英语语言学概论Chapter7Semantics(语义学)
【自学考试】江苏省自考英语语言学概论(27037)填空题与选择题题库及中文翻译最新
第一章绪论填空题或选择题1. A symbol consists of two parts : a concrete form and the meaning which it conveys.一个符号由两个部分组成：一个具体的形式和它所表达的意思。
2.By saying language is arbitrary ,we mean we can’t give a sound reason why such a form ispronounced in this way rather than in that way, and why a particular meaning should be indicated by this form rather than by that form..当说语言是任意的，我们指我们不能合理地解释为什么这个音以这种形式而不是以那种形式发音。
并且为什么以这种形式而不是以那种形式来表明某种特殊的意义。
3. Language has two levels .They are grammatically meaningful level and sound meaninglesslevel.语言有两个层次：语法上有意义的层次和声音上无意义的层次。
4.Human languages have such design features asproductivity ,discreteness ,displacement ,arbitrariness ,cultural transmission ,duality and interchangeability . 人类语言具有以下的甄别性特征：能产性，离散性，不受时空限制的特性，任意性，文化传递性，双重性和互换性。
nguage is a system because every language consists of a set of rules which underlie people’sactual speech or writing .语言是一种体系，因为每种语言都是由一套规则组成的，这些规则表明了人们的真正语言或书面形式。
英语语义学Semantics
英语语义学SemanticsSemanticsSemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Semantics = Theory of MeaningIts goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.History of Semantics1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 – Its English version came out.1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三⾓Concept（meaning）refers tosymbolizesSymbol Thing（word）（referent）stands forThe Referential Theory 指称论Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression. Concept VS. Referent (Thing)A referent may exist in the physical world.The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.Sense 语义Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.It’s abstract and de-contextualized.Sense RelationsSense relations between wordsWords are in different sense relations with each other.There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:1) synonymy 同义2) antonymy 反义3) hyponymy 上下义4) polysemy ⼀词多义5) homonymy 同⾳同形异义1. SynonymyIt is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.2. AntonymyIt is the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymy (relational opposites)Gradable antonymy 分级反义词good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThe members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.Not good≠badHot ---warm---cool---coldComplementary antonymy 互补反义词alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对⽴反义词)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.ExerciseClassify the following pairs of antonyms:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymymarried-single male-female hot-coldgive-take big-small awake-asleepnorth-south logical-illogical win-losebuy-sell doctor-patient above-below3. Hyponymy上下义关系It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word. HyponymyMusical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba tromboneFish---snapper salmon bass sole troutSalmon---chinook spring coho king sockey4. PolysemyA word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.Wood:family treea geographical area with many trees5. HomonymyWhen two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.3 types of homonyms:perfect homonyms(同⾳同形异义词)homographs（同形异义词）homophones (同⾳异义词).Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.bank (银⾏、河岸)bear (容忍、⽣（孩⼦）)sound (声⾳、完美的)HomographsHomographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning."bow" /b??/ -----"⼸―"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"HomophonesHomophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.tail / taleto / two / toopair / pearsee / seaI / eye piece / peace。
语义学
• (iii) Affective meaning (情感意义) • This is what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker towards the listener or what he is talking about. • 褒贬
• 他的父亲是希伯来语言学者，所以他从小 就受到了语言学的熏陶，特别是对犹太教 传统有浓厚兴趣。1945 年进入宾夕法尼亚 大学读语言学、数学和哲学，1947 年，在 宾夕法尼亚大学语言学教授 Z.哈里斯[Zellin Harris]的影响下他开始研究语言学。
• 1949 年获宾夕法尼亚大学文学学士学位， 1951 年在宾夕法尼亚大学完成硕士论文《 现代希伯莱语语素音位学》，1955 年又在 该校完成博士论文《转换分析》，获得博 士学位。
Associative meaning (联想意义)
• (i) Connotative（有隐含意义的） meaning (价值 意义) • This is the communicative value attributed to an expression over and above its purely conceptual meaning. • (ii) Social meaning (社会意义) • This refers to what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use, including variations like dialect, time, topic, and style.
• (v) Collective meaning (搭配意义) • This refers to what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. • 美女 帅哥（v） • 美哥 帅女（x）
Semantics 语义学
dead-- more dead-- most dead.
2.3 Relational opposite
关系反义词
显示两个此项之间关系颠倒的成对词被成为关系反义词。
• A
husband B
•
wife
E.g. sell– buy ; husband– wife ; • father– son ; doctor– patient ; • above– below; teacher- pupil.
Examples: bank ( of a river) 河岸 —— bank (financial instiution) 银行 bat ( flying creature) 蝙蝠 —— bat ( used in sports ) 球 拍 race ( contest of speed ) 比速度—— race ( ethnic group ) 种族 pupil ( in the eye ) 瞳孔—— pupil ( at school ) 学生 mole ( on skin ) 痣——mole ( small animal) 鼹鼠
Examples:
Head : 1) on top of your body 头，头部 2) on top of a glass of beer ( 一杯啤酒顶端的) 泡沫 3) on top of a company or department 主管人，领导 ，头目 ...
A.
A flock of sheep A pack of wolves A herd of cows A swarm of bees A school of whales
英语语言学概论semantics
年ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ年第学期第周星期
课题名称（含教材章节）：Semantics
教学目的和要求：了解并掌握语义学的定义、语义学的分支、有关意义的理论、语义学的一些重要概念（reference, denotation, referent, sense, extension, intension, concept）、意义的类型、意义的要素、成分分析理论、语义场理论、词汇关系、决定句子意义的基本因素、句子之间的意义关系。
教学重点：语义学的定义、语义学的分支、有关意义的理论、语义学的一些重要概念（reference, denotation, referent, sense, extension, intension, concept）以及述位结构理论。
教学难点：意义的类型、意义的要素、成分分析理论、语义场理论、词汇关系、决定句子意义的基本因素。
教学内容（要点）
Definition of semantics
Meanings of meaning
Theories of meaning
Word meaning
Componential analysis
Sentence meaning
徐州工程学院教案纸
Syntax（句法学）%26Semantics（语义）（第五章,第七章）
Syntax（句法学）%26Semantics（语义）（第五章,第七章）Syntax1.Syntax（句法）is a branch of linguistics that studies howwords are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis（直接成分分析） is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.3.The term “category”（范畴）in some approaches refers toclasses and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.Semantics1. Semantics（语义学）----the study of language meaning. Meaning is central to the study of communication.2. Word meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study ofword meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense（意义）---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract.Reference（指称）----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Major sense relations3.1 SynonymySynonymy（同义词）refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.3.2 Antonymy （反义）a. Gradable antonyms（可分级反义词）----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …b. Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …c.Relational opposites（关系对⽴反义词）----exhibits thereversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …d. Reversive（可逆性反义词）3.3 Hyponymy （上下关系）Hyponymy （上下关系）----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.a. Superordinate（上义词）: the word which is more general in meaning.b. Hyponyms（下义词）: the word which is more specific in meaning.c. Co-hyponyms（同级下义词）: hyponyms of the same superordinate.e.g. Superordinate: furnitureHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …3.4 Polysemy （⼀词多义）----the same one word may have more than one meaning.3.5 HomonymyHomonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone（同⾳异义词）---- when two words are identical insound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh（同形异义词）---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling4. Componential analysis（成分分析）---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Pragmatics语⽤学Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning, contextualmeaning, how more gets communicated than is said.The originSemanticsContext considered Context unconsideredPragmatics Traditional semanticsSentence and utterance话语The relation: Meaning of a sentence is abstract anddecontextualized while meaning of an utterance isconcrete and context-dependent. The meaning of anutterance is based on a sentence meaning and therealization of the abstract meaning of a sentencein a real situation of communication.Example: My bag is heavy. (utterance meaning: a statement,indirec t or polite request, declining someone’s requestfor help)Cooperative Principles and violation of the conversation maxims合作原则和准则的违反The maxim of quantity 数量准则Make your utterance as informative as required. No more and no less.The maxim of quality 质量准则Do not say what you believe to be false and do not saywhat you lack evidence for.The maxim of relation 关系准则Be relevantThe maxim of manner ⽅式准则Avoid obscurity, ambiguity. Be brief and orderly Violation of the maxims and revealing conversation implicature 会话含义The use of the terms principle and maxim does not meanthat the CP and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. People do violate them and tell lies. In fact, the significance CP lies in the violations.Examples of the violations of the maxims:1) Violation of the Maxim of QuantityA: What are you readingB: A book.A: Do you know where Dr. Townsend livesB: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city. (saidwhen it is known to both A and B that B has Dr. Townsend’s address)2)Violation of the Maxim of QualityA: Would you like to come to our party tonightB: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.(said when it is known to both A and B thatB is feeling perfectly well)3) Violation of the Maxim of RelationA: What time is itB: Well, the paper’s already come.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you thinkB: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t theyA: What do you think of the lectureB: He’s a good cook.4) Violation of the Maxim of MannerA: Let’s stop and get something to eat.B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.A: What did your sister buy at Sears yesterdayB: She bought a red dress, she bought a green dress, and she bought a blue dress.。
语言学知识_语义学
语言学知识_语义学语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。
二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。
意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。
而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。
意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。
2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。
例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的哺乳动物”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。
3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。
例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。
三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。
文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）——purchase（较为正式）。
搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。
例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician （政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。
英语语言学概论Chapter7Semantics(语义学)
7.1 Introduction7.1.1 What is semantics??Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.7.1.2 Sub-branches of semantics. John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics, Wen Qiufang makes a distinction between l exical semantics and sentence semantics the latter of which is also termed sentential semantics by some people.7.2 meaning7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaningThe words mean and meaning can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes in daily communication.Even as a technical term, meaning is defined and used differently according to different theoretical approaches.7.2.2 theories of meaningJohn Lyons1.The referential (or denotational theory) 指称说2.the ideational, or mentalistic theory 意念说.3.the behaviourist theory 行为反应说4.the meaning-is-use theory 用法说5.the verificationist theory验证说6.the truth-conditional theory.真值说Li Fuyuan Semantic triangular 语义三角理论7.2.3 Basic concept related to meaningReference所指is the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers.Denotation指称is a term which is intrinsically connected with referenceReferent is the object or state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality or a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign. LimitationsSense意义the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Denotes the relationship inside language.Extension and intensionExtension is the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied Intension is the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression.Concept is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in human mind.7.2.4 Types of meaningDenotation and connotation 外延意义和内涵意义The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person,object, abstract notion, event, or Mate which the word or sentence denotes.We can say that the denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictionary meaning.The main application of the term connotation is with reference to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item.Positive neutral negative (Wen Qiufang)7.3Lexical semantics is concerned with the meaning of lexical items.7.3.1 componential analysis成分分析The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis. We can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus ( + ) or minus ( -)7.3.27.3.2 Semantic field 语义场Words do not exist in isolation. They are always related to each other in one another and form different semantic fields. Semantic field theory is a theory of the German structuralist school：the vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. (Crystal. 1985, 274).7.3.3 Lexical relationsSaeed 8 lexical relations一Form relation 形式关系Homonymy同音（同形）异义关系two or more lexical items are synonyms when they have the same meaningsAbsolute homoyms 同音同形异义词Homopones 同音异义词Homographs 同形异义词二Sense relations 语义关系1.Polysemy一词多义关系 a lexical item has a range of different meanings2.Synonymy同义关系two or more lexical items have the same meanings3.Antonymy反义关系two words are opposite in meaningcomplementary antonymy 互补反义关系Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系Relational opposite 关系对立反义词4.Hyponymy下义关系Hyponym 下义词Hyperonym 上义词三object relations 实体关系1.Meronymy 组成部分与整体关系2.Member-collection 成员与集体关系3.Portion-mass 部分与整体关系Lexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than by ambiguous structures and is usually created by polysemy or homonymy.7.4 sentential semanticsSix essential factors for determining sentence meaningi) the meanings of individual words which make up a sentence;ii) grammaticality of a sentence;iii) the linear ordering of the linguistic forms in a sentence;iv) the phonological features like stress and intonation;v) the hierarchical order of a sentence;vi) the semantic roles of the nouns in relation to the verb in a sentence.Nine semantic rolesAgent （施事格）Patient （目标格）Experiencer （经验者）Instrument （工具格）Cause （动因格）Attribute （属性）Recipient （接受者）Locative （方位格）Temporal （时间格）SynonymousEntailContradictPresuppose presupposition triggerTautologyContradictionSemantically anomalous 异常的反常的Predicate谓语argument论元proposition命题。
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7.1 Introduction7.1.1 What is semantics??Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.7.1.2 Sub-branches of semantics. John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics, Wen Qiufang makes a distinction between l exical semantics and sentence semantics the latter of which is also termed sentential semantics by some people.7.2 meaning7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaningThe words mean and meaning can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes in daily communication.Even as a technical term, meaning is defined and used differently according to different theoretical approaches.7.2.2 theories of meaningJohn Lyons1.The referential (or denotational theory) 指称说2.the ideational, or mentalistic theory 意念说.3.the behaviourist theory 行为反应说4.the meaning-is-use theory 用法说5.the verificationist theory验证说6.the truth-conditional theory.真值说Li Fuyuan Semantic triangular 语义三角理论7.2.3 Basic concept related to meaningReference所指is the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers.Denotation指称is a term which is intrinsically connected with referenceReferent is the object or state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality or a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign. LimitationsSense意义the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Denotes the relationship inside language.Extension and intensionExtension is the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied Intension is the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression.Concept is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in human mind.7.2.4 Types of meaningDenotation and connotation 外延意义和内涵意义The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person,object, abstract notion, event, or Mate which the word or sentence denotes.We can say that the denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictionary meaning.The main application of the term connotation is with reference to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item.Positive neutral negative (Wen Qiufang)7.3Lexical semantics is concerned with the meaning of lexical items.7.3.1 componential analysis成分分析The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis. We can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus ( + ) or minus ( -)7.3.27.3.2 Semantic field 语义场Words do not exist in isolation. They are always related to each other in one another and form different semantic fields. Semantic field theory is a theory of the German structuralist school：the vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. (Crystal. 1985, 274).7.3.3 Lexical relationsSaeed 8 lexical relations一Form relation 形式关系Homonymy同音（同形）异义关系two or more lexical items are synonyms when they have the same meaningsAbsolute homoyms 同音同形异义词Homopones 同音异义词Homographs 同形异义词二Sense relations 语义关系1.Polysemy一词多义关系 a lexical item has a range of different meanings2.Synonymy同义关系two or more lexical items have the same meanings3.Antonymy反义关系two words are opposite in meaningcomplementary antonymy 互补反义关系Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系Relational opposite 关系对立反义词4.Hyponymy下义关系Hyponym 下义词Hyperonym 上义词三object relations 实体关系1.Meronymy 组成部分与整体关系2.Member-collection 成员与集体关系3.Portion-mass 部分与整体关系Lexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than by ambiguous structures and is usually created by polysemy or homonymy.7.4 sentential semanticsSix essential factors for determining sentence meaningi) the meanings of individual words which make up a sentence;ii) grammaticality of a sentence;iii) the linear ordering of the linguistic forms in a sentence;iv) the phonological features like stress and intonation;v) the hierarchical order of a sentence;vi) the semantic roles of the nouns in relation to the verb in a sentence.Nine semantic rolesAgent （施事格）Patient （目标格）Experiencer （经验者）Instrument （工具格）Cause （动因格）Attribute （属性）Recipient （接受者）Locative （方位格）Temporal （时间格）SynonymousEntailContradictPresuppose presupposition triggerTautologyContradictionSemantically anomalous 异常的反常的Predicate谓语argument论元proposition命题。