《简明语言学教程》 课件第五章 语义学
《语言学教程》第 5 章 语义学
⑩There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, ⑩一般来说，公认的涵义关系有三种
sameness relation 相同关系 oppositeness relation 对立关系 inclusiveness relation. 内包关系
基本概念
What is Semantics?
①The branch of linguistics concerning the study of meaning is called Semantics. ②More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
⑥而且，用词的所指事物来解释词很不方便。⑦ 因为词所指的对象并不总在说话人的身边。⑧就 算是在身边，也需要听者花时间来辨认其主要特 征。⑨例如，一个人第一次见到电脑时，可能会 误认为显示器是其主要部件，认为电脑就像电视 机一样。⑩因此，有人提出应该根据涵义而非指 称来研究意义。
注：⑩ 句是 5.2 的最终结论：要将对意
第 5层 切分
↑ Word
语言中的层次（Stratification）
第1层切分 Text 语篇
第2层切分
第3层切分 第4层切分 第5层切分 第6层切分 第7层切分 第8层切分
Sentence / Clause complex 句子 / 小句复合体
Clause Word group / phrase Word Morpheme Syllable Segmental phoneme 小句/分句/子句 词组 / 短语 词 语素 音节 单个音段音位
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论: Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object: eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in, hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world: ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟. 有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such as joy and impulse. 有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。
《戴炜栋 新编简明英语语言学教程 第2版 笔记和课后习题 含》读书笔记PPT模板思维导图下载
4.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第5章 语义学
5.2 课后习题详 解
5.1 复习笔记
5.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第6章 语用学
6.2 课后习题详 解
6.1 复习笔记
6.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第7章 语言变化
7.2 课后习题详 解
7.1 复习笔记
7.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第8章 语言与社会
《 戴 炜 栋 新 编 简 明 最新版读书笔记，下载可以直接修改 英语语言学教程
第2版 笔记和课后 习题 含》
思维导图PPT模板
01 第1章 导 言
目录
02 第2章 音位学
03 第3章 形态学
04 第4章 句法学
05 第5章 语义学
06 第6章 语用学
目录ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
07 第7章 语言变化
08 第8章 语言与社会
8.2 课后习题详 解
8.1 复习笔记
8.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第9章 语言与文化
9.2 课后习题详 解
9.1 复习笔记
9.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第10章 语言习得
10.2 课后习题 详解
10.1 复习笔记
10.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
第11章 第二语言习得
11.2 课后习题 详解
11.1 复习笔记
11.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
第12章 语言与大脑
12.2 课后习题 详解
12.1 复习笔记
12.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
读书笔记
谢谢观看
第1章 导 言
1.2 课后习题详 解
1.1 复习笔记
1.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
语言学第五章PPT课件
Sentence meaning Semantic analysis
Componential analysis Predication analysis
.
What is semantics?
英文semantics来自希腊语semantikos，意 思是siginificant(有意义)。是研究语言意义 的科学。
词的意义和句子意义. 20世纪60年代以前， 语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子 意义。
研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的 意义 。
.
Semantics--the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word is so strong that it forms part of our response to another
Within the domain of linguistics, semantics is mainly concerned with the analysis of meaning of words, phrases, or sentences and sometimes with the meaning of utterances in discourse or the meaning of a whole text.
sense.
Example: words having a taboo meaning, such as ‘gay’,
第五章 语义和语用 语言学概论 教学课件
C、地域方言词： 来源于特定地域的方言词→共同语吸收：搞；名堂；蹩脚 仅存在于特定地域的方言词→方言词 D、社会方言词：不同阶级、阶层、社会行业或集团的人经常使 用的词。 行业词语：特别是专业术语（数学：加减乘除；物理：摩擦、正 极；工业：定额、指标；语言：音位） 隐语/黑话：某些社会集团为了掩饰活动而使用的一种语言。
如：“人”“树”——名词，作主语、宾语
3、附加意义/色彩意义/附属意义
理性意义以外的表示人们的主观态度和评价的意义。
它是附着在理性意义之上的语义内容，通常体现语言单位的 某种倾向、韵味、格调等方面的意义。
常见的附加意义有：感情意义、形象意义和风格意义。
（1）感情意义：语义中所包括的语言社团对客观对象 所作的主观评价或态度方面的内容。
2、一般词汇：除去基本词汇之外的内容。
一般词汇的特点：变化快，不稳定；非常用性；灵活性；
时间短。
一般词汇的内容：一般词汇的内容丰富，容量大，很复
杂，包括古语词、新词、地域方言词、社会方言词和外 来词。
A、古语词：古代流传下来（古代流行）现在口头交际 中一般不再使用（或不常用）的词。 历史词汇：古代用，现在不用。宰相、皇帝、宫殿 文言词汇：古代常用，现在为了增强文雅色彩重新启用。 怎奈、荣任、若干、令尊 书面词汇：古代常用，现在沿用。固有词，但使用不普 遍。 苍穹、鼻祖、造诣、徜徉、白皙、卫冕 B、新词：适应社会发展变化需要新产生不久的词→不 稳固 下海、知识产权、按揭、炒股、软件、硬件、 生造词、仿造词不是新词。体坛、文坛、足坛、乒坛→ 排坛、操坛
2、固定结构的总汇（熟语总汇）
（1）成语：固定的结构形式和完整的意义→结构的 定型化 特点：
A、结构的凝固性：不能随意改变增删。黄粱一梦 B、意义的整体性：不等于单个词义的相加。两面三刀 C、语法作用相当于词。充当一个句子成分。 有时候约定俗成，可以改变→拔（揠）苗助长、知难而 进（退）
新编简明英语语言学教程 何兆熊 第五章笔记和习题
Chapter 5 Semantics⏹Semantics----the study of language meaning.⏹Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studiesmeaning.⏹Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis ofconventional meanings in words and sentences out of context.⏹Meaning is central to the study of communication.⏹Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist)⏹ 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part ofwhat language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.⏹ 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embracesthe properties of the referent, peripheral⏹ 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of alinguistic expression⏹ 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writertowards what is referred to⏹ 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ⏹Taboos⏹ 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words whichtend to co-occur with it⏹(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, lessstable, more culture-specific )7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order⏹What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.Some views concerning the study of meaning⏹Naming theory (Plato)⏹The conceptualist view⏹Contextualism (Bloomfield)⏹BehaviorismNaming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things.The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things⏹Limitations:1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…The conceptualist view⏹The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.⏹⏹The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;⏹Thought or reference refers to concept.⏹The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.⏹Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:⏹Situational context: spatiotemporal situation⏹Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s c o-occurrence or collocation.⏹For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.calls forth in the hearer⏹Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.⏹The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________RLexical meaning⏹Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.⏹Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.⏹Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between thelinguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.⏹Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspects of meaning.⏹Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world. But the referentialtheory fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expression.⏹Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenix,unicorn, and mermaid.⏹It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.⏹Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle although there is no such graph.⏹Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mental representation, the association withsomething in t he speaker’s or hearer’s mind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called the representational approach.Note:⏹Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star, rising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.Major sense relations⏹Synonymy, Antonymy, Polysemy, Homonymy, HyponymySynonymy⏹Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline，lift/elevator, flat/apartment…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence; gentleman/guy…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice, attract/seduce4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…◆Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesive device. In order to avoidrepetition the writer/speaker needs to use a synonym to replace a word in the previous co-text whenhe/she wants to continue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to create cohesion ofthe text.Antonymy◆Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.⏹Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …⏹Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …⏹Relational/ Reversal opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, … Gradable antonyms⏹Gradable antonyms ----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …Complementary antonyms⏹Complementary antonyms ----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …⏹Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use. Oxymoron and antithesis based onantonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise to fuzziness.Polysemy⏹Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:⏹A piece of furniture⏹All the people seated at a table⏹The food that is put on a table⏹A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.⏹Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.Homonymy⏹Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.⏹Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …⏹Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …⏹Complete/full homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …⏹Note: Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.⏹A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word (the etymology of the word); while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.Hyponymy⏹Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.⏹Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.⏹Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.⏹Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.Hyponymy⏹Superordinate: flower⏹Hyponyms: rose, tulip, li ly, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …⏹Superordinate: furniture⏹Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …⏹This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchical work.Sense relations between sentences⏹(1) X is synonymous with Y⏹(2) X is inconsistent with Y⏹(3) X entails Y⏹(4) X presupposes Y⏹(5) X is a contradiction⏹(6) X is semantically anomalousX is synonymous with Y⏹X: He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never got married all his life.⏹X: The boy killed the cat.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.⏹If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.X is inconsistent with Y⏹X: He is single.⏹Y: He has a wife.⏹X: This is my first visit to Beijing.⏹Y: I have been to Beijing twice.⏹If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.X entails Y⏹X: John married a blond heiress.⏹Y: John married a blond.⏹X: Marry has been to Beijing.⏹Y: Marry has been to China.⏹Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.⏹If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y⏹X: His bike needs repairing.⏹Y: He has a bike.⏹Paul has given up smoking.⏹Paul once smoked.⏹If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.X is a contradiction⏹*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.⏹*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.X is semantically anomalous⏹*The man is pregnant.⏹*The table has bad intentions.⏹*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.⏹Analysis of meaning :⏹Componential analysis⏹Predication analysis⏹Componential analysis⏹Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Father: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT →PARENT⏹Daughter: +HUMAN –MALE 0ADULT ←PARENTPredication analysis⏹1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man”is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.⏹2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g.⏹*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.⏹*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.⏹Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.⏹Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).⏹Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.⏹An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence. ⏹A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.⏹According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:⏹One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …⏹Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,…⏹Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …⏹No-place predication: It is hot.Predication analysis⏹Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE)⏹The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)⏹The kids like apples.→ KIDS (LIKE) APPLE⏹I sent him a letter.→ I (SEND) HIM LETTERSupplementary Exercises to Chapter 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.13. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD.behaviourism23. Which of the following is not true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.24. “Can I borrow your bike?” _______ “ You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis26. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world ofexperience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense28. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresIV. Define the following terms:31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis43.grammatical meaning 44. predication45. Argument 46. predicate47. Two-place predicationV. Answer the following questions:48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values?51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?Suggested answers to supplementary exercises:IV. Define the following terms:31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.33. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience34. Synonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.37. homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones38. homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.44. predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.45. argument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.Answer the following questions:48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example;(A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog.If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.Componential analysis, proposed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man” is ana lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE]50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values?Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y:X: He has been to France.Y: He has been to Europe.In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe.If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France.If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France.Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X.The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows:Suppose there are two sentences X and YX: John' s bike needs repairing.Y: John has a bike.If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike.If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Ye.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never married all his life.Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Ye.g. X: John is married.Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups.i. Dialectal synonymsThey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. For examples:British English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorThen dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect.ii. Stylistic synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still others are neutral in style. For example:old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentchap, pal, friend, companioniii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningThey are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For example, “collaborator”and “accomplice”are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in doing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act.iv. Collocational synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different prepositions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonymsSemantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. "53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ?One of the oldest was the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context.For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs:The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.(seal meaning an aquatic mammal)The seal could not be found. The king became worried.(seal meaning the king's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".。
新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter-5-semantics
16
Note:
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star,
用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思 维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。 从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。
9
Contextualism (语境论)
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context — elements closely linked with language behavior.
3
Naming theory (Plato)命名论
Words are names or labels for things.
词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。
Limitations:
1) Applicable to nouns only.
2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…
语言学概论,讲义第五章 语言的表达内容——语义
第五章语言的表达内容──语义教学目的与要求：了解语素、词语、词组和句子等语言单位的定义以及具有的意义；了解语音、语汇和语法这三个语言要素的意义第一节语义概说一、什么是语义1、定义：语义指的是“语言的意义”，是语言形式的表达内容2、语义所包括的内容：（1）语汇意义：实词和固定短语所表达的意义语法意义：虚词、语序、形态、句调等所表达的意义。
（2）言内之意：一般的、稳定的意义言外之意：个别的、临时的意义如：今天天气很热（3）理性意义：表达人们对客观世界的事物和现象的认识非理性意义：表达人们的主观情感、态度及语体风格如：你真讨厌二、语义的性质★（1）概括性：人们可以从具体事物中抽象概括出使一类事物区别于他类事物的特征，同时舍弃同类事物之间的各种差别。
如：笔（2）模糊性：模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围，而没有明确的界线。
如：土豪、中午。
（3）民族性：由于不同的民族对客观事物的认识不同，对客观事物的概括及分类也存在差异，因而不同语言的语义也会有所不同。
如：龙：中国的龙是一种吉祥的动物；而西方的dragon是一种危害人间的怪物。
三、语义在语言系统中的地位1、要不要研究语义语言形式和语言意义彼此密不可分，互相不能取代，强调语言研究中形式和意义的“结合”2、怎样研究语义：研究各种语言片段表示的语汇意义和语段意义第二节词语的意义一、词义的构成要素1、理性意义和非理性意义（1）理性意义：是人们对主观世界事物的反映，而且是概括性的反映如：山、河、神仙、天堂（2）非理性意义：附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。
主要表现为：感情色彩、语体色彩、形象色彩2、语素义（1）单纯词：词义=语素义，单纯词由一个语素构词如：书（2）合成词：①词义=语素义+语素义如：皮包②词义并不能从其构成语素义推导而来如：针线3、义项★（1）定义：义项是词典释义的最小单位。
一个词有几个义项，根据词所反映的对象的多少来决定的如：凉：①温度低。
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I want a map of Meaning!
logical approach
(1) Meaning (2) of linguistic unit (3) In different perspectives
philosophical approach
Linguistic approach
5.3 Lexical Meaning/relation 5.1 approaches To meaning
Number of printed or written sheets of Paper bound together in a cover
• The linguistic approach is broader in
scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.
Q: What do we mean language is systematic?
Language is rule-governed and there are 2 systems: sound system and meaning system
Understand Macroscopically
sentence
text
以陈述句的形式表达的 判断 的语义 Proposition 命题
由1个或几个已知判断推出 一个新判断的思维形式 推理
实用逻辑学教程
张绵厘编著
• • • • • • • • • •
第一章 第二章 第三章 第四章 第五章 第六章 第七章 第八章 第九章 第十章
绪论 概念的实质、分类及相互关系 明确概念的几种方式 简单判断 复合判断和模态判断 演绎推理 归纳推理 类比推理和假说 形式逻辑的基本规律 逻辑论证
5
Semantics
Teaching Objectives
• Critical Thinking
– Present and Solve Problems
• Understand Macroscopically
– A map of Meaning and meaning study
• Understand Microscopically
What is SEMANTICS?
Semantics: studies meaning in language. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words & sentences in particular.
Traditional Approach to meaning (2): Conceptual theory/Semantic triangle
Conceptual theory/Referential theory: the theory that relates words and things through the mediation of concepts in the mind. One best-known example to illustrate this view is the semiotic triangle (语义三角) of Ogden and Richards: Words→Concepts→Things
Plato & Aristotle, have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or ‘propositions’) within a single language. Philosophers study the relation between linguistic expression and what they refer to in the real world and evaluation of the truth value of it.
• “Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack • • •
to fetch it for her by speaking to him.” Bloomfield interprets this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram. linguistic response eventful response S r s R eventful stimulus linguistic stile to illustrate denotative meaning!
Large (usu. tall) long-lasting type of plant, having a thick central wooden stem (the trunk) From which wooden branches grow, usually Bearing leaves
Associative Meaning 联想意义
(1) Conceptual meaning
• Also called ‘denotative’
or ‘cognitive’ meaning.
– Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content. – Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. – It is the meaning you get from a dictionary.
Pragmatics
Semantics
5.4 Sentential Meaning/relation
Definition Of meaning
5.2 Types Of meaning
5.5 Ways of meaning analysis
• Logicians and philosophers, like
它是研究概念、判断、推理等思 维形式，指导人们正确进行思维和 准确表达思想的一门科学。 研究对象：思维形式、逻辑规则、 思维规律、逻辑方法等。
• linguistic expressions (signs)
Saussure’s idea
Sound image Concept?
Morpheme (free and bound) lexeme 的逻辑语义 思 维 形 式 Concept 概念
•
Read the following paragraph and make a judgment!
On Watching TV
Watching TV is beneficial for young children. TV program is very rich. They can watch cartoon. They can watch music program. They can watch drama. Of course they can watch football match. So you see TV program enrich their life.
5.1 Different Approaches to Meaning
(1) (2) (3) (4) The Naming Theory: Labels of things The conceptual view: Semantic Triangle Contextualism: Meaning in use Behaviorism: Stimulus-response
Traditional Approach to meaning (1): Naming things
• Naming things
Words are names or labels for things. The meaning of language is the object in the world that it stands for, refers to or denotes.
thought/concept/image
symbolizes
symbol (word)
refers to
referent (object)
stands for
airplane
Traditional Approach to meaning (3): Context theory and behaviorism
• The leading British linguist J.R. Firth is one of •
the representatives of this approach who regards words as acts, events, habits. Another representative is American linguist Bloomfield who argues that the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.
• Who: Geoffrey Leech • When: Semantics: The Study of Meaning