第二语言习得论文

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英语专业论文第二语言习得-Language transfer on SLA

Title：Language transfer on SLAAbstractThe essay aims to investigate how the language transfer influence the process of SLA,in the field of SLA research, language transfer has long been a controversial research subject. it was initially associated with behaviorist theories of language learning and was seen as an impediment. It was considered to only hinder the acquisition of a L2. However, the development of Interlanguage Theory and the flourishing of psycholinguistics have finally recognized the significance of the role of the L1 in SLA. Learner's L1 is viewed as a resource which the learner actively draws in interlanguage development. The positive role of language transfer in SLA has been gradually acknowledged. Based on this , it will make a exploration of both positive and negative transfer between the L1 and the L2 through learner's interlanguage. Key words: language transfer; positive transfer; negative transfer; second language acquisition (SLA)nguage transfer1.1Definitions of language transferLanguage transfer took its root in the Transfer Theory in psychology. Psychologists defined ' transfer' as a type of learning activities by which learners' previously acquired knowledge about the learning skills will influence the out come of their learning or training behavior. They maintain that transfer can be both be both positive and negative.Behaviorists defined transfer as a consequence of habit formation, which implies the extinction of the learner's primary language when he or she is learning the new language.However, it is now widely accepted that the influence of the learner;s native language cannot be adequately accounted for in terms of habit formation. Nor is transfer simply a matter of interference or of falling back on the native language. Nor is it just a question of the influence of the learner's native language, as other previously acquired 'second' languages can also have an effect (Ellis, 1994). This suggests that the term ' L1 transfer' itself is inadequate. Some scholars have advocated abandoning the term or using it in highly restricted ways. Sharwood and Kellerman (1986) have argued that a superordinate term that is theory-neutral is needed and suggest crosslinguistic influence. They comment:the term 'crosslinguistic influence' is theory-neutral, allowing one to subsume under one heading such phenomena as 'transfer', 'interference', 'avoidance', 'borrowing' and L2-related aspects of language loss and thus permitting discussion of the similarities and differences between these phenomena.(1986:1)Odlin(1989) offers this ' working definition' of transfer as basis for his own thoughtful treatment of such pehenomena: transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and the differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired91989;27).Many researchers disapprove of the term "language transfer", and prefer "mother tongue influence" proposed by Corder (1983）or "cross-linguistic influence" by Kellerman instead. However, we will stick to the term "language transfer" throughout this thesis, partly because of its convenience, and partly because of its familiarity to most people, with the understanding that here "Language transfer" is used in its broad sense, not restricted to the behaviorist notion.1.2The manifestations of Language TransferIn traditional accounts of language transfer, the research focus was placed on the errors that learners produce. Errors occurred as a result of the negative transfer of mother tongue patterns into learn's L2 (Ellis, 1994). It is possible to identify a number of other manifestations of transfer however, three of which are frequently discussed by transfer researchers:negative transfer,positive transfer.1.2.1.Negative transfer(errors)Negative transfer, also known as interference, is the use of a L1 pattern or rule which heads to an error or inappropriate form in the L2. Negative transfer can befound at all the levels of language structure. A speaker's foreign accent in L2 learning is an evidence of negative transfer at the phonological level. Morphological negative transfer is common. For instance, under the influence of Chinese language, some students will say "big rain" rather "heavy rain". Negative transfer at syntactical level also exists. For example, when a learner is asked to translate the sentence " 我昨天在家做作业" into English, he or she tends to ignore the tense and word order of an English sentence and would translate it according to the Chinese grammatical structure " I yesterday at home do homework".1.2.2.Positive transfer (facilitation)Positive transfer is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the L1 and L2 have the same form. Similarities between vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprehension; similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sound easier; similarities between writing systems can give learners a fast starting in reading and writing the L2; and similarities in syntactic structures can facilitate the acquisition of grammar. For example, when a learner is asked to translate the sentence "我说汉语" into English, he or she can translate it correctly with the help of his or her L1 "I speak Chinese" because the basic word order of both Chinese and English is S(subject）+ V (verb or predicate) + O (object).So , positive transfer is beneficial while negative transfer is a hindrance to SLA. From the above discussion, we can see it is clearly insufficient to focus exclusively on production errors, since transfer is a complex phenomenon which involves not only L1 knowledge but also other factors that interact with L1 knowledge.2.The Historical Development and Recent Situation of the Study on LanguageTransfer in SLALanguage transfer has exerted considerable effect on SLA. People in the past have conducted detailed investigation and research on transfer phenomena in learning a L2. From the historical point of view, the research of language transfer in SLA has undergone three stages.2.1. Domination of Behaviorist Point of ViewEarly language transfer research can be traced back to the 1940s and 1950s. The first two influential people who systematically studied the role of language transfer in SLA were Charles C. Fries and Robert Lado. Fries (1945) put forward the issue from the angle of the compilation of teaching materials. He formulated the need for contrastive analyses through observations. He states that the most efficient materials are those based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner.(1945:9). Robert lado proposed a potentially rigorous model, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(CAH) (Lado.1957), which was based on this assumption: the student who comes into with a foreign language will find some features of it quite easy and others extremely difficult. Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult.(1957:2)During 1950s, behaviorist behaviorist views of language learning and language teaching were predominant. Language transfer was always integrated with behaviorism, and thus became the theoretical basis of comparative analysis. For one thing, the behaviorist notions of transfer often implies the extinction of early habits, whereas the acquisition of a L2 need not lead to any replacement of the learner's primary language. This and other considerations suggest that behaviorism may never have been relevant to the study of transfer (Odlin, 1989).2.2.Prevalence of Mentalist Point of ViewFrom the late 1960s to the 1970s , the behaviorist point of view was severely criticized due to the influence caused by Chomsky's linguistic theory. Chomsky (1965) advocates a strong version of the innateness hypothesis. He argues that children are born with a specific and unique kind of knowledge which equips them for language learning. This knowledge is embodied in a mechanism called a language acquisition device (LAD). He believes that a child must be predisposed to learn any language as a native language and that the LAD must contain language universals. He then seeks to identify linguistic universals by the in-depth study of a single language. He argues that only in this way is it possible to discover the highly abstract principles of grammar that constrain the form of any specific grammar. He refers to these principles as Universal Grammar. While Greenberg (1966) and some followers establish universals by examining a wide range of languages from different language families in order to discover what features they have in common, which are referred to as typological universals. Therefore, followeing Chomsky's attack on behaviorism, its drawbacks were exposed gradually and the function of language transfer was largely held in contempt in SLA. Both behaviorism and transfer phenomena were treated coldly and ignored, and the role of L1 was played down. This minimalist view of L1 transfer, however, has not withstood the test of time (Ellis, 2000).2.3.Influence of Cognitive Point of ViewDuring the mid-to-late 1970s, the emphasis was on the determination of how and wehn learners used their L1 and on explanations for the phenomena. Little by little, the study of language transfer has come into a cognitive period. The word ' language transfer ' did not merely refer to the meachanical transfer from L1 to L2. It was treated as a kind of important learning strategy in SLA, a complicated cognitive procedure that is influenced by various factors. Ellis (1994) points out that one clear advance in transfer research has been the reconceptualizaton of the influence of the L1;in behaviorist accounts it was seen as impediment, whereas in cognitive accounts it is viewed as a resource which the learner actively draws in interlanguage development. The positive role of language transfer in SLA has gradually been acknowledged.nguage transfer in SLAIt is a popular belief that second language acquisition (SLA) is strongly influenced by the learner's first language (L1). The clearest support for this belief comes from "foreign" accents in the second language (L2) speech of learners (Ellis, 1985). When a French man speaks English, his English sounds French. When a Chinese speaks English, his English sounds Chinese. In addition to accents, L1 habits also influence the way learners use to express themselves in L2. For example, such Chinese expression as "*department company"(department store 百货公司), "*family computer" (personal computer 家用电脑) can often be heard (陆效用，2002). Furthermore , there are lots of Chinglish expression in the syntactical level, for instance, "我昨天在家做作业" would be translated into English according to the Chinese grammatical structure "*Ｉyesterday at home do homework". ( I did my homework at home yesterday.) as far as thinking mode is concerned, Chinglish sentences "*His body is very healthy" (He is very healthy) and "* Good good study, day day up" (If you study hard, you will make progress very day) are highly likely to be produced by Chinese learners of English. Common Chinese greetings around meal time "吃了吗？" "Have you eaten yet?" or "Have you had your lunch?" would be transfered when Chinese learners of English meet native-speaker of English. All these phenomena all show how language transfer influence second language acquisition.Traditional linguistics holds that the role of the L1 in SLA is a negative on (陆效用，2002). That is , the L1 gets in the way or interferes with the learning of the L2, such that features of the L1 are transferred into the L2 (Ellis, 1985). For years, most experts and language teachers have emphasized negative transfer in SLA, and neglected the positive role of the L1. In L2 teaching , therefore, they are strongly opposed to the use of L1.Do L1 really play only a negative role in SLA? Does it only hinder the acquisition of a L2? Is there any positive transfer in SLA? Can L1 also benefit the acquisition of a L2? In L2 teaching, can L1 be used?In our opinion, the so-called L1 negative influence hypothesis or L1 interference hypothesis is one-sided, it neither reflects the nature of language learning nor reveals the inner relationship between L1 and SLA. Taken the above Chinglish expressions for example, superficially, the L1 does influence the L2 expressions, but in fact, it is the L1 that helps the learner finish the communicative task. In the process of SLA, especially in the early stages of proficiency, learners have to fall back on their L1 knowledge in case of emergency in order to communicate effectively. This is a "cognitive process", "a learner's strategy", and also a necessary process in SLA(陆效用，2002）.As a matter of fact, in the field of SLA research, language transfer has lonog been a controversial research subject, especially the influence of learner's L1 on L2. Generally speaking, the research of language transfer in SLA has undergone three stages. In the 1950s, it was seen as an impediment and was deemed as playing an important role in L2 learning when Lado's Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis dominated the field. Language transfer was considered to only hinder the acquisition of a L2. With the popularity of the Chomskyan Universal Grammar which denies the existence of transfer phenomena, the researchers' interest in language transfer has declined since the 1960s,and language transfer was regarded as playing a minor role in the process of SLA. However, the development of Interlanguage Theory and the flourishing of psycholinguistics have finally recognized the significance of the role of the L1 in SLA. Learner's L1 is viewed as a resource which the learner actively draws in interlanguage development. The positive role of language transfer in SLA was gradually acknowledged. As a result, the role of the L1 is not only a negative one but also a positive one; it does not only interfere with the learning of the L2 but also facilitate the learning of the L2.3.1Phonetic transferPhonetic transfer occurs when the learner tends to transfer similar but phonologically different sounds of his or her L1 to those of the L2. It can be both positive and negative resulting from the learner's conventional habit of articulation. 3.1.1.PhonemeIt is known that the Chinese phonetic alphabet is divided into three categories: sehngmu, yunmu and diaozi. A shengmu is equivalent to consonant and a yunmu to a vowel. What often happens is that those who have systematically learned the Chinese phonetic alphabet are good at taking in English phonetic knowledge because most English phonemes have similar counterparts in Chinese and thus quite a number of Chinese pronouncing skills can be transferred into pronouncing English phonemes.For example, the beginning shengmu [k, t , m , l ] in Chinese words "开头" "美丽" are equivalent to English consonants [ k , t , m, l ]; and the yunmu [ai, ou, ei ,i ] have their counterparts in English. Look at some English words: kite [kait], toe [təu], make [meik], lead [li:d]. All of these are similar to the Chinese pinyin.Similarity between the phonemes of the two languages has double functions. On the one hand , it causes generalization in listening and pronouncing English words, which, in turn, makes students mistankenly treat the similarity between the phonemes as being identical, and substitute Chinese phonemes for English ones, resulting in the negative transfer of L1. On the other hand, oweing to the existence of some regularities that govern the differences between the two phonetic systems, it is a very useful step to perfect English pronunciation for most Chinese learners of Englsih. Once the student realizes these regularities through elaborate language comparison and becomes skilled in using them, he or she will soon be able to adapt his or her L1 pronouncing skills and pronounce English phonemes correctly, hence forming the positive transfer of L1. For example , with their vowel component [ə] removed, the Chinese initial consonants b, p, m , f , v , d, t, n , l, g , k, b, s , w, g, ŋ are very similar to English consonants [b], [p], [m], [f], [v], [d], [t], [n], [l], [g ], [k], [h], [s],[w], [ŋ]. This regularity is a very useful step to perfect English pronunciation for most Chinese learners of English. It greatly shortens the natural process of discrimination, which, in ordinary situations, is rather long. Its value may be assessed readily if we point out that quite a few Chinese learners of English fail to discern the difference.Accounting for one third of the total English phonemes, the above 15phonemes may constitute a great deal of negative transfer of L1 when not corrected, or a lot ofpositive transfer of L1 when corrected. Here lies a vast potentiality to save time and energy in SLA.This example indicates that the role of L1 in SLA is not fixed and consistent but changeable, sometimes helps, sometimes hinder. It also shows that phoneme comparison helps to turn the task into an easy one. Moreover, this comparison also enables us to deepen our understanding of our native language---Chinese.Usually, a native speaker of Chinese hardly ever thinks of studing phonetic structure of his mother tongue. Now that he is engaged in leaning English, he sees that the 15 Chinese phonemes have counterparts in English. Whenever he sees one of the contrastive phonemes, he will immediately think of the other. This kind of contrastive association is certainly very conductive to strengthening memory and comprehension of both languages concerned. Hence this example may be regarded as one showing the reversed positive transfer from L2 to L1.Not every English phoneme has a counterpart in Chinese. A few English phonemes have no counterparts in Chinese. For example, the two English dental sound [ө] is utterly new, thus very troublesome to Chinese learners. Beginning learners tend to replace the sound with approximate Chinese sounds [s] and [z] or [d ]. Some learners fail to discern the two in listening and speaking even after many years' learning.There is a phenomenon of consonant clusters in English. Furthermore, there are words ending in vowel of open syllables and there also exist words ending in consonants of close syllables in the English vocabulary. However, most Chinese characters are monosyllables. When beginning learners read a word beginning or ending with consonant clusters, or when they read an English close syllable subconsciously, they often insert a 'support' vowel sound between the consonants or add a vowel sound at the end of a word. So these are typical negative phonetic transfers in acquiring English.Phonetic negative transfer resulting from English learning is usually very hard to overcome. Even though the learning environment is favorable, and the learner is hard working, his pronunciation cannot be improved to be as perfect as that of the native English sperker. That's why when a French man speaker English, his English sounds French; when a Chinese speaker English, his English sounds Chinese. Therefore, phoneme comparison should be overemphasized at elementary stage so as not to cause too much negative transfer at the beginning of the study.3.1.2IntonationThere exists such a general phenomenon is every language as the falling intonation, which is used basically to express definiteness and completeness, the rising intonation, which expresses suspicion and incompleteness and the blending intonation, which appears with double sides o fpsychology(Danicoff,1980) and is mainly used to express complex feelings.Meaning of intonation patterns in Chinese and English are similar, the falling intonation is more often associated with definiteness, completeness and assertiveness while the rising intonation is more is more often associated with incompleteness, uncertainty and tentativeness. It suggests that something further must be said either bythe speaker or by the hearer. It is also often accompanied with politeness, encouragement, pleading, diffidence or suspicion. The blending intonation expresses feelings of hesitation, contrast, reservation, or doubt. The implication is sometimes that the speaker hesitate to make his statement too confidently, and at other times it conveys a warning or an apology. Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed, and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs as the most important in the tone-unit. Both Chinese and English have such kind of intonation function.most Chinese learners of English have no difficulty in mastering these basic English intonation patterns and their functions. Here, their habitual modes and skills of expressing and thinking formed in previous native language learning can be transferred into Engish learning. This is the favorable side of English intonation learning, where positive transfer of Chinese plays an important role.Nevertheless, the negative transfer of L1 exists here too, which is rather hard to conceive. Chinese is a tone language, it is the kind of language which uses tone to distinguish word meaning while English, an intonation language which uses tone to distinguish word meaning while English, an intonation language, is the kind of language which employs intonation to distinguish the meaning while English, an intonation language, is the kind of language which employs intonation to distinguish the meaning of pared with the relatively smooth and simple intonations of Chinese, English intonation vary in large pitch amplitude and more sophisticated patterns.3.1.3.Syntactical transferSyntactical transfer involves the transference of syntactic structures, such as word order, modification devices, articles, the number, the gender, relative clause and so on ,it can be both positive and negative.Word orderIn some cases, the word order of seven types of simple sentences in English is similar to those in Chinese.1.SV structure2.SVC structure3..SVO structure4..SVOO structure5.SVOC structure6.SVOA structure7..SV A structure4.ConclusionIt is a fact that language transfer exists at all the levels of language structure. From this ,we have found that the mechanism of L1's function in SLA is very complicated, there seldom exists pure positive or negative transfer in the process.we would not be able to exploit fully its positive side unless we profound study in language comparison and mechanism of transfer. We are sure that more example will be found to show that L1 promotes L2 acquisition.BibliographyBrown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Prentice Hall Regents, 1994.Chomsky, N . Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, 1965Cook, vivian. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.Corder, S.P. The Significance of Learners' error.[J]. IRAL, 5, 161-170, 1967 Eckman, F.R. Markedness and the Conrastive Analysis Hypothesis[J]. Language Learning 27,315-30,1997Ellis, Rod. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Langugae Education Press,1986.Ellis, Rod. Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai; Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000Fries, C. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor: The University Michigan Press,1945.Greenberg, W. Universals of Language. Cambridge,: MIT Press, 1966.Kellerman E, An eye for an eye :corsslinguistic constraints on the development of the L2 lexicon,1986Odlin, Therence. Language Transfer- Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001.陆效用.试论母语对二语习得的正面影响[J].外语界，2002.（4）。

年龄因素对第二语言习得的影响论文

Age Factor in Second Language Aquisition1. IntroductionNowerdays, with the development of society and technology, our society has become more open. People, with different colors,who come from different countries and areas communicate with each other in various ways and methods. Language, of course, is one of the most important tools in our communication. As we all known, English is an international language in the whole world. Accordingly, in our country, English learning is very popular with not only students, but also the children, adults and even the retired old man. And according to many studies,age is one of the most important individual factors affecting foreign language learning, which is considered as a focus of applied linguistics and psycholinguistics. Almost all parents think that"Don't let their own children lose at the beginning. "In China,all the families believe that it is very important for the students to learn English in the childhood.And many parents even send their children to language schools at an early age in older to get a high score.In recent years,some scholars in China such as Gui Shichun, Wang Chuming, Dai Manchun, Dai Weidong have a heated discussion about the affection of age factors in foreign language teaching and learning. At the same time, the government have also paid more attention on English learning. Nowerdays,many reseachers have studied the factors affecting language learning, such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, motivation, attitudes, earner's preference, learner's beliefs and age of acquisition. But I just want to study the influence of age factor. Is it good enough for parents to let their children learn English at an early age? Do children have absolute advantages over adolescents and adults in second language acquisition? What are the respective advantages and disadvantages of children,adolescents and adults? With the above problems analyzed,this thesis focus on the influence of age factor on the Second Language Acquisition.2. Second Language Acquisition2.1 Definitin of Second Language Acquisition"Second language acquisition"refers to the subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than mother tongue is learnt in a natural or a tutored or a classroom; it covers the development of phonology,lexis,grammar, pragmatics and other knowledge(Hu Zhuanglin,p.268). How children acquire their native languages and what is the relavance of this to foreign language learning has long been debated. Although evidence for the declining of second language learning ability with age is controversial, a common assumption is that children learn second languageseasily and fluently compared with old learners. This assumption stems from"critical period"(CP) ideas(Lennerberg,1967). It is commonly know that children with regular faculties and given normal circumstances will easily master their native languages. Unfortunately,perfect language mastery is rarely in the process of second language acquisition. One of the most obvious potential explanations for the lack of success of second language learners compared to first language learners is that the acquisition of second language begins at a later age than that of the mother tongue does. Thus, many scholars assume that age itself is a predicator of second language proficiency.A popular belief in this area is that younger learners have certain advantages over older learners in foreign language learning and many linguists and researchers share this belief. They believe that younger children learn second language more easily and quickly than older children (Ellis,2008;Larsen-Freeman,2008). However,some other researchers hold the the opposite point. They believe that younger learners do not show any advantage over older learners in second language learning, and they even can provide some evidence to prove scientifically that the opposite is true, i.e. older learners exhibit some advantages over younger learners (Snow&Hoefnagef-Hohle,1978).About the study on age factors affecting second language acquisition,Carroll(1980) provided neurological basis for critical period hypothesis from aspect of earlier exposure, whose experiment indicates that the earlier exposure to second language,more or less, is of significance to the success of second language acquisition. That is, the early exposure to second language will bring quite different quality to later language learning in both natural and conscious settings.2.2 Current Situation of Second Language AcquisitionMany studies pay much attention to the age factor in second language learning at home and abroad. The relationship between age factor and second language acquisition has become more and more hot and popular.As for second languge acquisition. Penfield and Roberts(1959:130) first introduced the Critical Period. According to Penfield and Roberts, a child's brain is more plastic compared with that of an adult. And in 1967, Lenneberd introduced the Critical Period Hypothesis to second language acquisition, which could account for children's faster and more successful attainment over adults in second language acquisition.The research of age factor in foreign language learning also attracts much attention of the scholars in China.But it seems that many of them are on the opponent side. Professor Gui Shichun(1992:54-56) questioned the popular concept of "the younger, the better". Recently, in Guangdong Province, Professor Dong Y anping(2003:39-47) proposed that it was not necessary to start English teaching programs for young children in kindergartens and Grade 1 of primaryschools. At the same time, a variety of English learning phenomena have sprung up in China:in 2001, the Education Ministry decided that pupils begin English learning from Grade Three in cities and condition-permitting rural areas; in Shanghai all the pupils have been required to learn English from Grade One since 2003; English training courses for kids mushroom all over the country and at the same time, English textbooksand tapesforkids becomebest-sellers. English languagehas turnedintoa secondlanguage inChina.3. Factors Affeting Second Language AcquisitionIn our life and experience, almost all normal children can succeed in their first language acquisition on condition that they get a normal upbring. However, it is quite different in second language learning.Actually, different characteristics of learners will lead to different results in second language learning. And everyone has his own personality. In addition to personality, other factors are also relevant to language learning. These include intelligence, motivation, aptitude, learners 'preferences and learners' belief.3.1 IntelligenceThe level of learners' intelligence have an influence or second language learning. Over the past years, through using some intelligence tests or different methods, and then using the scores measure the intelligence of the learners. Researchers suppose that intelligence may be connected with second language ability. Recently, more and more studies have proved this. However, it is not the only factor. There are many students who are very successful in second language learning without high intelligence scores.3.2 PersonalityThere are many personality characteristics have been considered to be related to second language learning such as extroversion and inhibition. Many believed that extroversion is well suited to second language learning. However, this conclusion does not always get enough support. That is to say, in many studies, many learners who haven't got high scores on measuring extroversion are still successful in the second language learning.In terms of inhibition,it discourages the progress in language learning because the learners' courage of taking risk can be reduced by the inhibition personality. In fact, personality characteristics still conclude others such as empathy, talkativeness, self-esteem, dominance and responsiveness. However, the clear relationship between learners' personality and second language learning hasn't been found out because it is complicated. As an English teacher,we prefer the active and lively students in the class since they have good performance. So this kind of students who can get more attention from the teachers often has more opportunities to practiceand express.3.3 AptitudeAptitude can be considered as a kind of talent which is made up of different kinds of abilities. The followings are some examples:(1) The ability to recognize the meaning of the words in the sentences.(2) The ability to remember new words. This kind of ability is much more concerned with the learners' vocabulary ability.(3) The ability to analyze the grammar of the material. There are many grammatical rules. So the ability of analyzing the grammar can affect the learners' language learning.(4) The ability to translate. Translation is very important in language learning and using. Any students who has a good knowledge of translation can do a better job in reading, speaking and even writing.3.4 MotivationThrough the studies of second language acquisition, the learners' attitude and motivation also plays an important role in learning a second language. And the good and positive attitude and motivation will be more likely to succeed in second language learning than the opposite. Motivation can be studied in two main parts: learners' communicative needs and their attitudes towards the second language community.Therefore, if the learner wants to use the second language efficiently, they must have an abtive attitude and master opportunities to practice. Besides, the personal growth,cultural enrichment and instrumental motivation are all concluded in motivation, which are also concerned with the success of the second language learning.However, the researchers cannot find out how the motivation affects on the learners during their second language learning.3.5 Learners’ PreferenceAs for the learning material and learning methods, every learner has his own preference. Some learners say that they cannot learn something before they have seen it, while others seem to know something as long as they talked it once or twice.When learners show his preference for some materials or topics which we disagree with the learning method, we should encourage the learners to use their available ways to achieve the success rather than stop them.3.6 Learners’ BeliefAlthough not all the language learners may have their individual consciousness of the language learning, all of them have their strong beliefs which influence their learning methods.Therefore, the learners' belief is also an important factor in second language learning.4. Age Factors and Second Language Aquisition4.1 The Affects of Age Factors4.1.1 The Affects of Age Factors on Rate of Second Language AcquisitionOne popular belief about second language acquisition is that the younger, the better. Recently, certain research reports claim to counter this early Critical Period Hypothesis and state that age and language acquisition is inconsistent. Not all younger performs to be superior.Opposite to the Critical Period Hypothesis, Krashen, Long and Scarcella(1979) draw a different conclusion: (1)adults are superior to children in rate of acquisition, and(2)older children learn more rapidly than younger children(Krashen, et al, 1979). This results reflect differences in rate of acquisition which are consistent with the hypothesis. Adults are generally faster than children in early stages of second language acquisition.In1967, J.Asher and S.Price compared the ability of listening comprehension of 8-10-year-old and 14-year-old childrent and college adults. The results show that adults score highest while the 8-year-old children were the lowest of all groups tested.T10-year-old and 14-year-old children were between adults are the 8-year-olds. This study suggests that the adults ard superior to the same conditions as children when they learn a second language.Ervin-Tripp(1974) studied the rate of acquisition of French by 31 English-speaking children aged from four to who learn French nine month in Switzerland(including attendance in French-speaking schools). She reached the conclusion that children performed much better.Burstall et al.(1975) and Ekstrand(1977) researched majority children who learn a foreign language in Britain and Sweden respectively. Burstall et al.make a study about a large number of school students,some of whom began learning French at the age of eight and others who began at the age eleven after three years on condition having learnt French for the same amount of time, the older learners were ahead on three out of four skills tested-listening, reading and writing.The younger learners, however, mastered speaking ability highly.Snow and Hoefnagel-hohle(1978) make a study who learn Dutch in Holland. The subjects were divided into five age groups: ten3-to-5-year-olds, eight6-to-7-year-olds, thirteen8-to-10-year-olders, nine12-to-15-year-olds, and eleven adults. The study indicated that 3-to-5-year-olds scored lowest and the 12-to-15-year-olds showed the most rapid acquisition of all the skills tested.Ekstrand(1978) makes a survey about four groups of Swedish school children, whose ages are 8, 9, 10 and 11 respectively. They had been taught English in 10-minute sessions twice a week after 18 weeks, the groups were tested for pronunciation(a taped imitation task) and comprehension(a taped imitation task) increases almost linearly with age.Ann Fathman made a study in 1982 which examined the relationship between certain aspects of the second language acquisition process and age through an oral production test.It examined about 200 children(aged 6 to 15) from diverse language backgrounds who were learning English as a second language in public schools. The results indicated that the older children performed better in the production of correct morphological and syntactic structures while the younger children performed better in the use of correct English pronunciation.From the following studies, we can conclude that age can affect the rate of second language learning. Adolescents and adults have many advantages in second language acquisitio n like faster speed and strong ability to acquire syntax and morphology while children perform much better in phonology.4.1.2 The Affects of Age Factors on the Process of Second Language AcquisitionFew people make a study of the effects of age on the process of second language acquisition. By far Harley's(1986) investigation of early and late immersion programmes is the most detailed study of the effects of age on the acquisition process. Harley made a comprison between the two groups' acquisition of French verb phrase. For example, the two groups generally made similar types of errors and both groups prefer the relatively unmarked French verb forms to the marked forms. There were only a few differences reflected variations in the second language input to which the learners were exposed.Bailey et al.(1974) investigated the order in which adults acquired the same set of grammatical morphemes studied by Dulay and Burt who found an order similar to that found in the morpheme studies of children. Fathman(1975) found that the order of acquisition remained constant compared with her sample of two hundred children aged from 6 to 15 years.Cazden et al.(1975) found that child, adolescent, and adult learners went through the same stages. Thus, learners appear to process linguistic data in the same way, no matter how old they are.According to their study, the process did not remain constant for children who were in different ages as for order of acquisition. Despite of differences of age and learning environments, there seemed to be a consistency in the order. These findings also support the ideas of Dulay and Burt(1973) and Madden, Bailey, and Krashen(1974), which suggest that there appeared to be similar in terms of acquisition of structures for all second language learners.4.1.3The Affects of Age Factors on Learners’ Second Language AchievementMany researchers have compared older and younger children and concluded that older children are faster learners of syntax and morphology. Then comes the question, whether learners who begin learning can reach higher levels of second language ability than those who start as adolescents or adults. To answer this question,some scholars did some researches.Burstal et al.(1974), through comprison, found the result that those who started learning French in school at either age 8 or 11when reached age 16. There was only one test result in favor of the early learners, that is to say, only listening comprehension better.In another study, Dunkel&Pillet(1962), through the comprison of American Schook children who had begun learning French at grade 3 and students of the same age who had had only one year of French at the secondary level, found that the former did not do as well as the latter in terms of the standardized group test of formal grammar in Franch.Oller&Nagato(1974) found the same results in school system in Japan. Students learn English as a second language from grades 1-6did not do better than students who began learning English in grade 7 when they attend test in the grade 11.Harley(1986) also make a research which focused on learners' acquisition of the French verb system. She compared early and late immersion students after both had received1,000hours of instruction. Neither group had mastered the verb system, but the older students can master well. However, the early immersion group showed higher levels of attainment than the late.The results from these reflect that children's level of attainment is greater than that of adolescents/adults. As Stern has emphasized, early age school instruction does not in itself guarantee success(Stern, 1976; Stern&Weinrib, 1977; Stern, 1982).4.2 Respective Advantages and Disadvantages among Different AgesWhen children, adolescents and adults learn a second language, they have neurological(Lenneberg, 1967), cognitive(Talor, 1974: 33) and social-psychological(Brown, H.D. 1987: 51; Talor, 1974) differences. There are many factors determining the differences between children and adults in second language learning such as learning learning environment, intelligence and difficulty in comparative researches and experiments, but age factor is the most influenced one. Actually, children, adolescents and adults have their own advantages and disadvantages in second language learning. The most practical way is to study the effects that age differences bring to language learning and the advantages and disadvantages that each each language learner at different age has in learning a foreign language.4.2.1 ChidhoodChildren's brains are flexible and may have an advantage to accept new knowledge in the second language learning. Therefore, it is easy for them to acquire pronunciation in this period. And a second language can be left a deep impression on the brains in this period. So this is very useful for children's further learning. For instance, some children's toys which can speak some English and Chinese words for them, and gradually, we can find those two years child speak the same words correctly. However, during this period, the parents just want to entertain the children. But they will remember those even when they grow up. At the same time, children havepoor-term and systematic memory, and usually confuse native and foreign languages or native culture and foreign culture, possessing poor ability of abstract thinking. Therefore, it is good for children to learn foreign languages in such bilingual social environment or better teaching facilities.Besides, our children don't have ability to judge what is right or what is wrong. Children generally follow others' words and actions. So it is not surprise to find that many children share the same behavior of siphoning off the fingers. Therefore, teachers and parents pay attention to children's environment because children can behave differently in different environments. So the teachers and parents should give proper guide in time when children make some mistakes. Some studies state that non-English-speaking have English lessons and instruction. But the length of the program is inconsistent with the acquisition speed. One of the most important factor is the influence of mother tongue. Therefore, it is not the best for children to learn a second language early.4.2.2 AdolescentsAdolescents have several advantages. They have a high cognitive maturity and a high ability of imitation and memory. Adolescents can also make the most of communicative strategies and understand language and culture very well, which make language input enriched. And they like joining the communication activities. Adolescents can grasp the language regulations and make full use of them in their sentences to express their deeper thoughts. Besides, they can also correct the errors in sentences. All these are obvious advantages for the adolescents in second language learning. For instance, if we ask adolescent students to do a role-play after learning a dialogue, most students can finish the task and some good students can even play it lively. While, if we ask children to do the same case, the children can hardly finish it. That is to say, only adults can achieve such advantages. And as we all known, the adolescents is a period of full of energy and imagination, thus the adolescents must have strong self-control ability and stick to their aims. Besides, they always consider themselves as adults. Therefore, they hate to be ignored and hope to win respect like adults, which is difficult for teacher to deal with. This why a successful teacher always treat some students as a adult while doing as a child.At the same time,adolescents have many courses in school. Nowadays,more adolescents learnt more than one kind of foreign language. They have to deal with many subjects. Many students even busy on the weekend.It seems that they have no time to relax. They always feel nervous. This make the students feel much burden. Thus, it is crucial for teachers and parents to give the adolescents proper guide when they grow the sense of giving up learni ng.4.2.3 AdulthoodAs we all known, adults mental is mature. They always have clear goals and strongmotivation to learn a second language. When they decide to learn a language, they will devote much energy to learning.Adults can grasp the complicated grammar and reading task better than adolescents and children. Therefore, they can understand the second language deeply. All those features lead to adults' learning well. At the same time, the following three kind of adults also have an advantage over adolescents and child.(1) Some adults work under an International environment, and this atmosphere may provide them more opportunities to practice foreign languages.(2) Some adults have a long-term or short-term plan to go abroad for further education or working. This plan may make them aware of strengthening their foreign language. And in order to realize this dream, they have to pay more energy and attention to foreign language learning. Therefore, they can promote their foreign language quickly.(3) Some students still have a strong conscious of learning. Thus they will further the quality of their already language. And they'll grasp every opportunity to improve their foreign language.Adults also have some disadvantages. For example, most adults have already worked after graduation,join in the social activities and care about the family day and night. Besides, many adults' memory isn't as good as before with the growth of age. Therefore, it is difficult for adults to master foreign language well. And the adults only practice English in the spare time such as when they are at home. They even can't focus their intention on practice if they have a baby. Thus, most adults try their best to make up those disadvantages.5. ConclusionIt is clear that age is an important factor in second language acquisition. It is not nessessary for students to learn a second language early. Y ounger learners are not necessarily better learners. Children, adolescents and adults have their own characteristics in second language learning. Children can easily grasp the pronunciation. Adolescents can understand language and culture better.It is good for second language learning. Adults can master the complicated grammar and language regularities. Thus, teachers and parents should employ different strategies in terms of learners of different ages.Bibliography[1] 林崇德.英语教学心理学[M]. 北京教育出版社, 2001,3[2] 刘建华.中学英语创新教法[M]. 学苑出版社, 1999,10[3] 束定芬、庄智象. 现代外语教学——理论、实践与方法[J].东北师大学报, 2006 (2)[4] 王立菲. 现代外语教学论[M]. 上海教育出版社, 2002,1[5] 王蔷. 英语教学法教程[M]. 高等教育出版社, 2005,4[6] 薛中梁. 谈英语课堂教学[M]. 湖北教育出版社, 2003,3[7] Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en.The Practical Body Language[M]. Hua Wen Press, 1997,2[8] Wu Zongjie.Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching[J].Zhejiang Teachers' University,1998(3)。

二语言习得中输入研究的论文

二语言习得中输入研究的论文二语言习得中输入研究的论文一、综述在二语习得范畴内，研究者们对输入概念的界定各有侧重。

R.Ellis 的定义是讲母语者或二语者对其他二语者所说的语言。

［2］他的定义只有口头输入，没有包含书面输入。

Richards等人认为输入是指学习者听到或接受到的并能作为其学习对象的语言。

［3］该定义比较全面。

国内学者给出的输入定义和Richards等人的接近［47］，兼顾口头输入和书面输入，这也是本文采用的输入概念。

最初的输入概念是Coder在“学习者的错误的意义”一文中作为一个理论话题提出来的。

［8］最早引起语言学界重视的是Krashen提出的“输入假说”（theinputhypothesis）。

他提出了“可理解输入”(comprehensiveinput)的概念。

这一概念的基本公式是“i+1”。

“i”代表学习者现有的语言知识，“1”代表略高于学习者现有的语言知识部分。

［9］Krashen和T errell随后又论述了“输入假说”有四个方面的含义：（1）可理解的输入理论与习得（acquisition），而不是与学得(learning)有关；（2）习得是通过理解稍微超出已有的语言知识而完成的，需要借助于语境和非语言信息；（3）当交际成功时，当输入得以理解时，也自然就有了可理解性输入；（4）口语表达的流畅性不是直接教出来的，而是经过一段时间以后逐渐显现出来的。

［10］Long认为，二语学习者和母语学习者一样，学习成功者总是以获得可理解的语言输入为特征的。

他认为互动式输入比非互动式输入更重要，充分强调了使语码变成学习者可理解的语言输入的重要性。

［11］Schachter概括出四种输入：简单输入(simplifiedinput)、可理解输入(comprehensibleinput)、否定输入(negativeinput)（指向学习者提供其交际的意图并不成功的信息）和充分输入(sufficientinput)。

汉语作为第二语言的习得研究

汉语作为第二语言的习得研究
汉语作为第二语言（Chinese as a Second Language, CSL）的习得研究对于中国的语言教学和国际交流合作具有重要意义。

本文将探讨相关的研究进展和主题、习得过程中的问题以及教学方法和策略等内容。

首先，对于汉语作为第二语言的习得研究，学者们主要关注学习者的语言习得过程和影响因素。

其中包括学习者的语言背景、学习动机、学习策略、语法知识、语音和语调等方面。

例如，研究发现英语为母语的学习者在汉语发音上存在较大的困难，而俄语为母语的学习者则更容易掌握汉语的语音系统。

除此之外，学习者的文化背景和认知水平也会影响习得过程。

在习得过程中，学习者可能遇到的问题包括语法和词汇的掌握、听说能力的提高、文章阅读和写作能力等。

针对这些问题，学者们提出了各种教学方法和策略。

例如，通过语言输出来提高口语水平，通过阅读来扩展词汇量和语感，通过写作来提高表达能力等。

同时，研究也发现与母语的对比和交互式教学对于提高学习者的语言能力特别有效。

此外，习得研究还包括对于教材设计和评估的探讨。

学者们致力于开发适合不同水平和目标的教材，以及评估教学效果和学习成果的方法和标准。

这样可以帮助教师和学习者更好地选择教材和教学方法，提高教学质量。

总结起来，汉语作为第二语言的习得研究对于促进汉语教学质量、丰富中国语言文化研究以及国际交流合作具有重要意义。

在未来的研究中，我们可以进一步深入探讨学习者的语言习得过程、教学方法和策略的有效
性、教材设计和评估等方面，为汉语作为第二语言的教学和研究提供更多的理论和实践支持。

《第一语言对第二语言习得的影响》论文

第一语言对第二语言习得的影响人们刚刚出生时的语言能力是极为有限的，只会哭、笑或者保持沉默。

四、五年之后，人们就学会了母语的全部基本语法和音位结构，并能在许多语境中用它来交际。

人是怎样学会他们的第一语言的呢？各个语言学习流派给出了不同的解释。

如行为主义就认为人通过不断的模仿来学习语言的。

而先天论则认为人一出生就具有天生的，遗传的语言习得能力。

这种能力常被称为语言习得机制。

据认为，儿童的语言习得机制从一出生就含有普遍语法的原则，而且一切语言到要遵守这些原则。

随着儿童的成长，普遍语法原则也在慢慢发挥它的作用。

因此，儿童在出生后几年中的某个时间，在某智力发展能力允许的范围内，已经建立起语言形式的最完整的系统。

即母语不必正式学习，儿童通过积极地与母语环境接触即可习得。

一切正常的儿童不用正式学习就能成功的习得母语，但在学习第二语言的时候，人们的学习速度和学习水平就大不相同，即使所花的时间和精力要远远超过第一语言的学习。

如果只是需要模仿或是天生语言习得机制可以起作用的话，为什么第二语言的习得会如此另人困惑呢？学习第二语言的过程和母语习得的过程到底有何区别呢？这些问题已探讨多年，也有涌现不同解释，如对比分析理论、语误分析理论，语境论等，但至今还未彻底解决。

因为篇幅有限，在此仅就第一语言对第二语言习得的影响来探讨这个问题。

根据教育心理学原理，迁移是一种学习中习得的经验对其他学习的影响，即一种学习对另一种学习的影响。

迁移现象广泛存在于学习过程之中，有正负迁移之分。

正迁移（积极迁移）有助于另一种学习的理解和掌握。

如：你来帮助我。

Y ou come to help me .反之，对另一种学习产生消极影响，导致错误和困难发生，就是负迁移（消极迁移）。

行为主义心理学试图用母语与第二语言的差别的大小来解释不同第二语言学习者能达到的不同水平。

如果第二语言与母语的差别越大，讲这种母语的人学习这种第二语言就越困难，母语对学习第二语言的“干扰”也就越大。

课程与教学论论文：第二语言习得与文化适应

第二语言习得与文化适应摘要：随着中国的国际地位日益提高，与世界交流日益频繁，第二语言习得已经成为我们语言学习中不可或缺的一部分。

语言学的不断发展使我们对第二语言习得的研究越来越深入，不同的流派从不同的角度对第二语言习得的研究作出了自己的独特的贡献。

本文将对文化适应模式的主要内容进行简单介绍，并通过文化适应模式对对外汉语教学的实用性与积极影响，进行进一步阐述。

关键词：一．前言第二语言习得如今已是我们课程学习中不可或缺的一部分，习得的成功与否受诸多因素的影响,内在因素包括：年龄因素、个体学习动机、性别差异以及个体本身的语言能力适应性等，外在因素包括第二语言和母语之间的差异和转移、母语发音的干涉、不同语言文化背景的影响等。

若想成功习得第二语言,必须掌握各种内外因素对二语习得的影响及它们之间的相互作用。

学习讲求效率与捷径，不同流派以不同角度对第二语言的习得进行了研究，都有其独特的贡献，本文将对二语习得中的“文化适应”假说进行介绍，并对其进行评价。

二．文化适应假说根据网络上检索出的资料，文化适应的定义可以理解为:（1）对于周边文化中包含的行为模式的适应, 尤其是儿童对于异国文化的适应。

（2）同化新观念于现有认知结构的过程。

（3）一个社会共有的认知和价值观念。

我们可以看出：当学习者身处异国他乡，为了生存，他们必须要适应这个国家的文化、学习这个国家的语言，所以第二语言习得的过程也可以看成第二文化习得的过程。

文化适应模式是第二语言习得理论中的重要概念，是由美国学者舒曼于1978 年首次提出。

舒曼从文化与语言的关系出发，把第二语言习得的过程看做是文化适应的一部分，认为第二语言学习者对目的语文化的适应程度决定该目的语掌握的程度。

并于1976 年提出了“洋泾浜假设”，旨在说明文化适应取决于社会距离、心理距离两个因素。

舒曼认为“第二语言习得是文化适应的一个方面，一个人自己的文化与第二文化适应程度决定了一个人习得第二语言的成败”。

二语习得理论对英语实际教学的影响及启示——以克拉申理论为例解读

二语习得理论对英语实际教学的影响及启示——以克拉申理论为例解读外国语学院英语系英语教育学课程论文题目: 二语习得理论对英语实际教学的影响及启示——以克拉申理论为例姓名: 李静茹学号: 201332010514 班级: 2013级 5班日期: 2016年6月评语成绩教师签名:目录摘要 (i)1.引言....................................................................................... .. (1)2. 二语习得理论的对英语教学的具体影响……………………..…….………………….1 2.1习得——学得假说………………….…………………………………………..….2 2.2 情感过滤假说………………………………………………….……...……….…23. 二语习得理论对于英语教学的启示………………………………………….…………..34. 总结...............................................................................................3 参考书目.. (5)摘要本文从第二语言习得理论着手，分析了二语习得理论对于英语教学活动的影响及启示。

以著名语言教育家斯蒂芬?克拉申的两大假说理论，习得——学得假说和情感过滤假说为例，分析了理论对于教学活动的指导意义，包括其对于学生的学习方式形成的解释及学生学习过程中情感的作用，从而更好地指导教师进行教学活动。

关键字:二语习得;习得——学得假说;情感过滤假说;英语教i1. 引言第二语言习得，是指“在自然的或有指导的情况下通过有意识学习或无意识吸收掌握母语以外的一门语言的过程”。

只是作为第二语言是开始于幼儿期，包括按时间的第三次或以后的任何语言的学习。

二语习得研究是为了系统地探讨二语习得的本质和习得的过程，其主要目标是:描述学习者如何获得第二语言以及解释为什么学习者能够获得第二语言。

应用语言学论文第二语言习得对英语教学的影响

The Enlightenment of SLA Theory to Language Teaching1. The Enlightenment of SLA Theory to Language TeachingAs early as in the 1970 s many linguists and applied linguists had conducted extensive studies of second language acquisition (SLA). These linguists called the acquisition of the mother tongue first language acquisition and the acquisition of other languages beyond the mother tongue second language acquisition. The early SLA research was done for the purpose of improving language teaching, so people often classify these researches as the orientations of applied linguistics and foreign language teaching research. The researchers have been studying the cerebral surface features and the language acquisition mechanism of the second language since the 1980 s; therefore, SLA has grown rapidly as an independent subject.In the SLA field the researchers have offered various theoretic models to explain the process of second language acquisition. The most influential theory, also the best explained one, is the Monitor Model put forth by American linguist S.D. Krashen, who built this model on his five famous hypotheses, namely, input hypothesis, acquisition and learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, natural order hypothesis and affective filter hypothesis. These five hypotheses make unique and distinctive explanations of the process of second language acquisition. Input hypothesis, as the core of the Monitor Model, clearly tells us how language is acquired. As long as people understand the meaning of the words, they may acquire the language. This is the only way to learn language. Speaking and writing are of no help to language acquisition; only listening is.Krashensaid as long as learners come across words which contain“comprehensible input”, language acquisition happens. Progress in language learning is achieved when the“comprehensible input”is slightly higher than the learners present ability in understanding the language.Acquisition-learning hypothesis points out that“acquisition”and “learning”represent two distinct ways of language learning. In “acquisition” , an unconscious process of learning, such as children’s acquisition of their mother tongue, the meaning of words is usually understood in the course of communication and the use1山西师范大学学位论文of language is learned in an unconscious way,whereas“learning”is conscious and always acquires linguistic knowledge by means of learning the rules and forms of a language.If one acquires a language,they may not know the rules. However, if one learns a language,they must have a good command of rules.Langugae is at the center of human life. It is core of the most important ways of expressing ourselves. With the development of the society, it is not enough noly to be able to speak one’s own native language. In a world there are various languages. If you’d like to take part in the life of the whole world you need t know more languages. So language learning and teachig are vital to the everyday lives of millions.Being an english teacher, I do understand student’s trouble in learning a foreign language. Fifty-minute class sometimes seems to be an ordeal. The problem is that we do know “teaching” but do not know “learning”. That is an sqy we lack a theoy of language learining. So in the paper there are some concepts introduced such as learning and acquisition, foeign languae and second language and models of second language learning. I try to find out an appropriate way of teaching in my oral class. The aim of my class is to wake the entusiasm of the students’ study. So I try to do create a natural and relaxed calss atmosphere to make students learn foreign language through acquirig them.Only the linguistic knowledge through“acquisition”is helpful to the use of the language. The linguistic knowledge through learning, which is no help to the use of the language, can but monitor whether the words spoken are correct or not. As a result, the monitoring function of“learning”gives rise to the Monitor Hypothesis. The learners always gain language acquisition through“Comprehensible Input”which is higher than their present linguistic comprehension, so their process of acquisition must follow a certain predictable order to master the linguistic rules, thus producing“Natural Order Hypothesis”. The differences in the effect of language learning depends on learners and results from the psychological factors. The learners differences in motivation, attitude, confidence, etc., exert impact on the intake of“Comprehensible Input”and cause the differences in language acquisition.This is called the“Affective Filter Hypothesis”.2The Enlightenment of SLA Theory to Language TeachingAs we know, we master a language chiefly through two approaches: one is acquisition and the other is learning. We acquire as we are exposed to natural second language input that is comprehensible. It goes much the same way as a child acquires his first language—with no conscious attention to the language form. On the other hand, we learn in a conscious process of study and attention to form and rule learning. Krashen s Monitor Hypotheses holds the view that only acquired language is ready for natural and fluent communication. Native speakers rarely learn any rules but speak fluently while learnerswho focus on learning rules often fail to apply them in real nguage learning is suitable for linguistic monitor by way of using linguistic rules. Some people always check up the language they use with grammar so as to guarantee the correctness. This is called monitoring through learning. With continuing language progress, the use of the monitoring function becomes less and less frequent.Through the learning of a language,we find that a natural language environment is better than conscious learning and language acquisition is much more important than language learning.This is clearly seen in children s mother tongue acquisition.Conscious learning, while enabling learners to understand the structure and grammar of the language, may also inhibit language acquisition. This can be judged from examples of many adults failure to learn English. Krashen s theory gives us thehint that English should be acquired like children acquire their mother tongue. Then how can children succeed in using language? Although they are controlled to some extent in their language exposure, they are never consciously taught and they never learn consciously, either. But one thing we know is that they communicate a lot with adults (usually parents) in authentic, situational language. Their ability in using language comes from countless subconscious communications like this. Therefore, lots of language teaching experts attempt to teach English with the method with which children acquire mother tongue. In recent years, a lot of applied linguists with Ellis as the representative figure have paid more attention to language teaching. Expounding systematically the relationship between SLA studies and language teaching, they have proposed the input hypothesis, output hypothesis, intake hypothesis and internal3Interaction between Language Acquisition and Classroom Instructionsyllabus which are regarded as the theoretic bases that can revolutionize college English teaching.2. Interaction between Language Acquisition and Classroom InstructionTeaching practice without the guidance of theory is mostly blind and superficial. Learning, as a deep and reasonable scientific behavior, cannot do without the correct guidance of theory. Learning and teaching are closely interwoven, so are language acquisition and language teaching. Ellis calls it “an educational approach”to link language acquisition research closely with language teaching, it is clear that, such as the “interaction”between“language input”and SLA, the discrepancy between“naturalistic acquisition”and instructed learning, and so on.2.1 The Role of Classroom Instruction in Language Learning in SLAFirst of all, the classroom teaching conducted by teachers is closely linked with the two forms of SLA: the“natural acquisition”and“classroom learning”, which are interwoven and both exercise great influences on SLA. Although we cannot draw a clear distinction between“acquired language”and“instructed language”,we can easily understand the connotations of“language acquisition of classroom teac hing”and“language acquisition of non-classroom teaching”because the former is directly connected with classroom teaching. Ellis(1994) holds the view that the language acquisition through the second language teaching, whether by way of formal teaching or created conditions, will result in the increase of natural acquisition in classroom in an indirect way. Obviously, the influence of classroom teaching on language acquisition is positive. Secondly, as early as in 1984, the linguists represented by Long had conducted experiments on the influence of classroom teaching on the efficiency of language learning, the results of which support the viewpoint that classroom teaching benefits language acquisition.4山西师范大学学位论文2.2 The Theoretic Guidance of SLA Theory for Classroom TeachingAccording to my many years teaching practice, some theoretic models proposed in the SLA research field are really conducive to the improvement of classroom teaching quality, such as input hypothesis, output hypothesis and so on. Krashen (1982) proposes input hypothesis to explain the process of the birth of“acquisition”when learners receive language information input which are slightly deeper yet understandable. He takes the mentality that adults learning a second language will go through the same process of creative construction of language as children do acquiring their mother tongue. According to this hypothesis, the teacher should place students in the learning environment with the input and feedback of understandable information so as to let them“acquire”language. Furthermore, the teacher may apply this theory to the compilation of text-books and create diversified authentic language materials or establish a lively and realistic learning environment to augment comprehensible input so that learners may achieve better “acquisition”results.“Output”is a term relevant to input. The output theory proposed by Swain(1985)suggests that learners should use their acquired linguistic resources to practice producing the“comprehensible output” which is the output of their mind and to make“interactions”with“comprehensible output”.As we know, classroom interaction helps learners bridge the “input” and “output”.The language environment and learners internal mechanism, through classroom interaction, make learners acquire language in the course of “input”and“output”.Obviously, the information producer and information receiver together with the language environment are the key factors in both the classroom interaction and the improvement of classroom teaching quality. In other words, teachers produce information in which students are interested (information that leads to interaction) in classroom teaching and students collect, receive and reprocess the information so as to effectively acquire linguistic skills,5Interaction between Language Acquisition and Classroom Instructiongoing through the process of teacher—output of information—feed- back of information; students—receiving information—processing information—producing comprehensible output—acquiring language or skill. Teachers can use this theory to design their classes, adopt teaching activities with communication and task-based learning as the target and enable learners to practice producing“comprehensible output”to the maximum, thus making language acquisition happen.Ellis(1994)proposes the intake hypothesis that learners can momentarily “intake”in their brain a part of the input information, which will eventually be absorbed and become part of the information in the long-term memory. Teachers can improve their teaching if they know what information students are sensitive to and can easily“absorb”and how learners process and quicken the input they have received. In classroom teaching, teachers may select teaching materials, design class activities, and offer different teaching methods to learners according to this theory.SLA researchers hold that learners cannot expect the results overnight for language learning, which has different phases in its development, namely, the“internal syllabus”within learners. The“internal syllabus”theory holds that the phases in learning still receive the brain s phasic restraints on language acquisition in addition to learners own efforts. For example, when learners are learning the English present tense, they might progressively make the following sentences with the verb“read”:“Read the book”—I read the book.—She read the book.—She reads the book;Xiao Li read the book.—Xiao Li reads the book. ... This process, which shows learners internal acquisition schedule, is internal, natural and inevitable. Learners gain language acquisition through the“natural”development of“inter-language”and their own efforts. They may speed up the process, but cannot leap over it. Consequently, teachers should allow students to commit errors, finish their“internal acquisition schedule”and explain and correct these erro rs patiently. Mitchell&Myles observe, teachers found con-structions which were different in the two languages were not necessarily difficult, while constructions which were smiilar in them were notnecessarily easy, either. Further more, sometmies difficulty occurred in one direction but not in the other. Let me take Wh questions for example.In English we6Application of SLA in College English Teachingsay:What did you do yesterday? the corresponding Chinese order should be: you yesterday did what? In Englishwe put Wh at the beginningwhile in Chinese we just place itwhere it should be. In this sentence we should put Wh at the end. Contrastive Analysis would therefore predict that the placementofwhat would be difficult for both English learners of Chinese and Chinese learners ofEnglish. In fact, it isn t so. This kind of error never occurs on Chinese learners and at least they never put Wh wrongly. From the examplewe can see considering the great difference between Chinese and English syntaxes, there should have been more errors based on CA, but therewere not. Another example is I did nothing last nightbut to preparemy lessons. In this sentence, I wanted the students to tellme thewronguse of to , that is, we should omit it. However, they thought itwas rightand began to questionwhether itshould be prepare orprepare for Students had difficulty in whether a preposition should be used, but they did not commit an error in actual use. On the otherhand, theywere sure ofthe use to but in fact it was an error.3.Application of SLA in College English TeachingCollege English is a compulsory course for non-English major students at college or university set up by the Section of Higher Education of China s Ministry of Education. One of the important means to check college English teaching are the College English Tests band 4-6 (CET 4-6) conducted by the Ministry of Education since 1987. Yunnan, an undeveloped province in education, has adopted extra examinations of“YNTEC”and“YNCET-3”besides CET 4-6. For many years running because of insufficient educational funds, the shortage of qualified teachers, backward equipment and obsolete teaching methodology, the college English teaching in Yunnan province is faced with a lot of difficulties, seriously influencing the teaching quality. It is extremely urgent for teachers to apply the fruits of SLA research to the improvement of college English teaching.It s a well-known fact that the key to the improvement of teaching quality is to scientifically work out a teaching plan and select text-books, make definite the teachers function, responsibility and teaching attitude and select an appropriate7山西师范大学学位论文teaching methodology. The important role of SLA research is to help teachers determine these teaching decisions correctly. There exists a direct relationship between the property of language input, the learners learning process and the understanding of language acquisition patterns in the classroom and the guiding of the teaching plan because teachers understanding of language-teaching theory plays a significant and substantive role in the whole teaching process, concerning both important decisions such as syllabus design, text-book selection, and courses offered, and micro-techniques such as concrete classroom activities and homework. For example, the differences in choosing a teacher-centered or a learner-centered teaching mode will lead to differences in the choice of teaching plan, syllabus, text-book, teaching methodology and bring about different results and effects. Therefore, teachers who possess the knowledge of SLA theory will know how to avoid the wrong orientation in language teaching and how to lay down the teaching plan in accordance with the natural ways of language acquisition in teaching goals.The same case is found in the selection of text-book. According to SLA research, the content of courses should select authentic materials such as real communication recordings, TV clips, news broadcasts, signboards, pictures and schedules, instead of unfamiliar or politically-oriented language materials. If we review the teaching in the past, we will find out the reason why a college graduate or post-graduate student who has learned English for 15 or 16 years still fails to carry out daily English conversation or cope with the daily life using English. Besides providing teachers with the scientific guidance in their determination of role, responsibility and teaching attitude, SLA studies also help enable teachers to realize that they are not purely the source and tutor of professional knowledge and that they are not only the students controllers and learning evaluator but also the coach to students learning and the consultant, participant, cooperator and psychological supporter of the classroom activities. Teachers should accelerate learners learning process by encouraging them to adopt necessary learning strategies. SLA regards learning as a constructive building process and considers mistakes as an inevitable and positive part of the process. Therefore,teachers should have new awareness of8Effective Classroom Teaching Methodsstudents mistakes during their learning process, take new counter-measures and guidance and abandon some of the traditional inappropriate ways.Modern linguists take the view that teachers chief responsibility is to lay down plans, manage the interaction, monitor learning, explain the difficulties and offer timely feedback in learning. Therefore, teaching, I think, concerns the bilateral activities of both teachers teaching and students learning. As long as teachers know the function and responsibility in guiding learners learning, the learners will understand and participate in the design of courses and the selection of learning methods, take an active part in the design of language learning activities and shoulder the responsibility for their learning, thus effectively improving the teaching quality.Nowadays, it is very gratifying that through many linguists continuous research and practice and under the guidance of SLA theory, lots of scientific and effective teaching methods have been tried and found out, forming schools of teaching methodology. The representative teaching approaches now applied to classroom teaching include Direct Method, Audio-Lingual Method, Situational Methodand Communicative Approach.4.Effective Classroom Teaching MethodsThe Direct Method, an approach to design the English teaching process based on the psychological rocess of infants acquisition of their mother tongue, adopts visual aids and the teaching modes and methods which approximate real life and promotes teaching in a lively way. Like parents teaching their children to speak, the Direct Method requires teachers of English to directly teach English with material objects, pictures, gestures, facial expressions, actions, etc, and has achieved very good teaching results because of its rich language teaching environment.The Audio-Lingual Method, based on behaviorist theory, regards the process of language acquisition as a series of stimulus—reaction—copy—intensification. Viewing listening and speaking as the priority, the Audio-Lingual Method, can be seen as one part of the language acquisition process,and can effectively better reading and writing on the basis of listening and speaking. The Audio-Lingual Method9山西师范大学学位论文stresses the importance of students learning authentic phonetics and intonation, therefore requiring teaching material to exclusively use recordings of native speakers and classrooms to adopt a complete English environment by avoiding the use of the native tongue, so that learners will be able to use the correct language. It is obviously seen that the Audio-Lingual Method pays special attention to both the “quality” of the language input and the establishment of language environment.The Situational Method, also called the Audio-Visual Method, is a teaching approach developed on the basis of the Audio-Lingual Method. The Situational Method, besides stressing listening and speaking, also emphasizes“looking”, namely, the utilization of slide projector, projector, or teaching films during the teaching so as to provide students with pure and correct pronunciation and lively pictures as well. The students may look and speak while listening and they can also connect what they see with what they hear, so they are placed in an authentic language environment. It goes without saying that the teaching with the Situational Method tallies with the law of language acquisition, pays special attention to the“quality”of the language input, stresses the situational function of teaching and emphasizes the importance of language situation in language learning. The Direct Method and the Audio-Lingual Method both emphasize importance of natural acquisition of language and advocate teaching with the help of material objects. All the material objects are simple and concrete when applied in classroom teaching; therefore, the Situational Method, which pays more attention to the establishment of the real language environment, is very conducive to the promotion of learning and teaching, hence the better results.In the 1950 s the linguist Chomsky proposed the concept of linguistic competence. He held the view that once a person acquires language competence, he or she is then able to make innumerable sentences. Aiming at this theory, D. H. Hymes, an American social linguist, proposed the concept of“communicative competence”in the 1970 s. The Communicative Approach attaches importance to the cultivation of communicative competence, lays stress on students contact and use of rich authentic and natural language to form the ability to communicate in English and requires the arrangement of the authentic materials in a logical and reasonable situation in10Conclusionaccordance with social communication. The Communicative Approach stresses colloquial language practice and emphasizes the use of real and natural language, which resemble the process of natural language acquisition because spoken language holds the number one place and the process of communication always accompanies an authentic and natural situation.Obviously, the above-mentioned teaching methods value the imitation of the process of natural language acquisition and the creation of natural language environment in the course of teaching. If they can be authentically used in classroom instruction, then teaching quality can be greatly improved. What is worth noting is that the superiority of multi-media teaching technology has gradually emerged with the rapid development of computer technology. Auxiliary means of classroom teaching are not limited to slide shows, teaching films, videos and so on. Multi-media technology, convenient to operate, can access information at random, simulate and invent things, make up the deficiency of the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method, the Situational Methodand the Communicative Approach in the creation of the language environment and offer richer images, A V, videos and words. Due to its combination of audio with vision and enhancement of the memory, Multi-media technology, which can achieve better teaching results, has become a comparatively ideal and effective teaching aid.5. ConclusionFrom the above mentioned, we can conclude that language teachers should strive to learn and master LA theory, ponder deeply over the relationship between SLA theory and language teaching, combine their own teaching practice, receive the scientific guidance of SLA theory, understand the orientation of language teaching in a correct way, make educational and teaching decisions, instill the new SLA theory into the teaching plan, the syllabus design, the selection of text-books and the choice of teaching methods, abandon the traditional old concept and practice which go against the law of language acquisition, re-determine the role, the position and the function of teachers in language teaching, establish teachers new image, responsibility,11山西师范大学学位论文and teaching attitude and choose the suitable teaching methods with multi-media teaching technology so as to greatly lift the efficiency of classroom language teaching and promote the steady growth of the college English teaching quality.12BibliographyBibliography[1]Brown, H. D. (2002).Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. ForeignLanguage Teaching and Research Press.[2]Cohen, A. D. (2000).Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language.Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.[3]Cook, V. (2000).Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Foreign LanguageTeaching and Research Press, Macmillan Publishers Ltd.[4]Dubin, F. & E. Olshtain. (2002).Courses Design. Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Publishing House.[5]Gardner, D. & L. Miller.(2002).Establishing Self Access from Theory to Practice.Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.[6]Li, Jianfu. (2003). Interaction of background knowledge & common knowledge inforeign languages acquisition.Foreign Languages&Their Teaching,2.[7]Xiang, Maoying. (2003). Influences of affective factors on college Englishteaching.Foreign Languages&Their Teaching, 3.[8]Zhou, Ping & Zhang, Jisheng. (2003). On the interaction of SLA research &foreign languages teaching.Foreign Languages&Their Teaching, 2.13。

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第二语言习得论课程论文
题目：
浅谈母语在第二语言习得中的影响
文学艺术学院
中文系
汉文
浅谈母语在第二语言习得中的影响
我们都知道，任何事情都有两面性，有利也有弊，有积极的影响，也总会有消极的影响，母语在第二语言习得中的作用也是这样的。

这也就是学术界对于母语在第二语言习得中的影响一直存在着争议的原因。

大多数学者认为母语在第二语言习得中起着阻碍和干扰的作用，结合我们在第二语言学习中遇到的困难，的确证实了母语对第二语言习得中的干扰性和阻碍性。

但同时，我们不能因为母语在第二语言习得中的这些消极的阻碍和干扰就全盘的否定其在第二语言习得中的积极推动作用。

母语对第二语言习得的消极作用是非常明显的，这主要体现在以下的几个方面。

第一，在第二语言学习的过程中，我们经常受我们母语中的思维习惯的影响来表达和运用所学的语言知识，这就使得我们经常将第二语言母语化的倾向，为我们的学习带来消极的影响。

这主要体现在不同的文化背景下，我们的思维习惯不尽相同，很多我们习以为常的习惯和方式等，在另一文化背景下则显得不能接受和匪夷所思。

以英语和汉语的问候和寒暄习惯来说，中国人打招呼习惯问“你吃了吗？”，习惯谈论稍稍涉及隐私的诸如家庭，经历等话题，而英国人多谈论天气之类的话题，家庭经历等被视为禁忌。

这样就给我们的第二语言学习带来消极的影响，若是想将这种消极的影响降低，就必然增加了我们学习的负担。

当然，这种阻碍和影响也迫使我们拓展了知识，所以，也有它积极的一面。

第二，母语中的语法规和习惯也给第二语言的习得带来了一定的阻碍和影响。

这一影响在第二语言的学习中的消极影响最显而易见，也最为严重。

语法的规则和习惯很容易给第二语言的学习带来理解上的困惑和偏差，还是拿汉语和英语为例。

汉语和英语的语法在总体上非常相近，都是主谓宾等的基本语序，然而，汉语除了最基本的语法外，还经常有变式，如名词动用，宾语前置等，而且，汉语区分音节，这样就给以英语为母语的学习者在学习汉语时带来了诸多困难和阻碍；再拿英语来说，除了和我们的母语汉语较为相近的内容外，英语还有各种从句，是我们从未接触的，若是再用我们的母语进行学习的迁移，就会在理解上造成巨大的偏差，同样给第二语言的学习带来了阻碍。

而在语法习惯和规则上母语给第二语言习得的消极影响又是很难消除的。

所以就要求我们在学习时要多注意积累，尤其是两种语言不同的地方，尽量将母语给第二语言习得带来的阻碍和干扰降到最低。

母语对第二语言的习得也是有很重要的积极作用和影响的。

这主要体现在，一方面我们可以通过母语和第二语言的比较，发现他们相同的东西，这样就可以直接将既有的知识，直接迁移到第二语言的学习中，提高学习效率，节约学习时间。

值得一提的是，在迁移的过程中，要时刻警惕母语对第二语言习得的消极影响。

另一方面，母语可以帮助我们更好的理解第二语言，母语学习中的方法同意可以给第二语言的学习带来很好的帮助，这样有利于我们解决在第二语言学习中遇到的困难。

综上所述，母语对第二语言习得的影响既有积极的方面，也有消极的方面，我们要做的就是正视这些，并努力在学习过程中扬长避短。