CONCEPT AND MEANING OF EDUCATION
考研英语一阅读理解真题加解析1994
Although we focus on the needs of exceptional children, we find ourselves describing their environment as well. While the leading actor on the stage captures our attention, we are aware of the importance of the supporting players and the scenery of the play itself. Both the family and the society in which exceptional children live are often the key to their growth and development. And it is in the public schools that we find the full expression of society's understanding —the knowledge, hopes, and fears that are passed on to the next generation.Education in any society is a mirror of that society. In that mirror we can see the strengths, the weaknesses, the hopes, the prejudices, and the central values of the culture itself. The great interest in exceptional children shown in public education over the past three decades indicates the strong feeling in our society that all citizens, whatever their special conditions, deserve the opportunity to fully develop their capabilities."All men are created equal." We've heard it many times, but it still has important meaning for education in a democratic society. Although the phrase was used by this country's founders to denote equality before the law, it has also been interpreted to mean equality of opportunity. That concept implies educational opportunity for all children — the right of each child to receive help in learning to the limits of his or her capacity, whether that capacity be small or great. Recent court decisions have confirmed the right of all children — disabled or not — to an appropriate education, and have ordered that public schools take the necessary steps to provide that education. In response, schools are modifying their programs, adapting instruction to children who are exceptional, to those who cannot profit substantially from regular programs.59. In paragrah 2, the author cites the example of the leading actor on the stage to show that ________.[A] the growth of exceptional children has much to do with their family and the society[B] exceptional children are more influenced by their families than normal children are[C] exceptional children are the key interest of the family and society[D] the needs of the society weigh much heavier than the needs of the exceptional children60. The reason that the exceptional children receive so much concern in education is that ________.[A] they are expected to be leaders of the society[B] they might become a burden of the society[C] they should fully develop their potentials[D] disabled children deserve special consideration61. This passage mainly deals with ________.[A] the differences of children in their learning capabilities[B] the definition of exceptional children in modern society[C] the special educational programs for exceptional children[D] the necessity of adapting education to exceptional children62. From this passage we learn that the educational concern for exceptional children ________.[A] is now enjoying legal support[B] disagrees with the tradition of the country[C] was clearly stated by the country's founders[D] will exert great influence over court decisions重点词汇：denote （v.表示）即de+note，de-向下，note 记录，“记录下来”→表示。
Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary第一章
第一章：Basic Concepts of Words and Voculary词的基本知识1.1 What is a wordLinguists: 语言学家a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function 单词是最小的自由形式具有给定声音的语言意义和句法功能。
1视觉角度a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper一组有意义的字母打印或者写出来横排在一张纸上2口语角度a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sound which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment一个词被视为一个声音或声音的组合是由人类发声器官自动组合而成的3语义学家a word is a unit of meaning一个词就是一个意义单位4语法学家a word be a free form that can function in sentence一个单词是可以在句子中起到自由形式的作用简答模板or例句(1) man and fine are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words.man和fine都很简单，但它们都有发音、意义和句法功能，而且都可以单独用于句子中。
它们自然是文字。
(2) There are words which are complex such as misfortune and management. Both are polysyllabic words and can function as subject object and predictive in a sentence.有些词很复杂如“misfortune”和“management”。
《高级英语》第一册课文7-15翻译、词汇_张汉熙
Learn General Secretary on "two to learn a" strengthening "four Consciousnesses" important speech caused a strong reaction in the country. Time, watching "red treasure", the origin of building the party back to power, how to strengthen services for the masses, improve party cohesion, fighting to become the grass-roots party members and masses hot topic. Grass-roots party organizations "two" is to strengthen the service of party members and cadres, the pioneer spirit. Distribution of grass-roots party organizations in all walks of people, clothing, shelter, which belongs to the nerve endings of the party organization and comments reputation has a direct perception of the masses. Strengthen the party ahead of the "pedal" spirit; strengthen the party members and cadres "success does not have to be me" and "the first to bear hardships, the last to" service spirit to set the party's positive image among the people is important. Grass-roots party organizations "two" is to cleanse all people not happy not to see "stereotypes", establish the honest faithful, diligent faith for the people. No need to avoid mentioning that, some members of our party can not stand the "money," corrosion of temptation, thin, Xu Zhou, such abuse and corrupt bribery, malfeasance borers, and rats. Two, is to clean up, thin, Xu, Zhou's solution to restore the party's fresh and natural, solid and honest work style. Cleansing "take, eat, card," undesirable and behaviour, "cross, hard and cold, push" attitude. Grass-roots party organizations "two" is to strengthen the sense of ordinary party members, participating in consciousness, unity consciousness. For reasons known, members of grass-roots party branches less mobile, less resources, and the construction of party organizations have some lag. Two studies, is to focus on the grass-roots party branches "loose, soft, loose" problem, advance the party members and cadres, "a gang working", "Hong Kong report." Strong cleanup actions, style and rambling, presumptuous "unqualified" party members, pays special attention to party members and cadres "joining party of thought" problem. "Party building" is obtained in the long-term development of our party's historical experience accumulated. Two is our party under the new historical conditions, strengthen the party's construction of a new "rectification movement." Grass-roots party organizations should always catch the hard work, results-oriented. Two educational outcomes are long-term oriented and become an important impetus for the work. "Two" should have three kinds of consciousness "two" study and education, basic learning lies in the doing. Only the Constitution address the series of party rules, and do solid work, be qualified party members had a solid ideological basis. Only the "learning" and "do" real unity, to form a "learn-learn-do-do" the virtuous cycle, and ultimately achieve the fundamental objective of education. This requires that the Organization《高级英语》第一册课文翻译及词汇章美芳第七课神奇的集成电路片时代 (1)第八课互相作用的生活 (1)第九课马克•吐温——美国的一面镜子 (6)第十课震撼世界的审判 (13)第十一课词典的用途究竟何在? (21)第十二课潜水鸟 (29)第十三课大不列颠望洋兴叹 (40)第十四课阿真舍湾 (46)第十五课海上无路标 (62)learning education, need three kinds of consciousness: one is to establish an integrated awareness. "Learning" and "do" what car isTwo-wheel, bird wings, need to go hand in hand, one end can be neglected. Communist theoretician and man. Only by closely combining theory and practice together in order to truly realize their value. "Learning" is the Foundation, the Foundation is not strong, shaking; " "Is the key to net to net thousands of accounts. "Two" education, "" lay the basis, going to "do" the key grip, so that the "learning" and "doing" back to standard, so that the majority of party members "learn" learning theory of nutrients, in the "doing" practice party's purposes. Second, to establish a sense of depth. "Learning" and "do" not Chu drawn, entirely different, but the organic unity of the whole. "Two" learning education, we need to explore integrating "learning" in "do", exhibit "do" in "Science". To avoid the "learning" into simple room instruction, "do" into a monotone for doing. Should exploration "learn" in the has "do", "do" in the has "learn" of education and practice of carrier, makes general grass-roots members can in "learn" in the has "do" of achievements sense, in "do" in the has "learn" of get sense, real makes party of theory brain into heart, put for people service concept outside of Yu shaped. Third, to adhere to long-term the awareness. Style construction on the road forever, "two" had to catch the long-term. "Two" study and education, by no means, assault-style wind-sport, but the recurrent education within the party. In recent years, the party's mass line education practice and "three-three" special education in grass-roots borne rich fruits, vast numbers of party members and cadres withstood the baptism of the spirit. "Two" greater need to focus on longer hold long-term, to establish and perfect the effective mechanism of the education, focusing on the creation of long-term education, strive to make the vast number of party members to maintain their vanguard Color, maintain the party's advanced nature and purity. Awareness-raising, antennas and atmosphere – a discussion on how leading cadres of party members "two" current, "two" activity is in full swing up and down the country, party cadres as a "key minority" is both a barometer and impetus. The "two" meaning enough deep, is to determine the party cadres can resolve to study hard first. In the "two" in the process, some cadres of himself, standing long, high awareness, that Constitution Party rules is simple, its not worth bothering some party cadres think speak series has nothing to do with the grass-roots work, water business learning series of speeches seen as window dressing. These "lazy, casual, and decadent" ideas learning lacks motivation, a serious impediment to "two" effect. John Stuart Mill once said, only a basic element of human thought patterns change dramatically, human destiny can make great improvement. The same, only party members and第七课神奇的集成电路片时代(节选)新生的微型技术将使社会发生巨变1这是一个极小的薄片，只有大约四分之一英寸见方。
write a good introductory paragraph
Organization—How to write a good introductory paragraph
Methods of Opening Example 例子 Present and Past 现在与过去的对比 Quotes 引用 Classification分类 Definition 下定义 Questions 设问
Organization—How to write a good introductory paragraph
Example Lessons from the World's Best Public School
Organization—How to write a good introductory
Байду номын сангаас
paragraph
Past and present
About a decade ago when university graduates were rare, most students could easily find a good job. Now with the graduating population continuing to grow, it’s getting much harder for them to find a satisfactory job. Many people discard the old belief that university education is necessary because there is no more guarantee for good jobs, and there are people who suggest that university education should be vocation-oriented. However, in doing that, they could be making a huge mistake.
《放牛班的春天》观后感 英文版
A Look at the Spring Cattle HerdThe Cowboys' Spring ViewDeep in my heart, there is always an emotion awakened by the film "Spring of the Cowherd Class." It was a love of life, the innocence of children and a vision for the future. In a subtle yet profound way, this film made me re-examine the power of education, growth, and love.Set in rural France, the film portrays the world of children who are misunderstood and abandoned by adults. The group of children, known as the "cattle class," lead a hard life under severe punishment from the principal and other teachers. However, when Matthew came to the school, his arrival changed the children, but also changed himself.Matthew is a passionate and talented musician, but he has been treated as a subordinate supervisor at the school. He was not defeated by this unfair treatment, but with his musical talent and love of children's heart, leading this group of exiled children to the light. He created a choir that allows children to express themselves through music, while also allowing them to find confidence and dignity.The music in the film is a powerful force that awakens deep emotions in the children as well as in the audience. Whenever the children sang together, I could feel their joy and pride. This kind of emotional resonance, let me deeply moved by this film.However, the film is not only a story about music and growing up, it is also a story about love. Matthew's love for the children is a selfless and deep love. He was desperate to protect the children from the abuse of the headmaster. His kind of love, let the children feel the beauty of life and hope. The film made me think deeply about the meaning of education. Education is not only about imparting knowledge, but also about cultivating children's character and values. Matthew teacher through their own actions, let the children understand that everyone has their own value, are worthy of respect and love. This concept of education is worth every educator to learn and practice. Overall, "Spring of the Cowherd Class" is a film full of moving and revelation. It made me re-examine the power of education, growth and love. I believe that this film will bring profound thoughts and insights to every audience. Let us work together for the future of every child, so that they can thrive in the sun of love.。
考研英语一阅读理解真题加解析1994 Passage 3
1994 Passage 3Exceptional children are different in some significant way from others of the same age. For these children to develop to their full adult potential, their education must be adapted to those differences.Although we focus on the needs of exceptional children, we find ourselves describing their environment as well. While the leading actor on the stage captures our attention, we are aware of the importance of the supporting players and the scenery of the play itself. Both the family and the society in which exceptional children live are often the key to their growth and development. And it is in the public schools that we find the full expression of society's understanding — the knowledge, hopes, and fears that are passed on to the next generation.Education in any society is a mirror of that society. In that mirror we can see the strengths, the weaknesses, the hopes, the prejudices, and the central values of the culture itself. The great interest in exceptional children shown in public education over the past three decades indicates the strong feeling in our society that all citizens, whatever their special conditions, deserve the opportunity to fully develop their capabilities."All men are created equal." We've heard it many times, but it still has important meaning for education in a democratic society. Although the phrase was used by this country's founders to denote equality before the law, it has also been interpreted to mean equality of opportunity. That concept implies educational opportunity for all children — the right of each child to receive help in learning to the limits of his or her capacity, whether that capacity be small or great. Recent court decisions have confirmed the right of all children — disabled or not — to an appropriate education, and have ordered that public schools take the necessary steps to provide that education. In response, schools are modifying their programs, adapting instruction to children who are exceptional, to those who cannot profit substantially from regular programs.59. In paragrah 2, the author cites the example of the leading actor on the stage to show that ________.[A] the growth of exceptional children has much to do with their family and the society[B] exceptional children are more influenced by their families than normal children are[C] exceptional children are the key interest of the family and society[D] the needs of the society weigh much heavier than the needs of the exceptional children60. The reason that the exceptional children receive so much concern in education is that ________.[A] they are expected to be leaders of the society[B] they might become a burden of the society[C] they should fully develop their potentials[D] disabled children deserve special consideration61. This passage mainly deals with ________.[A] the differences of children in their learning capabilities[B] the definition of exceptional children in modern society[C] the special educational programs for exceptional children[D] the necessity of adapting education to exceptional children62. From this passage we learn that the educational concern for exceptional children ________.[A] is now enjoying legal support[B] disagrees with the tradition of the country[C] was clearly stated by the country's founders[D] will exert great influence over court decisions重点词汇：denote （v.表示）即de+note，de-向下，note记录，“记录下来”→表示。
英语哲学概念探讨30题
英语哲学概念探讨30题1. Which of the following words represents the concept of "ethics" in English?A. MoralityB. LogicC. AestheticsD. Epistemology答案：A。
本题考查哲学概念“伦理学”在英语中的表述。
选项B“Logic”指逻辑；选项C“Aesthetics”指美学；选项D“Epistemology”指认识论。
只有选项A“Morality”与“ethics”意思相近，都表示伦理学。
2. The term "metaphysics" is closest in meaning to:A. PhysicsB. PhilosophyC. OntologyD. Epistemology答案：C。
本题考查“形而上学”这一哲学概念的相关表述。
选项A“Physics”是物理学；选项B“Philosophy”是哲学的统称；选项D“Epistemology”是认识论。
“Ontology”与“metaphysics”在意义上最为接近，都涉及对存在本质的研究。
3. Which of the following is related to the concept of "rationalism" in English?A. EmpiricismB. IdealismC. MaterialismD. Skepticism答案：B。
本题考查“理性主义”的相关表述。
选项A“Empiricism”是经验主义；选项C“Materialism”是唯物主义；选项D“Skepticism”是怀疑论。
“Idealism”与“rationalism”有一定关联，都强调理性和理念的作用。
4. The word "phenomenology" is mainly concerned with:A. Appearances and experiencesB. Inner thoughts and feelingsC. Social structures and systemsD. Historical events and processes答案：A。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章试题
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning ___D______ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. co nte xt2. A sentence is a ______B___ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied inisolation. A. pragmatic B. grammatical C. mental D. co nce p tual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes a (n) ___C______.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. e xp re ssive4. Which of the following is true?√ A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.√ D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until ____A______.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. ___C_______ is the act performed by or resulting fro m saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ___B___.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the sam e category share the same p urp ose, b ut they differ ___A__C_____.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. _____A_____ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, __D_____ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12.T It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13.T What e sse ntially d isting uishe s se m antics and p rag m atics is whe the r in the stud y o fmeaning the context of use is considered.14. F The m ajor d ifference b etween a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence isnot uttered while an utterance is.15.F The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16.F The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17T. F Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. F Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19.T Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20.T Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of ___context_______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think o f a sentence as what people actually utter in the course o f communication, it becomes an ___utterance_______.23. The meaning of a sentence is __abstrac t________, and decontexualized.24. _Constative_________ were statem ents that either state or d escrib e, and were thus verifiable.25. __Perfo rm ative_______ were sentences that d id no t state a fact o r d escrib e a state,and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __locuionary________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) ___illocutionary_______ act is the act o f e xp re ssing the sp e ake r’s inte ntio n; it isthe act performed in saying something.28. A(n) __commisive_______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course o f action.29. A(n) __expressive______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim o f ____quantity______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)Ke y: Chapter8I. 1~5 DBCBA 6~10 CBCADII. 11~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTTIII. 21.context 22.utterance 23.abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantityChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The p e rso n wh o is o fte n d e scrib e d as “fath e r o f m o d e rn lin g u istics” is __B________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Cho m sky2. The m o st im p o rtant co ntrib utio n o f the Prag ue Scho o l to ling uistics is that it seeslanguage in terms of ___A_______.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. syste m3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is _______C__.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally sp eaking, the _____A_____ sp ecifies whether a certain tag m em e is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Co he sio n5. _____A_____ Gram m ar is the m o st wid esp read and the b est und ersto o d m etho d o f discussing Indo-European languages.A. Trad itio nalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Ge ne rative6. ____A______ Gram m ar starte d fro m the Am e rican ling uist Syd ne y M. Lam b in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Mo n tag u e7. In Hallid ay’s view, the _____B_____ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. info rm ative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is _____D_____.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jan e9. Chomsky follows _____C_____ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. m e ntalism10. TG grammar has seen _____C_____ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. F The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. T London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14.T According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure.15.F American Structuralism is a branch o f diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16.F The Stan d ard Theo ry focuses discussion on language universals and universalg ram m ar.17.T American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities o f languages.18.T Cho m sky’s co nce p t o f ling uistic p e rfo rm ance is sim ilar to Saussure’s co nce p t o fp aro le, while his u se o f lin g u istic co m p e te n ce is so m e what d iffe re n t fro m Sau ssu re’s lan g u e.19.T Glo sse m atics e m p hasize s the nature and status o f ling uistic the o ry and its re latio nto description.20. F If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of ___synchronic _______ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and re m e m b e re d for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __phonetics________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was _____Mathesius__﹙×﹚_J.R Firth_.24. Hallid ay’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is ______systemic ___.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) ___socially_sociogically______ orientedfunctional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is b ased on the assum p tion that g ram m atical categ ories should b edefined not in terms of meaning but in terms of ___stucture___ distribution ____.27. In the history of Am erican ling uistics, the p eriod b etween 1933 and 1950 is also known as __Bloomfieldian________ Age.28. Descriptivism__________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point o f Cho m sky’s TG grammar is his ____innateness______ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD p ro b ab ly consists o f three elements, that is a __hypothesis maker________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarKe y: Chapter12I.1~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCCII.11~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTFIII.21. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Pe rsp e ctive. It is a theory o f linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis o f utterances (o r texts) in term s o f the info rm atio n theycontain.＊32. Co hesio n: The Co hesio n sho ws whether a certain tag m em e is d o m inating o ther tagmemes or is dominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a d evice effectively p resent in the m ind s o f child ren b y which a g ram m ar o f their nativelanguage is constructed.＊34. Case Gram m ar: It is an ap p roach that stresses the relationship of elem ents in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s。
语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第5章
语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第5章Chapter 5 Meaning第一部分Meanings of “meaning”一、The Study of Meaning：1. Meaning:refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.2. Connotation: opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the connotation of human is "biped", "featherless", and "rational", etc.3. Denotation: involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity it refers to. So it is equivalent to referential meaning. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary.二、Seven types of meaning (Recognized by Leech) 三大类七种论述1.Conceptual meaning:Logical, cognitive, or denotative content of language. It is the essential part of language and similar to literal meaning.E.g. What's this? It's a … (desk, boy, dog…). When you answer this question, you are expressing the conceptual meaning of language.Associative meaning: same in conceptual meaning but different in implication.2.Connotative meaning:What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.E.g. “mother” implies love, “blue” implies depressed.3.Social meaning:What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. It mainly involves dialect and status.E.g. Different style of words like horse and pony imply different social circumstances of language use.4.Affective meaning:What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/ writer. It involves the choice of commendatory or derogatory meanings of words.E.g. The difference between statesman and politician is connotative because the former is commendatory and the latter is derogatory .5.Reflected meaning:What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.E.g. Click the mouse twice. (Mouse may remind you of either the part of a computer or a kind of animal who is clicked twice by Tom in the cartoon Tom and Jerry.)6.Collocative meaning:What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.E.g. Different meanings of paper are expressed in its collocation with "exam, white and daily"7.Thematic meaning:What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.E.g. I hit a dog. A dog was hit by me.1第二部分Referential theory1.The referential theory:The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. We explain the meaning of a word by pointing to thething it refers to.E.g. proper nouns and definite noun phrases.Problem with this theory: the meaning of desk:When we explain the meaning of desk by pointing to the t hing it refers to, we don’t mean a desk must be of the particular size, shape, color and material as the desk we are pointing to at the moment of speaking. We are using this particular desk as an example of something more general.2.Semantic triangle:A th eory which employs the notion “concept”. Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”. They argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by the concept. In a diagram form, the relation can be showed as follows:conceptword thingAnd something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.3.Sense and referenceSense and reference are two sides of meaning. Although they are different, they are closely to each other.1. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Sense refers to the main features, the defining properties an entity has.2. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.E.g. The sense of desk: a piece of furniture with a flap top andfour legs, at which one reads and writes. Sense is equivalent to concept. The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk. The concrete entities a particular desk in the world is reference.3. The distinction between sense and reference:① It is comparable between connotation and denotation. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties.① Every word has a sense, or we will not be able to use it or understand it. But not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and don’t refer to anything. Words like God, ghost, and dragon refer to imaginary things, which don’t exist in reality. Abs tract words like love don’t have a concrete entities in the world.① Words are in different sense relations with each other. Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. In contrast, reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.第三部分sense RelationsThere are three kinds of sense relations, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation.1. Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation. Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.e.g. buy and purchase. Synonym refers to the words that are closed in meaning.But total synonymy is rare. It can be divided into two sub-types: absolute synonymy (they are identical in meaning.) andrelative synonymy (they are similar in meaning.).The so-called synonymy are all context dependent. E.g.Little Tom ____ a toy bear. (buy/ purchase)1) dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects.There are dialectal differences.E.g. Autumn is British while fall is America.2) stylistic synonyms: they may differ in style.E. g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence.3) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning.E. g. thrifty-economical-stingy4)collocational synonyms:E. g. accuse…of, charge…with.5) semantic synonyms:E. g. amaze, surprise.2. Antonymy 反义关系Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three sub-types: gradable, complementary, and converse antonymy.1) Gradable antonymyGradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. They are mainly adjectives, e.g. good / bad, big / small, etc. They have three characteristics:First, they are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. E.g. big, medium, small.Second, antonymy of this kind are graded against different norms. E.g. big dog, small dog; big cat, small cat.Third, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term. E.g. old covers young, highcovers low.2) Complementary antonymyThe members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.E.g. alive / dead, boy / girl, etc.There is no intermediate forms between the two. The adjectives of this kind can’t be modified by very, and they don’t have comparative or superlative degrees either. The norm in this type is absolute, and there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.3) Converse antonymyConverse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy, because the members of a pair don’t constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy / sell. The comparative degrees like bigger: smaller, longer: shorter.3. Hyponymy 上下义关系The sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Inclusiveness意义内包关系: Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.Hyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. E.g. under flower, there are peony, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of rose, peony, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, tulip, violet, rose, etc. areco-hyponyms.4. Polysemy 多义现象Polysemy means the same one word may have more than one meaning. A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word. Historically polysemy can be understood as the growth and development or change in the meaning of words.E.g. “table” may mean a piece of furniture, all the people seated at a table, or the food that is put on a table, etc.5. Homonymy 同音异义Homonymy means different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. There are three kinds of homonyms:①Full hom onyms: words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.E.g. bear (n. a kind of animal), bear(v. to give birth to a baby)②Homophones: words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.E.g. dear (a loved person), deer (a kind of animal)③Homographs: words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.E.g. tear (n.), tear (v.)6. Sense relations between sentences 句子之间的涵义关系1) X is synonymous with Y X与Y同义X: The boy killed the cat.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.2) X is inconsistent with Y X与Y不一致X: He is single.Y: He has a wife.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.3) X entails Y X 蕴含在Y里X: Marry has been to Beijing.Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be false.4) X presupposes Y X预设YX: His bike needs repairing.Y: He has a bike.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.5) X is a contradiction X是矛盾的* My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6) X is semantically anomalous X是异常的* The man is pregnant.第四部分Componential analysisSemantic components: the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It is a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analysed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE.优：①By showing the semantic components of a word in this way, we may better account for sense relations. Two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components will be synonymous with each other. For example, bachelor and unmarried man.②And these semantic components will also explain sense relations between sentences.弊：①O ne difficulty is that many words are polysemous. They have more than one meaning, consequently they will have different sets of semantic components.②Some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies.③There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain.第五部分Sentence meaning一、Sentence meaning 句子意义The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that the sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words. Sentences using the same words may mean quite differently if they are arranged in different orders. E.g.The man chased the dog. (人追狗。
【精品】哈佛大学公开课——幸福学(积极心理学)PPT01精编版
Focusing on the Negative
“The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side; it has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illnesses, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his psychological height. It is as if psychology had voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, and that the darker, meaner half.”
Unhappiness Spiral
“Negative” Research
Negative Experiences
Happiness Spiral
“Positive” Research
Positive Experiences
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
“Human systems grow in the direction of what they persistently ask questions about.”
Abraham Maslow
It is not about providing definitive answers concerning the good life It is about identifying the right questions
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CONCEPT AND MEANING OF EDUCATIONCONCEPT:-1) Meaning of education2) Etymological meaning of education3) Indian interpretation of education4) Western interpretation of education5) Narrow concept of education6) Modern concept of education7) Characteristics of educationOBJECTIVES:-After studying this unit the student should be able to,1) Define the term education.2) Explain the etymological meaning of education.3) State Indian and Western interpretations of education.4) Differentiate between narrow and modern meaning of education.5) Explain the salient features/characteristics of education. METHODOLOGY:-1) Seeking students’ opinion through a questionnaire.2) Discussion3) LectureCONCEPT OF EDUCATION:Introd uction: The term ‘education’ in the broad sense is not only a pedagogical one punctuating down to the basic meaning of the term, it means to plunge a mans body, mind and soul of ignorance . It enhances an individual’s personality and provides him confidence to reach out to the world.ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING: -- Latin Origina) Educare- to nourish b) Educure- to lead forth c) Educatum- act of teachingSanskrit Origin- a) Skis shah:- To disciplineb) Vidhya :- “vidh” – To knowWhat is not education?1) Becoming only literate is not education.2) Getting a degree is not education.3) Gaining knowledge.4) Learning new skills. 1) Interpretations of education:Indian Interpretations:Tagore – Enabling the mind to find out the ultimate truth which emancipates us from thebondage of dust.Gandhiji- All round development and drawing out the best in the child mind, body andspirit.Swami Dayanand Saraswati- Education is a process beginning right from the motherswomb.Conclusion:- So the Indian interpreters stressed on human capacities i.e. mental, moral,social, physical and intellectual.TYPES OF ENVI. Biotic environment∙It is also known as biological environment and organic environment.∙In the opposite side of the physical environment, the biotic or biological environment is responsible for the living beings.∙You have already understood that the meaning of …biological‟ is living things. So, the biological environment is the environment which involves the living part of the earth.The importance of biotic environmentRead more: /articles/255515_types-of-environment#ixzz1VBA7T3IEGROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTThe meaning of words ‘growth and development’is understood interchangeably. Terminology wise …Growth’ means increase and enlargement of the body or some parts of the body e.g. body has become heavier and larger etc. Thus growth is a change in the organism which can be observed and measured in quantitative term.…Development’ means more advancement, greater unfolding and growing forward to greater maturity. It refers to changes over time which is not subject to quantitative measurement but express themselves through certain behaviourGROWTHMeaning:The term …Growth‟ is used in the physical sense. It generally refers to increase in size, length, height a nd w eight. Changes in quantitative aspects, which could be objectively observed and measured, come into the domain of growth. Growth is one of the components of developmental process. Ina sense development in its quantitative aspect is termed as growth.Characteristics of Growth:1. Hereditary factor is the cause.2. Physical factors play a dominant role.2. Expansion is height and weight is its apparent result.3. It is quantitative, additive and augmentative.4. Growth stops at a particular point of life.5. Growth need not necessarily cause development in all the cases.6. Rate of growth is distinct and unique.7. Individual difference in growth is apparent and obvious.DEVELOPMENTDevelopment is a qualitative and integral change occurring at physical and mental levels improving the efficiency or functional ability.Definitions:∙Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience -E.B. Hurlock.∙Development means whole sequence of life from conception to death - Pearsy London.∙Development is more important than ordinary change. Development can be observed and to certain extent it can be measured and evaluated. Its evaluation and measurement can be done inthree ways – Anatomic, Physiological and Behavioral. Behaviour signs provide elaborate indices of the individ ual‟s power and his level of development –Gessel.Characteristics of Development:1. Development is a result of experience and maturation.2. It is a continuous process.3. It does not halt at puberty.4. It increases the intellectual, moral, social qualities.5. It is predictable and environment plays a dominant role.6. Learning is presupposition for development.7. It is difficult to measure in quantitative measures.8. Mental development could occur even without physical growth.DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTSl.No.GrowthDevelopment1.Growth is quantitative and it shows an increase in size, weight and height.Development is both quantitative and qualitative. It shows in function and character.2.It is pertaining to physical and biological aspects.It is pertaining to increasing the functional ability of an individual and overall aspects such as physical, mental, emotional, moral, social, spiritual etc.3.It is directional.It is sequential and progressive.4.It stops after the peak maturational level.It is a lifelong process.5.It could be objectively measured and exactly measured.It cannot be measured easily. Yet keen and continuous observation could reveal developmental levels.6.Motor and physical domain plays a dominant role.Cognitive and affective domains play a vital role.7.It is not affected by learning.Learning and experience has a lot of impact on development.8.It is automatic in the sense that it does not demand much effort.Development requires constant, continuous and guided efforts.9.Growth need not necessarily lead to development. It may or may not.Development is integrative and includes mental, emotional, moral aspects.10.Individual differences exist among children and it could be treated by Physicians and therapeutic techniques.Individual differences do exist in the learning skills and can not be improved by clinical methods.11.It is only the part of development.It is in toto or as in whole.12.It cannot be changed or modified from time to time.It can be changed and modified from time to time.How Do We Cause Air Pollution?We cause air pollution directly through our use of electricity, fuels, and transportation. We also cause air pollution indirectly, when we buy goods and services that use energy in their production and delivery. Most of this air pollution we cause results from the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and gasoline to produce electricity and power our vehicles.Sources and Effects of Common Air PollutantsEnvironmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about how natural environmentssecondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly to include all efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials, websites, media campaigns, etc. Related disciplines include outdoor education and experiental education.Environmental education is a learning process that increases people's knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action (UNESCO, Tbilisi Declaration, 1978).There are many different chemical substances that contribute to air pollution. These chemicals come from a variety of sources.Among the many types of air pollutants are nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, and organic compounds that can evaporate and enter the atmosphere.Air pollutants have sources that are both natural and human. Now, humans contribute substantially more to the air pollution problem.Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic compounds, and natural radioactivity are all among the natural causes of air pollution.Though some pollution comes from these natural sources, most pollution is the result of human activity. The biggest causes are the operation of fossil fuel-burning powerplants and automobiles that combust fuel. Combined, these two sources are responsible for about 90% of all air pollution in the United States.Some cities suffer severely because of heavy industrial use of chemicals that cause air pollution. Places like Mexico City and Sao Paulo have some of the most deadly pollution levels in the world.Soluti9onAir pollution has many disastrous effects that need to be curbed. In order to accomplish this, governments, scientists and environmentalists are using or testing a variety of methods aimed at reducing pollution.There are two main types of pollution control.Input control involves preventing a problem before it occurs, or at least limiting the effects the process will produce.Output control, the opposite method, seeks to fix the problems caused by air pollution. This usually means cleaning up an area that has been damaged by pollution.Input controls are usually more effective than output controls. Output controls are also more expensive, making them less desirable to tax payers and polluting industries.Current air pollution control efforts are not all highly effective. In wealthier countries, industries are often able to shift to methods that decrease air pollution. In the United States, for example, air pollution control laws have been successful in stopping air pollution levels from rising. However, in developing countries and even in countries where pollution is strictly regulated, much more needs to be done.I Greenhouse Gas EmissionsIndia emits the fifth most carbon of any country in the world. At 253 million metric tons, only the U.S., China, Russia, and Japan surpassed its level of carbon emissions in 1998. Carbon emissions have grown nine-fold over the past forty years. In this Industrial Age, with the ever-expanding consumption of hydrocarbon fuels and the resultant increase in carbo n dioxide emissions, that greenhouse gas concentrations have reached levels causing climate change. Going forward, carbon emissions areforecast to grow 3.2% per annum until 2020. To put this in perspective, carbon emissions levels are estimated to increase by 3.9% for China and by 1.3% for the United States. India is a non-Annex I country under the United Nations Framework Convention on Green house gases and climate Change, and as such, is not required to reduce its carbon emissions. An historical summary of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuel use in India is increasing rapidly and causes global warming.All inhabitants of our planet have an equal right to the atmosphere, but the industrialize d countries have greatly exceeded their fair, per-capita share of the planet‟s atmospheric resources and have induced climate change. The most developed countries possess the capital, technological and human resources required for successful adaptation, while in the developing countries, a large proportion of the populationis engaged in traditional farming, that is particularly vulnerable to the changes in temperature, rainfall and extreme weather events associated with climate change.According to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol , the most industrialized countries are mainly responsible for causing climate change. Thus equity requires that they should sharply reduce their emissions in order to arrest further climate change and allow other countries access to their fair share of atmospheric resources in order to developWhat Causes Indoor Air Problems?Indoor pollution sources that release gases or particles into the air are the primary cause of indoor air quality problems in homes. Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not carrying indoor air pollutants outof the home. High temperature and humidity levels can also increase concentrations of some pollutants. Pollutant SourcesThere are many sources of indoor air pollution in any home. These include combustion sources such as oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, and tobacco products; building materials and furnishings as diverse as deteriorated, asbestos-containing insulation, wet or damp carpet, and cabinetry or fur niture made of certain pressed wood products; products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies; central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices; and outdoor sources suchas radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution.The relative importance of any single source depends on how much of a given pollutant it emits and how hazardous those emissions are. In some cases, factors such as how old the source is and whether it is properly maintained are significant. For example, an improperly adjusted gas stove can emit significantly more carbon monoxide than one that is properly adjusted.Some sources, such as building materials, furnishings, and household products like air fresheners, release pollutants more or less continuously. Other sources, related to activities carried out in the home, release pollutants intermittently. These include smoking, the use of unvented or malfunctioning stoves, furnaces, or space heaters, the use of solvents in cleaning and hobby activities, the use of paint strippers in redecorating activities, and the use of cleaning products and pesticides in house-keeping. High pollutant concentrations can remain in the air for long periods after some of these activities.Poverty is the biggest polluterDuring his meet with editors on July 01, 2011 Prime Minister Manmohan Singh remarked that "poverty is the biggest polluter" and India needs to achieve a balance between environment and development -Indira Gandhi, a former prime minister, famously announced at the United Nations‟ first environmental conference, i n 1972, that “Poverty is the biggest polluter.” Those sentiments were echoed recently when Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh snubbed the U.S. secretary of state, Hillary Rodham Clinton, by telling her in public that India could not accept binding carbon emission targets because doing so would stunt the nation‟s economic growth.The United States, with under 5 percent of the world‟s population, accounts for more than 20 percent of total carbon emissions. India, with more than 17 percent of the global population, accounts for just 5.3 percent of emissions. Why, he asks. The most polluted places in IndiaVapi in Gujarat and Sukinda in Orrisa is among the worlds top 10 most polluted places, according to the Blacksmith Institute, a New York-based nonprofit group.Vapi : Potentially affected people: 71,000 -Pollutants: Chemicals and heavy metals due to its Industrial estates.Sukinda: Potentially affected people: 2,600,000. -Pollutants: Hexavalent chromium due to its Chromite mines.can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels.Increasing traffic: With the rapid increase in the number of transports, the emissionof different pollutants has also increased heavily. The emissions from the automobilefuels are shown below:。