。
像上文提到的“高尚”，词本身就充满了赞美之情。
还有“愤怒”，词本身就好像包裹着一层火一样。
这两个词的理性意义和感情色彩已然不能分开来谈，二者显然是你中有我、我中有你的关系。
我们还可以归纳出很多此类词语，像“勾搭”、“能干”、“阴险”、“贤惠”等。
另一种是词的理性意义附带着感情色彩，二者是附着关系。
比如：“老不死的”是指年迈的老人家，却附带着厌恶的感情色彩，“小孩儿”是指幼小的孩童，却让人能感觉到流露出的疼爱之情。
这两个词的感情色彩都附着在理性意义上，形成了一个意义粘合体。
我们同样可以归纳出其他此类词语，像“亲爱的”、“小鬼头”、“老婆子”等。
由上段可见，词语的感情色彩是与词义紧紧联系在一块的。
而这种不借助语境就能被理解的色彩义称之为固定感情色彩。
我们根据形成的基础和它与理性意义的关系分成固定感情色彩和临时感情色彩。
固定感情色彩即是在静态状况下，像上文完全可以不借助语境而被理解的色彩，它有包括两种。
一种取决于人们对同所概念反映的客观对象本身的评价，即在理性意义之内，也就是上文提到的结合关系。
举个例子：“抚爱”一词表示喜爱的意思，同时本身就带着亲切的情态。
另一种取决于人们对同这些客观对象相联系的人或物的态度，即在理性意义之外，也就是上文提到的附着关系。
举个例子：“嘴脸”一词表示坏人的模样，同时附着贬斥的意味。
临时感情色彩则是在动态情况下，需要借助上下文理解的色彩义。
它也包括两种，有的词本身有特别色彩，却在一定的上下文中消失了特色，或获得了与原表情色彩相矛盾对立的色彩。
而有的词并无特别色彩，却在一定的
上下文中带上了特定的感情色彩。
举个例子：我到了自家的房外，我的母亲早已迎着出来，接着便飞出了自己的侄子宏儿。
其中的“飞”是个平常的动词，本身不带有感情色彩，用在这里表示速度之快，传达出侄子见到亲人的兴奋之情，宏儿从房间里奔出去迎接“我”的场景跃然纸上，生动形象，活灵活现。
但这后两种感情色彩无论哪种脱离了一定的语境则都不能被人们所认知，属于言语运用中产生的特定意义，具有临时性和主观性，区别于前两种的确定性和明显性。
但正如感情色彩义要遵循理性义一样，作为社会中的人交流就是为了彼此互相理解，所以即使是临时感情色彩，也要是大家所能接受的，不能违背常规的，这也就是我们所说的感情色彩社会性。
作为最小的能够独立运用的语言单位和构成句子的直接成分，词本身的感情色彩尤为重要，不管是单独使用时影响自身传达的感情色彩，还是合并使用时影响句子所传达的感情色彩。
因此我们在言语使用时一定要尊重大众的共同感受，一个词语的感情色彩必须是发讯者和收讯者双方理解才能在言语中采用。
褒义首先是发讯者认为应该褒扬的，而贬义则是发讯者认为应该贬斥的，同时这种态度又是交际双方的收讯者明显感觉得到的，通常情况下这种感受双方应该一致，如果不一致便需要改换词语。
例如：○1一支全副武装的日本军队，偷偷地向卢沟桥摸来。
○2当天晚上，大刀队员们手握大刀，腰佩手榴弹，又悄悄地向卢沟桥进发。
○1中“偷偷地”写出了日本军队的险恶用心及卑鄙行径，带有鄙视、唾弃的感情色彩。
○2中“悄悄地”表现了我军的足智多谋、勇敢无畏，带有表扬和赞许的感情色彩。
这两句话的发出者显然就不可能是日本人。
除此之外，有些词本身并无感情色彩，却因为对应现实生活中的事情有让人高兴又让人难过，客观描述的词却会让人有情绪反应。
比如“生育”一词，本身并无感情色彩，却对无法生育的人是个敏感词。
再比如“珠圆玉润”一词，如果用来形容当今女性，在这个以瘦为美的时代，怕是要遭白眼了。
以上是两种感情色彩分类方式，一类分成褒义词、贬义词、中性词，一类分成固定感情色彩、临时感情色彩。
但汉语博大精深，这两类又常常发生融合的现象。
比如说“家伙”：①指工具或武器。
我拿起家伙就打他。
②指人(含轻视戏谑意）。
这家伙劲真大。
③形容人可爱。
这小家伙，真逗！再比如说“骄傲”：○1表示感到自豪，褒义词。
我成正式党员了，我们全家都为此感到骄傲。
○2表示自高自大，贬义词。
虚心使人进步，骄傲使人落后。
再比如说“鬼”：○1表示聪明机灵，带有可爱的情态，褒义词。
这小孩真鬼，头脑特别好使。
○2表示狡猾，带有厌恶的情态，贬义词。
这个人真鬼，什么事都要占便宜。
像这类词的义项都是多个的，而不是单一的。
“家伙”本无褒贬，却在引申义中表示了褒义和贬义；“骄傲”本表示褒义，在引申义中却表示了贬义；“鬼”本表示贬义，在引申义中却表示出褒义。
像这类词，当它们是静态时就寓意丰富，带有两种以上的感情色彩，但它们处在动态环境下时，就受特别语言环境影响转换自身感情色彩。
参考文献：
《现代汉语语义学》詹人凤著商务印书馆出版 1997年10月第一版
《训诂学概论》齐佩瑢著中华书局出版 2004年新一版
《21世纪现代汉语词汇论著摘要》周荐主编 2004年第一版。