(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科课后题答案第一章
环境科学概论课后答案
环境科学概论课后答案【篇一：环境科学概论思考题】____________，自然环境和人工环境之间存在着________________________流动,构成一个环境科学研究的复杂体系2绿色交通(green transport)是指：采用____________________、适合都市环境的运输工具，来完成社会经济活动的一种交通概念。
一般绿色工具(green modes)包括徒步、自行车、________________________等。
3环境承载力是衡量地球承载力以及人与环境和谐程度的重要指标，是指在一定的时期范围内，维持人类-环境系统稳定，人类活动不引起环境功能破坏发生质的改变的能力，其实质是在维持人与环境和谐的前提下，人类-环境系统能承受的人类活动的阈值。
４环境背景值亦称自然本底值，指在__________________的情况下，环境组成的各要素中与____________________有关的各种化学元素的含量及基本化学成份。
5土壤污染人类活动所产生的物质（污染物），通过多种途径进入土壤，其数量和速度超过了_土壤的容纳能力和__土壤的净化速度_，从而引起土地正常功能遭到破坏或土壤肥力降低，并对土壤、植物和动物造成损害的现象。
6对众多污染物进行分级排队，从中筛选出潜在危害性大，在环境中出现率高，有可靠的监测手段并能获得准确数据，有环境质量标准的污染物作为监测和控制对象。
经过优选的污染物称为环境优先污染物。
7环境规划的特点综合性、涉及面广、地区性、动态性、政策性强等。
8环境污染控制中末端控制与全过程控制相比具有被动消极、原始传统、投资大，效果差、治标等缺点；集中控制与分散控制相比具有尽可能少的投入、尽可能大的效益。
9固体废物处理、处置与利用原则是“无害化”、“减量化”、“资源化”。
10按时间要素环境评价可分为环境回顾评价、环境现状评价、环境影响评价。
其中环境影响评价是对拟开发行动方案或规划产生的环境影响进行评价，提出合理削减负面影响对策。
(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科课后题答案第十一、十二章
CHAPTER 11 three ways that humans directly alter ecosystems.1)In the past, prehistoric men used human-induced fire to capture game animals or clean landfor agriculture, thus destroying climax communities. The harvesting of tropical forests today works in the same way.2)The conversion of natural land into agricultural land and even urban land in cities , whichcontinues today, has greatly undermined the biodiversity.3)The overexploitation of fishery resources, coupled with the introduction of exotic species,have spawned a series of problems that alter the local water environment.2.Why is the impact of humans greater today than at any time in the past?As the technology advanced, the ability of people to modify their surroundings has increased significantly, the agricultural revolution and modern agricultural technologies, for example, have efficiently turned large parts of the earth into agricultural land.The growing number of human population contributed to the draining of natural resources, as well as the extinctions of many species.3. Describe three factors that influence the genetic diversity of a population.Several things can influence the genetic diversity of a population.1)Mutations are changes in the genetic information of an organism, which introduce newgenetic information into a population by modifying genes that are already present. The DDT-tolerance of insects and the evolution of human resistance to antibiotic medication are such examples.2)Migration of individuals of a species from one place to another is also an important way. Itresults in the reduction of genetic information in the former population and the addition in the new population. This can have a significant effect on both populations if the migrating individual possess rare characteristics.3)Sexual reproduction is another process that influence genetic diversity. Rather than creatingnew genetic information, it tends to generate new genetic combinations when genetic information from two individuals mixes during fertilization, forming a unique individual, which may have a combination to out-compete its peer by being more successful in producing offspring, thus influence the genetic diversity.5.What are the major causes of loss of biodiversity in marine ecosystems?1)Habitat loss is a problem in marine ecosystems, as much of the harvest is restricted toshallow parts of the ocean where bottom dwelling fish can be easily harvested. It involved the use of trawls which are nets that can be dragged along the bottom. The trawls can disturb the sea floor and create conditions that make it harder for the fish population to recover. It captures various other species (25%) that are not commercially valuable and often left dead on board. Their removal further alter the ecological nature of the seafloor. 2)Overexploitation has driven some species to extinction and threaten many others.Organisms can be harvested for various reasons, food, ornaments or other aesthetic uses, and uncrupulous people often poach the already endangered species for quick profit. It isalso common in marine fisheries, and efforts are made to develop aquaculture methods and market new fish species which levitate the problem.3)Climate change has a great effect on the survival of species with limited physiologicaltolerance, such as corals in oceans and amphibians. The warming of water are leading to the declining of coral reefs.7.What is desertification? What causes it?Desertification is the process of converting arid and semiarid land to desert because of improper use by humans.Rangelands are too dry to support crops and grazing of domesticated animals is the only viable solution. But in areas where human population pressure is great, overgrazing is seemingly unavoidable, as people graze too many animals and cut down more trees for firewood. These would expose soil to wind erosion and lead to loss in soil fertility. Cutting down legumes that fix nitrogen would worsen the case. The land would gradually turn into a desert-like ecosystem.9.List six techniques utilized by wildlife managers.Habitat management are modifications to the habitat to enhance their survival and reproduction. The first step is to understand the habitat need of target species, and identify the critical habitat requirements of it. Then, they can alter the habitat and improve the success of the species. Population assessment and management also requires careful planning and the techniques involved included:Population census to keep the numbers of animals in check.Regulating hunting seasons, i.e. In fall so as to take the surplus animals, can ensure adequate and sustainable reproduction of animals.Artificially introduction of certain species when their population is below the desired number or extinct from the local area.Refuges for waterfowls can be built to provide resting places, food and protection from hunting. Transboundary parks can accommodate the movements of migratory animals across different countries.11.What is extinction? Why does it occur?Extinction is the death of a species, the elimination of all individuals of a particular kind. Extinction is a natural and common process through out the evolution, yet human activity has sped up its rate by a factor of 1000-10000. Some species with low population density and low reproductive rate, in specialized niche are prone to extinction. As technology advanced, human populations grew, we have increasingly huge influence on our surroundings. Consequently, many species have gone extinct.15.List three actions that be taken to prevent extinctions.IUCN lists over 19000 species as threatened with extinction in the Red List of Threatened Species, this can encourage countries to protect the related species and to build natural reserves.The Convention on Biological Diversity are adopted by many countries to preserve the biological diversity.The Endangered Species Act demands all government agencies to do whatever necessary to preserve the endangered species and the following amendment in 1978 saw the “god squad”to exempt some projects from the Act.16.Describe the role of the red list of threatened species in species preservation.IUCN is a highly visible international preservation organization, but has very little power to effect change. It generally seeks to protect species in danger by encouraging countries to complete inventories of plants and animals within their borders and encourage the training of plant and animal biologists within countries involved and the establishment of preservers to protect species in danger of extinction.CHAPTER 121. List three reasons why land-use planning is necessary.1)In modern world, significant amounts of land is covered with buildings, streets and otherproducts of society. But in many cases, cities are established before there is an understanding of the challenges presented by the location, when these cities grew and technology and society changed, the shortcomings of the location become apparent.Therefore, we should understand that each piece of land has its specific qualities based on its location and physical make-up.2)The land should be considered a nonrenewable resource nowadays as the land and theresources it supports(soil, vegetation and watersheds, etc) are not being created today. We need to plot carefully about the use of it. Once it is converted from natural ecosystems or agriculture to intensive human use, it is generally unavailable for other purposes.3)As the human population continues to boom, competition for the use of land wouldundoubtedly increase and systematic land-use planning would be important. Furthermore, as the population becomes more urbanized and cities grow, urban planning becomes critical.3. List three factors that encourage people to move from rural farms to cities in 1800s.4)First, the Industrial Revolution led to improvements in agriculture that required less farmlabor at the same time industrial jobs became available in the city, leading to the rural-to-urban migration.5)Then, the second factor that affected the growth of cities was the influx of immigrants fromEurope. They settled in towns and cities.6) A third reason for the growth was that they offered a greater variety of cultural, social, andartistic opportunities than did rural communities.Thus they were attractive for cultural as well as economic reasons.5.List three physical and three social consequences of urban sprawl.Physical:1)The automobile based society in US can cause serious traffic congestion for those who workin cities but live in the suburbs.2)The new housing or commercial development in suburbs would require the municipalservices to be extended to such areas, which is way more costly than supplying services to areas already in the city. The same is of energy costs because of low energy efficiency.3)Air pollution is also significant due to the reliance on automobiles as primary method oftransportation, and the infrastructure that support automobile travel is impervious to water, and the runoff are channeled directly into local water sources, bringing pollutants(oil, coolant and rubber pieces) into local streams.Social:1)The death of central city occurred as more people move to the suburbs and quality ofservices in urban center drops which starts a downward spiral of decay. This can deprive the remaining residents of basic services. It has a particular hard hit on the poor and elderly.2)Open fields, parks boulevards and similar land uses allow people to visually escape from thecongestion of the city. However, the urban sprawl have deprived a lot of land that could have been used as open space.3)Unpleasant odors, disagreeable tastes, annoying sounds and offensive sights are aggravating,and may be deemed harmful from an aesthetic point of view. Yet this are often the case of unplanned development in suburbs.7.What is a megapolis?As suburbs continued to grow, cities began to merge, and it became difficult to tell were one city ended and another began. This type of growth led to the development of regional cities. Although their cities maintain their individual names, they are really just part of one large urban area called a megalopolis.9.State three consequences of the dominance of the automobile as a means of transport in urban areas.1)The reliance on the automobile has required the constant building of new highways andaccording to DOT it costs 1 trillion per year on maintaining and building new ones.2)The average person in US travels about 260 kilometers per week in car and a person inmetropolitan area spends more than 40 hours per year stuck in traffic delays.3)It is hard to divert funding to establish mass transit besides the dispersed nature of suburbs.11.What characteristics of suburbs contribute to high infrastructure and high energy costs.1)Infrastructure include all physical, social and economic elements needed to support thepopulation, and it is often costly to extend it to the newly developed suburbs as everything need to be built from scratch.2)Energy costs are high due to low energy efficiency, and there are several reasons for this: Firstly, the automobiles are the least energy-efficient means of transporting people. Secondly, the separation of blocks of home from business and shopping areas require greater distance driven to meet basic needs.Thirdly, congested traffic routes result in hours being spent in stop-and-go traffic and wasting much fuel.Finally, the single-family homes require more energy for heating and cooling than multifamilydwellings.13. What land uses are suitable on floodplains?Floodplains are low areas near rivers that are subject to periodic floods, and it is often used for residential or commercial purposes due to its flat character. But flood-control structures need to be built which have detrimental downstream effects and could pose threats during floods.A better use of floodplains is for open space or recreation or agriculture.15. Why is a understanding of the geology and resources base of an area important in land use planning?1)The geologic status of an area must be considered in land-use decisions to prevent possibledisasters and hazards(i.e. Near volcanoes or earthquake-prone faults) or the lack of water, which will inevitably worsen as cities grow. To understand to resource base can lead to wise planning.2)Some land has unique features that should be preserved because of their special value tosociety( Grand Canyon and Yellowstone, etc) and should take precedence over other uses.17.What role do state and regional planning, purchasing of land, and use restrictions play in implementing land-use plans?1)State and regional planning is often more effective than local land-use planning since manyimportant geographic, geological and habitat characteristics cross local political boundaries.2)In addition, a regional approach is likely to prevent duplication of facilities and lead togreater efficiency.3)State or regional planning bodies are also more likely to have the financial resources to hireprofessional planners to assist in the planning process.4)Purchasing of land is the easiest way to protect them, and many environment organizationsopt to purchase lands with special historic, scenic or environmental value. In some cases, the landowners may sell the right to develop the land or place restrictions on the future uses of land.5)Many kinds of l and-use restrictions involve some form of zoning, that designates specificareas within a community for certain kinds of land use. But it has both positive and negative impacts on good land-use planning. Sometimes it help in preserving important historic or cultural sites while in many ways it also contributed to the segregation found in urban sprawl.19.List ten common smart growth principles.The smart growth approach has the following guidelines:1)Preserve open space. Farmland, natural beauty and critical environmental areas.2)Direct development toward existing urban areas, which encourages the reuse of abandonedor poorly used urban space.3)Take advantage of compact building design, so more people can be housed, and a smallercarbon footprint can be achieved. It can also reduce the need to develop new land4)Create a range of housing opportunities and choices, to accommodate people with differentlifestyles, desires and income levels.5)Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place. Pay attention to thedesign of buildings and their relationship with open space and cultural attractions to createa pleasing urban setting.6)Mix land uses, so that people need not drive somewhere to fulfill their basic needs.7)Create walkable neighborhoods, provide pedestrian walks to separate vehicle traffic frompedestrians.8)Provide a variety of transportation choices.9)Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions.10)Make development decisions predictable, fair and cost-effective.21.Give examples of conflict over the use of federally owned property.One of the major conflict is between those who prefer to use motorized vehicles and those who prefer to use muscle power over the outdoor recreation activities. They both paid taxes and wish the land can be used as they wish.Conflicts also arise between business interests and recreational users of public lands. The grazing and skiing are hard to reconciliate, and as the regulatory agencies are often understaffed, the ranchers tend to overgraze the land.A particular sensitive issue is the designation of certain areas as wilderness areas. Many people argue it’s unfair because they are paying tax but their access to the wilderness is restricted. While others fear too many people would destroy the charm and unique character.。
(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科——5、6章重点句、词汇
第五章环境和生物间的相互作用Interactions: Environments and Organisms The science of ecology is the study of the ways organisms interact with each other, and with their nonliving surroundings.Ecology deals with the ways in which or ganisms are adapted to their surroundings,how they make use of these surroundings, and how an area is altered by the presence and activities of organisms.All organisms are dependent on other organisms in some way.Everything that affects an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment.Abiotic factors can be organized into several broad categories: energy, nonliving matter, and processes that involve the interactions of nonliving matter and energy.All organisms require a source of energy to maintain themselves. The ultimate source of energy for almost all organisms is the sun.All forms of life require atoms of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, and molecules such as water to construct and maintain themselves. Organisms constantly obtain these materials from their environment. The atoms become part of an organism's body structure for a short time period, and eventually all of them are returned to the environment through respiration, excretion, or death and decay.The structure and location of the space organisms inhabit is also an important abiotic aspect of their environment.Important ecological processes involve interactions of matter and energy.The climate (average weather patterns over a number of years) of an area involves energy in the form of solar radiation interacting with the matter that makes up the Earth.The biotic factors of an organism's environment include all forms of life with which it interacts.Although organisms interact with their surroundings in many ways, certain factors may be critical to a particular species' success. A shortage or absence of this factor restricts the success of the species; thus, it is known as a limiting factor.The limiting factor for many species of fishes is the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water.The environment influences the organism, and organisms affect the environment.The habitat of an organism is the space that the organism inhabits, the place where it lives (its address).The niche of an organism is the functional role it has in its surroundings(its profession).Genes are distinct pieces of DNA that determine the characteristics an individual displays.A population is considered to be all the organisms of the same kind found within a specific geographic region.A species is a population of all the organtisms potentially capable of reproducingnaturally among themselves and having offspring that also reproduce.The process that leads to this close fit between the characteristics organisms display and the demands of their environment is known as natural selection.natural selection is the mechanism that causes evolution to occur.When we look at the effects of natural selection over time, we can see considerable change in the characteristics of a species and kinds of species present. Some changes take thousands or millions of years to occur. Others, such as resistance to pesticides, can occur in a few years.Scientists have continuously shown that this theory of natural selection can explain the development of most aspects of the structure, function, and behavior of organisms. It is the central idea that helps explain how species adapt to their surroundings. When we discuss environmental problems, it is helpful to understand that species change and that as the environment is changed, either naturally or by human action, some species will adapt to the new conditions while others will not.The environment in which organisms exist does not remain constant over long time periods. Those species that lack the genetic resources to cope with a changing environment go extinct. Extinction is the loss of an entire species and is a common feature of the evolution of organisms.Natural selection is constantly at work shaping organisms to fit a changing environment.It is clear that humans have had a significant impact on the extinction of many kinds of species.Wherever humans have modified the environment for their purposes (farming, forestry, cities, hunting, and introducing exotic organisms), species are typically displaced from the area.If large areas are modified, entire species may be displaced. Ultimately, humans are also subject to evolution and the possibility of extinction as well.Coevolution is the concept that two or more species of organisms can reciprocally influence the evolutionary direction of the other. In other words, organisms affect the evolution of other organisms.Since all organisms are influenced by other organisms, this is a common pattern.Ecologists look at organisms and how they interact with their surroundings.One common kind of interaction called predation occurs when one organism, known as a predator, kills and eats another, known as the prey.A second type of interaction between species is competition, in which two organisms strive to obtain the same limited resource.Symbiosis is a close, long-lasting, physical relationship between two different species. There are three different categories of symbiotic relationships: parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism.If we examine our activities, we can see that we have complicated interactions with other organisms.Predator----Humans throughout the world use animals as food.Herbivore----Humans rely on many kinds of plants as their primary source of food.Scavenger----Scavenging involves finding and consuming animals that are already dead.Commensalism-----Humans find themselves on both sides of commensal relationships.Parasitism----Although humans do not live in or on other living things, we do engage in relationships that are parasitic in nature.Mutualism----Humans have many mutualistic relationships with plants and animals.Competition----Humans are in competition with all other organisms on Earth. As we convert land and aquatic resources to our uses, we deprive other organisms of what they need to survive.A community is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species of organisms in an area.An ecosystem is a defined space in which interactions take place between a community, with all its complex interrelationships, and the physical environment.While it is easy to see that the physical environment places limitations on the kinds of organisms that can live in an area, it is also important to recognize that organisms impact their physical surroundings.Every system has parts that are related to one another in specific ways.Producers are organisms that are able to use sources of energy to make complex, organic molecules from the simple inorganic substances in their environment.Primary consumers, also known as herbivores, are animals that eat producers (plants or phytoplankton) as a source of food.Secondary consumers or carnivores are animals that eat other animals.Decomposers are organisms that use nonliving organic matter as a source of energy and raw materials to build their bodies.Whenever an organism sheds a part of itself, excretes waste products, or dies, it provides a source of food for decomposers.Since decomposers carry on respiration, they are extremely important in recycling matter by converting organic matter to inorganic material.Many small animals, fungi, and bacteria fill this niche.A keystone species is one that has a critical role to play in the maintenance of specific ecosystems.Some species have pivotal roles, and their elimination or severe reduction can significantly alter ecosystems.The energy stored in the molecules of producers is transferred to other organisms when the producers are eaten.Each step in the flow of energy through an ecosystem is known as a trophic level. Producers (plants, algae, phytoplankton) constitute the first trophic level, and herbivores constitute the second trophic level. Carnivores that eat herbivores are the thir,trophic level, and carnivores that eat other ". carnivores are the fourth trophic level.As energy flows through an ecosystem, it passes through several levels known as trophic levels. Each trophic level contains a certain amount of energy. Each time energy flows to another trophic level, approximately 90 percent of the useful energy islost, usually as heat to the surroundings. Therefore, in most ecosystems, higher trophic levels contain less energy and fewer organisms.The passage of energy from one trophic level to the next as a result of one organism consuming another is known as a food chain.When several food chains overlap and intersect, they make up a food web.All matter is made up of atoms. These atoms are cycled between the living and nonliving portions of an ecosystem. The activities involved in the cycling of atoms include biological, geological, and chemical processes. Therefore, these nutrient cycles are often called biogeochemical cycles.All living things are composed of organic molecules that contain atoms of the element carbon. The carbon cycle includes the processes and pathways involved in capturing inorganic carbon-containing molecules, converting them into organic molecules that are used by organisms, and the ultimate release of inorganic carbon molecules back to the abiotic environment.Fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) are part of the carbon cycle as well.At one time, these materials were organic molecules in the bodies of living organisms.The organisms were buried and the organic compounds in their bodies were modified by geologic forces. Thus, the carbon atoms present in fossil fuels were removed temporarily from the active,short-term carbon cycle. When we burn fossil fuels, the carbon reenters the active carbon cycle. Another very important nutrient cycle, the nitrogen cycle,involves the cycling of nitrogen atoms between the abiotic and biotic components and among the organisms in an ecosystem.Because atmospheric nitrogen is not usable by plants, nitrogen-containing compounds are often in short supply and the availability of nitrogen is often a factor that limits the growth of plants. The primary way in which plants obtain nitrogen compounds they can use is with the help of bacteria that live in the soil. Bacteria, called nitrogen-fixing bacteria, are able to convert the nitrogen gas (N2) that enters the soil into ammonia that plants can use.Bacteria and other types of decay organisms are involved in the nitrogen cycle also. Dead organisms and their waste products contain molecules, such as proteins, urea, and uric acid, that contain nitrogen. Decomposers break down these nitrogen-containing organic molecules, releasing ammonia, which can be used directly by many kinds of plants. Still other kinds of soil bacteria called nitrifying bacteria are able to convert ammonia to nitrite, which can be converted to nitrate. Plants can use nitrate as a source of nitrogen for synthesis of nitrogen-containing organic molecules.Finally, bacteria known as denitrifying bacteria are, under conditions where oxygen is absent, able to convert nitrite to nitrogen gas (N2), which is ultimately released into the atmosphere. These nitrogen atoms can reenter the cycle with the aid of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.The phosphorus cycle differs from the carbon and nitrogen cycles in one important respect. Phosphorus is not present in the atmosphere as a gas. The ultimate source of phosphorus atoms is rock. In nature, new phosphorus compoundsare released by the erosion of rock and become dissolved in water. Plants use the dissolved phosphorus compounds to construct the molecules they need. Animals obtain the phosphorus they need when they consume plants or other animals. When an organism dies or excretes waste products, decomposer organisms recycle the phosphorus compounds back into the soil.Phosphorus compounds that are dissolved in water are ultimately precipitated as deposits. Geologic processes elevate these deposits and expose them to erosion, thus making these deposits available to organisms.Two activities have caused significant changes in the carbon cycle: burning fossil fuels and converting forests to agricultural land.One consequence of these actions is that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing steadily since humans began to use fossil fuels extensively. It has become clear that increasing carbon dioxide is causing changes in the climate of the world, and many nations are seeking to reduce energy use and prevent deforestation.The burning of fossil fuels has also altered the nitrogen cycle.When fossil fuels are burned, the oxygen and nitrogen in the air are heated to high temperatures and a variety of nitrogen-containing compounds are produced.If too much nitrogen or phosphorus is applied as fertilizer or if they are applied at the wrong time, much of this fertilizer is carried into aquatic ecosystems.The presence of large amounts of these nutrients in either freshwater or saltwater results in increased rates of growth of bacteria, algae,and aquatic plnts. Increases in the number of these organisms can have many different effects. Many algae are toxic, and when their numbers increase significantly,fish are killed and incidents of human poisoning occur. An increase in the number of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems also can lead to low oxygen concentrations in the water. When these organisms die, decomposers use oxygen from the water as they break down the dead organic matter. This lowers the oxygen concentrations and many organisms die.Everything that affects an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment. The environment of an organism can be divided into biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components.The space an organism occupies is known as its habitat, and the role it plays in its environment is known as its niche.I The niche of a species is the result of natural selection directing the adaptation of the species to a specific set of environmental conditions.Organisms interact with one another in a variety of ways.A community is the biotic portion of an ecosystem that is a set of interacting populations of organisms. Those organisms and their abiotic environment constitute an ecosystem.About 90 percent of the energy is lost as it passes from one trophic level to the next. This means that the amount of biomass at higher trophic levels is usually much less than that at lower trophic levels.The flow of atoms through an ecosystem involves all the organisms in thecommunity. The carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles are examples of how these materials are cycled in ecosystems.Key Terms :abiotic factors非生物因子biogeochemical cycles 生物地球化学循环biomass 生物量biotic factors 生物因子carbon cycle 碳循环community 群落competition 竞争consumer 消费者decomposer 分解者ecology 生态学ecosystem 生态系统environment 环境evolution 进化extinction 灭绝food chain 食物链food web 食物网genes 基因habitat 生境limiting factor 限制性因素natural selection 自然选择niche 小生境nitrogen cycle 氮循环population 种群primary consumer 初级消费者range of tolerance 耐受范围secondary consumer 次级消费者species物种trophic level 营养级Review Questions:1. Define environment.3. How is natural selection related to the concept of niche?5. How is an ecosystem different from a community?8. What are some different trophic levels in an ecosystem?9. Describe the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the phosphorus cycle.第六章生态系统及群落的种类Kinds of Ecosystems and Communities Ecosystems are dynamic, changing units.The concept that communities proceed through a series of recognizable, predictable changes in structure over time is called succession. The relatively stable, long-lasting community that is the result of succession is called a climax community.Primary succession is a successional progression that begins with a total lack of organisms and bare mineral surfaces or water.Secondary succession is much more commonly observed and generally proceeds more rapidly, because it begins with the destruction or disturbance of an existing ecosystem. Fire, flood, windstorm, or human activity can destroy or disturb a community of organisms.The general trend in succession is toward increasing complexity and more efficient use of matter and energy compared to the successional communities that preceded them.The principal concepts of land succession can be applied to aquatic ecosystems. Except for the oceans, most aquatic ecosystems are considered temporary. Certainly, some are going to be around for thousands of years, but eventually they will disappear and be replaced by terrestrial ecosystems as a result of normal successional processes. All aquatic ecosystems receive a continuous input of soil particles and organic matter from surrounding land, which results in the gradual filling in of shallow bodies of water such as ponds and lakes.The same processes and activities drive both primary and secondary succession. The major difference is that secondary succession occurs when an existing community is destroyed but much of the soil and some of the organisms remain. A forest fire, a flood, or the conversion of a natural ecosystem to agriculture may be the cause.As settlers removed the original forests or grasslands and converted the land to farming, the original "climax" community was destroyed. Eventually, as poor farming practices destroyed the soil, many farms were abandoned and the land was allowed to return to its "original" condition.Biomes are terrestrial climax communities with wide geographic distribution.The distribution of terrestrial ecosystems is primarily related to precipitation and temperature.A lack of water is the primary factor that determines that an area will be a desert. Deserts are areas that generally average less than 25 centimeters(10 inches) of precipitation per year.Since the rate of evaporation is high, plant growth and flowering usually coincide with the periods when moisture is available. Deserts are also likely to be windy. We often think of deserts as hot, dry wastelands devoid of life. However, many deserts are quite cool during a major part of the year.Another misconception about deserts is that few species of organisms live in the desert. There are many species, but they typically have low numbers of individuals.The desert has many kinds of animals. However, they are often overlooked because their populations are low, numerous species are of small size, and many are inactive during the hot part of the day. They also aren't seen in large, conspicuous groups.Grasslands, also known as prairies or steppes, are widely distributed over temperate parts of the world. As with deserts, the major factor that contributes to the establishment of a grassland is the amount of available moisture. Grasslands generally receive between 25 and 75 centimeters (10 to 30 inches) of precipitation per year.Most of the moist grasslands of the world have been converted to agriculture , since the rich, deep soil that developed as a result of the activities of centuries of soil building is useful for growing cultivated grasses such as corn (maize) and wheat. The drier grasslands have been converted to the raising of domesticated grazers such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Therefore, little undisturbed grassland is left, and those fragments that remain need to be preserved as refuges for the grassland species that once occupied huge portions of the globe.Tropical parts of Africa, South America, and Australia have extensive grasslands spotted with occasional trees or patches of trees. This kind of a biome is often called a savanna. Although savannas receive 50 to 150 centimeters (20 to 60 inches) of rain per year, the rain is not distributed evenly throughout the year. Typically, a period of heavy rainfall is followed by a prolonged drought. This results in a very seasonally structured ecosystem. The plants and animals time to their reproductive activities to coincide with the rainy period, when limiting factors are least confining. The predominant plants are grasses, but many drought-resistant, flat-topped, thorny trees are common.The Mediterranean shrublands are located near an ocean and have wet, cool winters and hot, dry summers. Rainfall is 40 to 100 centimeters (15 to 40 inches) per year. As the name implies, this biome is typical of the Mediterranean coast and isalso found in coastal southern California, the southern tip of Africa, a portion of the west coast of Chile, and southern Australia. The vegetation is dominated by woody shrubs that are adapted to withstand the ot, dry summer.Another biome that is heavily influenced by seasonal rainfall is known as the tropical dry forest.Tropical rainforests are located near the equator in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and some islands in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. The temperature is normally warm and relatively constant. There is no frost, and it rains nearly every day. Most areas receive in excess of 200 centimeters (80 inches) of rain per year. Some receive 500 cennmeters (200 inches) or more. Because of the warm temperatures and abundant rainfall, most plants grow very rapidly; however, soils are usually poor in nutrients because water tends to carry away any nutrients not immediately taken up by plants.Tropical rainforests are under intense pressure from logging and agriculture.Many of the countries where tropical rainforests are present are poor and seek to obtain jobs and money by exploiting this resource.Forests in temperate areas of the world that have a winter-summer change of seasons typically have trees that lose their leaves during the winter and replace them the following spring. This kind of forest is called a temperate deciduous forest and is typical of the eastern half of the United States, parts of south central and south- eastern Canada, southern Africa, and many areas of Europe and Asia. These areas generally receive 75 to 100 centimeters (30 to 60 inches) of relatively evenly distributed precipitation per year.In contrast to tropical rainforests, where individuals of a tree species are scattered throughout the forest, temperate deciduous forests generally have many fewer species, and many forests may consist of two or three dominant tree species.These forests are home to a great variety of insects, many of which use the leaves and wood of trees as food.Throughout the southern half of Canada, parts of northern Europe, and much of Russia, there is an evergreen coniferous forest known as the taiga, northern coniferous forest, or boreal forest. The climate is one of short, cool summers and long winters with abundant snowfall. The winters are extremely harsh and can last as long as six months. Typically, the soil freezes during the winter. Precipitation ranges between 25 and 100 centimeters (10 to 40 inches) per year. However, the climate is typically humid because there is a great deal of snowmelt in the spring and generally low temperatures reduce evaporation. The landscape is typically dotted with lakes, ponds, and bogs.North of the taiga is the tundra, a biome that lacks trees and has a permanently frozen subsurface soil. This frozen soil layer is known as permafrost. Because of the permanently frozen soil and extremely cold, windy climate (up to 10 months of winter), no trees can live in the area.Because of the very short growing season, damage to this kind of ecosystem is slow to heal, so the land must be handled with great care.Terrestrial biomes are determined by the amount and kind of precipitation and by temperatures. Other factors, such as soil type and wind, also play a part. Aquatic ecosystems also are shaped by key environmental factors. Several important factors are the ability of the sun's rays to penetrate the water, the depth ofthe water, the nature of the bottom substrate, the water temperature, and the amount of dissolved salts.An important determiner of the nature of aquatic ecosystems is the amount of salt dissolved in the water.Those that have little dissolved salt are called freshwater ecosystems, and those that have a high salt content are called marine ecosystems.Coral reef ecosystems are produced by coral animals that build up-shaped external skeletons around themselves.Because they require warm water, coral ecosystems are found only near the equator Coral ecosystems also require shallow, clear water since the algae must have ample sunlight to carry on photosynthesis.Coral reefs are considered one of the most productive ecosystems on Earth.Mangrove swamp ecosystems occupy a region near the shore. The dominant organisms are special kinds of trees that are able to tolerate the high salt content of the ocean.The trapping of sediment and the continual extension of mangroves into shallow areas result in the development of a terrestrial ecosystem in what was once shallow ocean.An estuary is a special category of aquatic ecosystem that consists of shallow, partially enclosed areas where freshwater enters the ocean.Estuaries are particularly productive ecosystems because of the large amounts of nutrients introduced into the basin from the rivers that run into them. This is further enhanced by the fact that the shallow water allows light to penetrate to most of the water in the basin.Estuaries are especially important as nursery sites for fish and crustaceans such as flounder and shrimp.Freshwater ecosystems differ from marine ecosystems in several ways. The amount of salt present is much less, the temperature of the water can change greatly, the water is in the process of moving to the ocean, oxygen can often be in short supply, and the organisms that inhabit freshwater systems are different.Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into two categories: those in which the water is relatively stationary, such as lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, and those in which the water is running downhill, such as streams and rivers.Large lakes have many of the same characteristics as the ocean.Farming and construction expose soil and release nutrients, as do other human activities such as depositing sewage into streams and lakes. Deep, clear, cold, nutrient-poor lakes are low in productivity and are called oligotrophic lakes. Shallow, murky, warm, nutrient-rich lakes are called eutrophic lakes.The dissolved oxygen content of the water is important since the quantity of oxygen determines the kinds of organisms that can inhabit the lake.When organic molecules enter water, they are broken down by bacteria andfungi. These decomposer organisms use oxygen from the water as they perform respiration. The amount of oxygen used by decomposers to break down a specific amount of organic matter is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).Just as estuaries are a bridge between freshwater and marine ecosystems, swamps and marshes are a transition between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.Many swamps and marshes are successional states that eventually become totally terrestrial communities.summary:Ecosystems change as one kind of organism replaces another in a process called succession.Ultimately, a relatively stable stage is reached, called the climax community.Major regional terrestrial climax communities are called biomes.The primary determiners of the kinds of biomes that develop are the amount and yearly distribution of rainfall and the yearly temperature cycle.Aquatic ecosystems can be divided into marine (saltwater) and freshwater ecosystems.Coral reefs are tropical marine ecosystems dominated by coral animals. Mangrove swamps are tropical marine shoreline ecosystems dominated by trees. Estuaries occur where freshwater streams and rivers enter the ocean. They are usually shallow, very productive areas. Many marine organisms use estuaries for reproduction.KeyTerms:biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 生化需氧量biome 生物群系climax community 顶级群落coral reef ecosystem 珊瑚礁生态系统desert 沙漠estuary 河口eutrophic lake 富营养湖freshwater ecosystem 淡水生态系统grassland 草地mangrove swamp ecosystem 红树林沼泽生态系统marine ecosystem 海洋生态系统marsh 草本沼泽plankton 浮游生物phytoplankton 浮游植物zooplankton 浮游动物primary succession 原生演替secondary succession 次生演替swamp 木本沼泽tropical rainforest 热带雨林Review Questions:1.Describe the process of succession. How does primary succession differ from secondary succession?4. What two primary factors determine the kind of terrestrial biome that will develop in an area?6. What areas of the ocean are the most productive?9. List three differences between freshwater and marine ecosystems.10. What is an estuary?Why are estuaries important?。
(完整版)选修6环境保护第一章练习题(含答案)
选修六环境保护夯实基础第一部分环境与环境问题1.有关环境的叙述正确的是A.环境就是某项中心事物的周围事物B.若以人为中心事物,其他非生命物质就是人类生存的环境C.这里所说的环境就是生物界的环境D.环境就是相对并相关于某项中心事物的周围事物2.能促进人类与环境统一的生产活动是A.山区毁林开荒B.围湖造田C.在黄淮海平原上建造林网D.过量抽取地下水读“人地关系相关模式图”,完成第3～4题。
3.下列环境问题中,明显属于①环节后果的是A.水土流失B.大气污染C.地震D.旱涝灾害4.引发酸雨的环节是A.①B.②C.③D.④5.将①②③④⑤⑥(①改善环境质量;②人类与环境统一;③控制人口数量,提高人口素质;④对立;⑤物质资料生产;⑥统一)的序号填入人类与环境关系的知识结构图,选项与序号对应正确的一组是A.a—⑥b—④c—⑤d—③e—①f—②B.a—④b—⑥c—⑤d—③e—①f—②C.a—④b—⑥c—①d—③e—⑤f—②D.a—④b—②c—⑤d—③e—①f—⑥6.下列地理现象中，可能影响全球环境的是A.黄土高原水土流失B.全球变暖C.中南半岛湄公河水质污染D.华北平原土壤次生盐渍化7.下列属于人类与环境相统一的人类活动有A.在秦岭北坡营造梯田B.建设“草、水、林、机”配套的人工草场C.洞庭湖畔围湖造田D.禁止捕捞鱼虾8.环境问题的危害具有不可预见性,其主要原因是A.环境变化的规模大、时间长B.环境要素相互制约和相互渗透C.环境变化对人类影响小D.环境变化是一个动态过程9.可持续发展思想源远流长,下列文字能反映该种思想的有①竭泽而渔,岂不得鱼,而明年无鱼;焚薮而田,岂不获得,而明年无兽③为人君而不能谨守其山林菹泽草莱,不可以立为天下王④起来望南山,山火烧山田A.①②④B.②③④C.①②③D.①③④下图为“我国江南丘陵某地地形结构和农业用地结构的饼状图”。
对比分析,完成第10～11题。
10.造成该地农业用地结构不合理的主要原因是A.过度开垦B.过度放牧C.过度围垦D.过度养殖11.该地实现农业可持续发展的出路在于A.缓坡退耕,发展大牧场放牧业B.陡坡修建梯田,扩大水稻种植面积C.全面封山育林,改善生态环境D.调整农业结构,发展立体农业右图为“哈尼族梯田生态系统示意图”。
《环境学概论》习题+答案
《环境学概论》习题第一章绪论名词解释1、环境：是以人类为主体的外部世界，即人类赖以生存和发展的物质条件的整体，包括自然环境和社会环境。
2、聚落环境：是人类有计划、有目的地利用和改造自然环境而创造出来的生存环境。
3、城市环境：是人类利用和改造环境而创造出来的高度人工化的生存环境。
4、环境问题：是指由于人类活动作用于人们周围的环境所引起的环境质量变化，以及这种变化反过来对人类的生产、生活和健康的影响问题。
5、环境保护:指人类为解决现实的和潜在的环境问题，维持自身的生存和发展而进行的具体实践活动的总称。
6、环境科学：是一门研究人类社会发展活动与环境演化规律之间相互作用关系，寻求人类社会与环境协同演化、持续发展途径与方法的科学。
7、生物监测：就是利用生物对环境中污染物质的反应，即利用生物在各种污染环境下所发出的各种信息，来判断环境污染状况的一种手段。
简答（色：考过；色：不考）1、环境科学的主要任务探索全球范围内环境演化的规律；揭示人类活动同自然生态之间的关系；探索环境变化对人类生存的影响；研究区域环境污染综合防治的技术措施和管理措施。
2、环境科学的基本任务揭示人类-环境系统的实质，研究人类-环境系统之间的协调关系，掌握它的发展规律，调控人类与环境之间的物质和能量交换过程，促进人类与环境之间的协调发展。
3、城市化对大气环境的影响改变了下垫面的组成和性质；改变了大气的热量状况排放各种污染物；城市热岛4、城市化对水环境的影响对水量的影响：对水质的影响：地面下沉5、生态学在环境保护中有哪些应用环境质量的生物监测与生物评价阐明污染物质在环境中的迁移转化规律利用生态系统的自净能力消除环境污染为环境容量和环境标准的制定提供依据生物资源的利用、保护与生态平衡的再建6、生物监测及其特点生物监测：就是利用生物对环境中污染物质的反应，即利用生物在各种污染环境下所发出的各种信息，来判断环境污染状况的一种手段。
优点：可以反映环境中各种污染物质的综合影响和环境污染的历史状况，更能接近实际。
环境科学-交叉学科课后critivethinkingquestions答题要点 (1)
第一篇交叉学科篇综合讨论题1. Imagine you are an environmentalist in your area who is interested in local environmental issues. What kinds of issues might these be?1. 假如你是你所居住区域的环境专家。
你对当地那些环境问题感兴趣？当地人民和政府、企业都有那些观点？答案要点：因地而异。
列举工厂污染或荒漠化等等均可。
2. Considering environmental ethics issues in the year 2025.At the rate consumers, corporations, and governments are responding to environmental concerns, what quality- of- life consequences do you project for the year 2025? How will your health, lifestyle, income, employment, and community be affected?2. 考虑2025年的环境伦理学话题。
随着消费者、企业、政府都在承担环境责任，那么到2025年你的生活质量会受到那些影响？你的健康、生活方式、收入、工作和社区都会发生哪些变化？答案要点：请区别本题中生活质量和现有的用GDP来衡量的生活水平（living standard），随着环境责任的增加和资源的枯竭，建立节约型社会是趋势所然。
放弃现有的方便生活方式并不能降低生活质量。
例如：“禁塑令”只是举手之劳，可以改变白色污染等。
同学们应从多方面分析。
第二篇生态学篇综合讨论题1. What is the significance of studying the structure and function of ecosystem on environmental protection?1. 研究生态系统的结构和功能对环保有何意义？答案要点：主要根据物质循环、能量流动等特点进行分析。
（完整版）环境生态学课后题答案
（完整版）环境生态学课后题答案第一章绪论1.生态学的分支学科怎样划分的？2.什么是环境生态学及其研究内容对象？定义：环境生态学是研究人类干扰条件下，生态系统内在变化机理、规律和对人类的反效应，寻求受损生态系统的恢复、重建及保护生态对策的科学。
研究内容：人为干扰下生态系统内在变化机制和规律研究；生态系统受损程度及危害性的判断研究；各类生态系统的功能和保护措施的研究；解决环境问题的生态学对策研究3.环境生态学产生与发展过程。
4.当今世界上的主要环境问题是什么全球气候变化；臭氧层破坏和损耗；酸雨污染；土地荒漠化；森林植被被破坏；生物多样性锐减；海洋资源破坏和污染；有机物的污染5.当代环境问题的主要特点全球化；综合化；社会化；高科技化；累积化；政治化。
6.名词及术语环境问题，生态破坏，环境污染，环境生态学，环境危机，地球温暖化，臭氧层空洞，酸雨环境问题：是指人类为其生存和发展，在利用和改造自然的过程中，对自然环境破坏或污染所产生的危害人类生存的各种不利反馈。
生态破坏：不合理地开发和利用资源而对自然环境的破坏以及由此产生的各种生态效应。
环境污染：因工农业生产活动和人类生活所排放的废弃物造成的污染。
环境生态学：研究人类干扰条件下，生态系统内在变化机理、规律和对人类的反效应，寻求受损生态系统的恢复、重建及保护生态对策的科学。
环境危机：由人类生产与生活活动导致地区性、区域性，甚至全球性的环境功能的衰退或破坏，从而严重影响和威胁人类自身的生存和发展的现象。
地球温暖化：臭气层空洞：人类大量使用的氯氟烷烃化学物质（如制冷剂、发泡剂、清洗剂等）在大气对流层中不易分解，当其进入平流层后受到强烈紫外线照射，分解产生氯游离基，游离基同臭氧发生化学反应，使臭氧浓度减少，从而造成臭氧层的严重破坏。
酸雨：PH值小于5.65的降水。
第二章生物与环境1、什么是生物的协同进化？举例说明。
生物的协同进化主要是由于生物个体的进化过程是在其环境的选择压力下进行的，而环境不公包括非生物因素，也包括其他生物。
《环境学概论》习题+答案
《环境学概论》习题第一章绪论名词解释1、环境：是以人类为主体的外部世界，即人类赖以生存和发展的物质条件的整体，包括自然环境和社会环境。
2、聚落环境：是人类有计划、有目的地利用和改造自然环境而创造出来的生存环境。
3、城市环境：是人类利用和改造环境而创造出来的高度人工化的生存环境。
4、环境问题：是指由于人类活动作用于人们周围的环境所引起的环境质量变化，以及这种变化反过来对人类的生产、生活和健康的影响问题。
5、环境保护:指人类为解决现实的和潜在的环境问题，维持自身的生存和发展而进行的具体实践活动的总称。
6、环境科学：是一门研究人类社会发展活动与环境演化规律之间相互作用关系，寻求人类社会与环境协同演化、持续发展途径与方法的科学。
7、生物监测：就是利用生物对环境中污染物质的反应，即利用生物在各种污染环境下所发出的各种信息，来判断环境污染状况的一种手段。
简答（色：考过；色：不考）1、环境科学的主要任务探索全球X围内环境演化的规律；揭示人类活动同自然生态之间的关系；探索环境变化对人类生存的影响；研究区域环境污染综合防治的技术措施和管理措施。
2、环境科学的基本任务揭示人类-环境系统的实质，研究人类-环境系统之间的协调关系，掌握它的发展规律，调控人类与环境之间的物质和能量交换过程，促进人类与环境之间的协调发展。
3、城市化对大气环境的影响改变了下垫面的组成和性质；改变了大气的热量状况排放各种污染物；城市热岛4、城市化对水环境的影响对水量的影响：对水质的影响：地面下沉5、生态学在环境保护中有哪些应用环境质量的生物监测与生物评价阐明污染物质在环境中的迁移转化规律利用生态系统的自净能力消除环境污染为环境容量和环境标准的制定提供依据生物资源的利用、保护与生态平衡的再建6、生物监测及其特点生物监测：就是利用生物对环境中污染物质的反应，即利用生物在各种污染环境下所发出的各种信息，来判断环境污染状况的一种手段。
优点：可以反映环境中各种污染物质的综合影响和环境污染的历史状况，更能接近实际。
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环境学概论第一周作业1.Environmental problems are complex and interrelated.Within the ecosystem every component seems to be interconnected and interacted with each other as illustrated in the Darwin's theory of the relation between the production of seeds in red clover and numbers of catsEnvironmental problems often involve social, ethical, political and economic issues. It’s not easy to achieve acceptable solutions to environmental issues; an environmental decision that is supportable from an economic point of view may not be plausible from the political perspective. As the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone manifested, the solution has an ethical side and influence not only natural but also economic and social realms. What's more, environmental problems do not necessarily coincide with political boundaries, thus require the collaboration of multiple states or even nations.It's gettin more complicated as the globalization accelerates and the scale of environmental problems expands and requires better governance to ensure sustainable developments.2. The ecosystem approach is the comprehensive and integrated management of human activities, based on the scientific knowledge about ecosystem and its dynamics, and achievesustainable use of ecosystem goods and services and maintenance of ecosystem integrity.It is the right approach because an ecosystem involves not only all organisms but also the abiotic environment, and they form a complex network of interrelationships. Only by thinking systematically, can we understand the dynamics of the ecosystem and take the right action which satisfies human needs while preserving health of the ecosystem.3.The security consists of economic, political, cultural, social andenvironmental aspects.Urbanization and human migration can put great pressure on environment, leading to land degradation and eutrophication, which destroyed the aquatic ecosystem. These would affect the economic and environmental security.The environmental change also threatens environmental resources and caused social instability or even conflicts and wars, thus posing a threat to social and political security.4.Defining human well-being is difficult due to differing views onits definition.first is the resources that people possess, including money and other assets. Such view implies weak sustainability, in which the environment can contribute to development merely by promoting economic growth.second is how people feel about their lives. It means people value the environment for its traditional or cultural aspects.third is what people are able to be and to do. The impacts that the environment have on human well-being are regarded as multidimensional.Above all, human well-being and the quality of the environment are strongly interrelated, and the impact is prominent in various ecosystem services, including provisioning services, regulating services cultural services and supporting services.5. There is difference in how social, political and environmental decisions are made. Most social and political decisions are made with respect to political jurisdictions, while environmental problems do not necessarily coincide with these artificial political boundaries. The problem between Mexico and United States showed that tackling the environmental problem often requires thinking on a ecosystem level instead of as a single nation.There shouldn't be a difference as the economic and political decisions are supposed to adjust to environmental needs and emphasize the environmental concerns. In fact, there should be integrated decision-making that takes in all the above factors, which gives us the best solution.6.The disease has a close relationship with the environment. According to WHO, almost a quarter of all diseases are caused by environmental exposure. Environmental risks including pollution, hazards in the workplace, UV radiation, noise and climate and ecosystem change could lead to many diseases, such as malaria, cancer, diarrhea and emerging diseases. Typically, the lack of clean water and sanitation in poor countries and the unhealthy diet and lifestyle in rich countries are both related to diseases.7. Environment is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. Examples are like a fishpond to a fish or the grassland to a cricket.Ecosystem is a region in which the organisms and the physical environment form an interacting unit, for example the wetlands in Chongming Island.8.In resolving environmental conflicts, we need to take the ecosystem approach, call for better governance, involve related political jurisdictions to arrive at the best available compromise--the sustainable development strategies.9.Smog is the most severe problem nowadays. There are meteorological, industrial, geographical as well as economical factors.The pollutants are mainly emitted by big factories burning fuel, and then dispersed into atmosphere. Once the weather gets moist and windless, smog is easily formed. Besides, the booming traffic emissions and burning of straws also play an important role in the smog. Specifically, the many high buildings and skyscrapers in Shanghai has curbed the effective diffusion of PM 2.5 particles.However, this is almost inevitable since shutting down big companies that emit pollutants or stopping the traffic growth will do harm to the economy of China.Solving smog would require new and clean energy sources be developed and applied as well as substitute the former techniques with more eco-friendly, although costly techniques. Therefore, there should be more financial aids and policy supports from our governments.。