27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 6 Syntax
Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。
Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a lang uage can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。
It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rul es governing the production of sentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。
句法研究语言的句子结构。
Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。
Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。
6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。
它在语音学，音位学，语义学之外。
Grammar includes morphology and syntax.语法包括形态学和句法学。
1）Morphology studies the internal structures of words and word formation processes.形态学是语法的一部分，是研究词语的内部结构和构词过程的语言学分支学科。
2）Syntax is concerned with the relationships between words and phrases within a sentence. 它研究句子中词和短句之间的关系。
句子用两种不同方式学习：Statically(静态的): we can describe the structures of sentences to illustrate the relation ship among the elements of a sentence；我们可以描述句子结构之间的关系来说明句子的元素。
Dynamically（动态地）:we can study how sentences are generated by syntactic rules.我们可以学习生成的句子的语法规则。
6.3 syntagmatic, paradigmatic and hierarchical relations横组合、纵聚合和等级关系Syntagmatic is a fundamental term in linguistics，to refer to the sequential characteristics of speech，seen as a string of constituents in linear order. The relationships between constituents (syntagms or syntagmas 组成成分)in a construction are generally called syntagmatic relations.横组合是语言学的基本术语，横组合关系指一个单位和同一序列中的其他单位之间的关系，或共现的所有成分间的关系。
Sets of syntagmatically related constituents are called structures.横组合关系的成分被称为结构。
Paradigmatic relations or associative relations refers to the set of relations a linguistc uni t has with other units in a specific context. 聚合关系或关联关系是指语言单位和其他单位在特定上下文间的关系。
Paradigmatic relations hold between an item and similar ones that can appear in the same position in a sequence.纵聚合关系指在结构的某个特殊位置上彼此可以相互替换的成分之间的关系。
Paradigmatic relations refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a senten ce and those outside the sentence.纵聚合关系指句子内外语言元素之间的关系。
Classes of paradigmatically related elements are called system, like “person system(人称系统)“case system”（格位系统）。
Syntactic categories(句法范畴) refer to the linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations （纵聚合关系）.They include lexical categories(词汇范畴) and non-lexical categories.Lexical categories:•名词Noun(N): book, table.•动词Verb(V); hit, tell•形容词Adjective(Adj): good, bad•副词Adverb (Adv): greatly•限定词Determiner (Det): a, this, his,•介词Preposition( P): on in•连词conjunction( Conj); and if•感叹词Interjection (Int): oh, ahPhrasal categories（短句范畴）:•名词短语Noun phrase (NP): a book•动词短语V erb phrase (VP): sing a song•形容词短语Adjective phrase (AP): very good•副词短语Adverb phrase (ADVP): very well,•助动词短语Auxiliary phrase (AUX):tense model, tense perf•介词短语Prepositional phrase (PP): in the roomHierarchical structure(层次结构) refer to the inner layering(内部层次关系) of sentences, that is, sentences consisting of phrases and phrases in turn are composed of words. Hierarchical structure can be analysed by IC analysis, labeled IC analysis, phrase markers and labeled bracketing. 层次结构可用直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法来分析。
6.4 IC Analysis, labeled IC Analysis, phrase markers, and labeled bracketing直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法IC Analysis is a kind of grammatical analysis，which refers to the major divisions that ca n be made within a syntactic construction，at any level. To put it in a simple way，we c an divide the words of a sentence（or a morphemes of a word）into two groups, and the n divide each group into sub-groups and so on, until the single words of the sentences（o r single morphemes of the word）.直接成分分析是一种语法分析,它指的是可以组成句法结构的任何级别的主要部分。
用一个简单的方法,我们可以把一个句子的话(或一个单词的语素)分成两组,然后将每个小组再分成小组等等,直到剩简单的单词(或单语素的词)。
IC Analysis=immediate-constituent analysis（constituent analysis）It was a major feature of Bloomfieldian Structuralist linguistics(布龙菲尔德结构主义语言学的主要特征)Immediate constituents直接成分Ultimate constituents 最终成分（树型图底部的部分）Constituents成分: all the forms except the one at the top---the sentence itselfOne advantage of IC Analysis is to reveal the structural ambiguity(结构性歧义)Labeled IC Analysis（带标记的直接成分分析）: to label the grammatical categories of each constituents and the sentences.把语法类别的每个成分和句子标明。
语言学chapter6syntax
语言学chapter6syntaxchapter 6Chapter Six: SyntaxAims:1. Familiarize students with different types of grammar.2. Generative grammar and phrase structure rules.I. DefinitionSyntax, derived originally from Greek, is made up of two morphemes: syn-(meaning together) and –tax (to arrange), hence the literal meaning “a setting out together” or “arrangement”. In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.We have already considered two levels of description used in the study of language (phonetic and morphological). With these descriptions, we could characterize all the words/phrases of a language in terms of their phonetic and morphological make-up.However, we have not yet accounted for the fact that these words can only be combined in a limited number of patterns. We recognize that the phrase the lucky boys is a well-formed piece of English, but that the following two phrases are not at all well-formed.*boys the lucky *lucky boys theSo we need a way of describing the structure of phrases andsentences which will account for all of the grammatical sequences and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences. Providing such an account involves us in the study of grammar.II. Types of grammarl Traditional Grammar and the prescriptive approach: Grammar as ‘linguistic etiquette’, i.e. the identification of the best/proper structures to be used;l Structuralism and descriptive approach: Grammar as the study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of a particular language.l Universal grammar and Generative approach: Grammar as a form of internal linguistic knowledge that operates in the appropriate production and comprehension of natural languages.2.1 Traditional GrammarTraditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. Whether a word can occupy a certain position in a sentence depends on its grammatical category rather than its meaning. Therefore, the study of sentence formation involves a great deal of the study of the word in terms of parts of speech, subject predicate, number, gender and case. etcThese categories can be discussed in isolation, but their role in describing language structure becomes clearer when we consider them is terms of agreement. For example, we say that the verb likes ‘agrees with’ the noun boy in the sentence The boy likes his dog. This agreement is partially based on the category of number, that is, whether the noun is singular or plural. It is also based on the category of person, which covers the distinctions of first person, second person and third person. The different forms of English pronouns are usually described in terms of person and number, in that we have firstperson singular (I), second person singular (you), third person singular (he, she, it), first person plural (we) and so on. So, in the sentence The boy likes his dog, we have a noun boy, which is third person singular, and the verb likes ‘agrees with” the noun.In addition, the form of the verb must also be described in terms of another category, that is of tense. In this case, the verb (likes) is in the present tense, which is distinguished from the past tense (liked). The sentence is also in the active voice, with the boy doing the liking. An alternative is the passive voice in which the liking is done to the boy, as in The boy is liked by his dog.Our final category is that of gender, which helps us describe the agreement between boy and his in our example sentence. In English, we have to describe this relationship in terms of natural gender, mainly derived from a biological distinction between male and female. The agreement between Boy and his is based on a distinction English makes between reference to male entities (he, his), female entities (she, her), and sexless entities, or animals when the sex of the animal is irrelevant (it its).Since traditional grammar is based on the rules of Latin, it is quite another thing to go on to claim that the structure of English sentences should be like the structure of sentences in Latin. Theview of grammar as a set of rules for the ‘proper’ use of a language may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.2.2 StructuralismIt may be that using a well-established grammatical description of Latin is a useful guide for studying some languages (e.g. Italian or Spanish), is less useful for others (e.g. English), and may be absolutely misleading if you want to describe some non-Europe languages. This last point became clear to these linguists who wanted to describe the structure of North American Indian languages at the end of the nineteenth century. The categories and rules which were appropriate for Latin grammar just did not seem to fit the Indian languages encountered. As a consequence, throughout the present century, a rather different approach has been taken. Analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach and it is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.IC analysisLet’s take a look at the following sentence:The dog followed the boy.We can identify five words (constituents). How do those five constituents go together to form constituents at the phrase level?Structural linguists realize that a sentence does not only have a linear structure, consisting of individual words one after another in a line; they also have a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups. So the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituent --- word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached is called IC analysis.So the above can be diagramed like:(((The) (dog)) ((followed) ((the) (boy)))). or more clearly in labeled tree diagram.2.3 Generative grammarSince the 1950s, particularly developing from the work of the American linguist Noam Chomsky, there have been attempts to produce a particular type of grammar which would have a very explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements would result in well-formed sentences. This explicit system of rules, it was proposed, would have much in common with the types of rules found in mathematics. This mathematical point of view helps to explain the meaning of the terms generative, which is used to describe this type of grammar. If you have an algebraic expression like 3x+2y, and you can give x and y the value of any whole number, then that simple algebraic expression can generate an endless set of values, by following the simple rules of arithmetic. Then there must be a set of explicit rules which yield those sentences. Such a set of explicit rules is a generative grammar.2.3.1 Some properties of the generative grammarA grammar of this type must have a number of properties, which can be described in the following terms.a. “all and only” criterion: The grammar will generate all the well-formed sentences of the language and fail to generate any ill-formed structures.b. It has limited number of rules, but it can generate an infinite number of well-formed structures.c. recursion: The rules can be applied more than once in generating a structure. Basically, the grammar will have to capture the fact that a sentence can have another sentence inside it, or a phrase can have another phrase of the same type inside it.e.g. This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat…The book was on the table near the window in the hallway beside the…2.3.2 Deep and surface structureThis grammar should also be capable of revealing the basis of two other phenomena: first, how some superficially distinct sentences are closely related, and second how some superficially similar sentences are in fact distinct.For example, Charlie broke the windowThe window was broken by Charlie.The difference between them (active vs. passive) is in their surface structure that is the syntactic form they take as actual English sentence. However, this difference in superficial form disguises the fact that the two sentences are very closely related even identical, at some less ‘superficial’ level. This other ‘un derlying’ level, where the basic components share by the two sentences would be represented, has been called their deep structure.In his book Syntactic Structure publish in 1957, Chomsky proposed a linguistic model consisting of three components:2.3.3Transformational rulesPhrase structure rules generate the deep structure of the sentence. The sentences we actually see and hear are the surface structures. From deep structure to surface it should undergo transformations. In the following examplesi. George helped Mary yesterday.ii. Yesterday George helped Mary.We can think of the yesterday element as having been ‘moved to the beginning of the sentence in ii. In order to do this, we need a set of rules which will change or move constituents in the structures derived from the phrase structure rules. these are called transformational rules. Essentially what they do is take a branch of the tree away from one part of the tree diagram, and attach it to a different part. Here is an example of a movement transformation.The rules would, of course, specify which constituents can be move, from where and to where.Let’s take a look at a verb-particle construction.i. Doobie picked up the magazine.ii. Doobie picked the magazine up.We intuitively recognize that these two sentences must come from a single underlying source. Let us propose a single tree diagram source which produces a string of elements. Like: NP Verb Particle NP Under circumstances like these, let us then propose the optional transformation called ‘Particle Movement’, which takes that description and yields the structural change to NP Verb NP Particle.By using this simple transformational rule, we have provided the means for explicitly relating the two structures in sentences i and ii above as ‘surface’ variations of a single underlying structure. It may not seem much, but this type of transformational analysis solved a number of tricky problems for previous syntactic descriptions.Exercises:0. In what ways are these expressions ambiguous?a. An American history teacher.b. Flying planes can be dangerous.c. The parents of the bride and the groom were waiting.1. Can you provide four ‘superficially distinct’ sentences which would each have the same ‘underlying’ structure as one of the following sentences?a. Lara was arrested by the police.b. She took her coat off.c. Someone stole my bicycle.d. I told him to turn down the volume.3. Which of the following expressions would be generated by this phrase structure rule: NP →Art (Adj) N ?a. a radiob. the rusty carc. a new studentd. the screwdriver4. Which of the following structures can be changed via the Particle Movement transformation?a. He put down his glass.b. She threw away her dress.c. he pulled off his shirt.d. They jumped in the pool.5. Please give tree diagrams of the following sentences.a. The boy helped George today.b. George saw the dog with Mary.c. The boy saw the man with the telescope.d. The very old teachers you met yesterday greatly fear the blackbirds.。
江苏省自学考试英语语言学概论27037判断题题库及中文翻译
江苏省自学考试《英语语言学概论》（27037）正确判断题题库及中文翻译nguage is primarily speech ,and not the written form.语言主要是口语形式而不是书面形式。
2.The relationship between the sounds and their meanings is arbitrary .声音和他们的意义之间的关系是任意的。
3.Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs .语言符号是通过人类语言器官形成的。
4.English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics .英语语言学是一种描述性语言学。
ngue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable .语言比言语更加抽象，因此是不能直接观察的。
（2009年10月考题）6.General linguistics deals with the whole human language .普遍语言学研究的是所有的人类语言。
7.All the English words are not symbolic .不是所有的英语单词都是有符号的。
8.Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language .描述性语言学研究的是一种具体的语言。
9.The spelling of words is not a reliable means of describing the English sounds .单词的拼写不是描述英语语音的一种可靠方式。
10.In terms of tension of the muscles at pharynx ,vowels are grouped into tense vowels andlax vowels .根据咽喉肌肉的松弛状态，元音可以分成紧元音和松元音。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。
It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。
英语语言学概论_Chapter_6_Syntax
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She is from America
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She+ is from America
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is + from America
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from + America
• Statically(静态的): sentence structure; dynamically: sentence generation.
6.3 syntagmatic, paradigmatic and hierarchical relations
• 6.3 the syntagmatic relationship refers to the linear relationship between the constituents(成分)(syntagms or syntagmas 组成成分). He is from America
• They include lexical categories(词汇范 畴) and non-lexical categories.
• Lexical categories: • Noun(N): book, table. • Verb(V); hit, tell • Adjective(Adj): good, bad • Adverb (Adv): greatly • Determiner (Det)(限定词): a, this, his, • Preposition( P): on in • conjunction( Conj); and if • Interjection (Int)(感叹词): oh, ah
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 6 Syntax(word文档良心出品)
Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。
Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a lang uage can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。
It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rul es governing the production of sentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。
句法研究语言的句子结构。
Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。
Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。
6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。
自考英语(本科-)《现代语言学》-复习大纲设计
what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules.The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction)g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 语用学h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics.社会语言学i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptiveif a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptiveif it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronicthe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。
自考本科语言学概论
自考本科语言学概论一、语言和语言学语言是人类社会交际的基本工具，是人们交流思想、传递信息的主要手段。
语言学是研究语言的科学，包括对语言的研究、理解、分析和应用。
语言学的研究对象是语言的本质、结构和功能，旨在揭示语言的内在规律和发展演变。
二、语言的性质和类型语言的性质包括社会性、符号性、系统性等。
语言是一种社会现象，是人类社会交际的工具，具有普遍性和共同性。
同时，语言也是一种符号系统，具有象征性、概括性和抽象性。
此外，语言还是一个复杂的系统，包括语音、词汇、语法等多个方面。
语言的类型分为自然语言和人工语言两大类。
自然语言是指人类社会在长期发展中自然形成的语言，如汉语、英语等。
人工语言是指为了特定目的而人为创造的语言，如计算机编程语言、数学符号等。
三、语言的物质载体——语音语音是语言的物质载体，是语言的外在表现形式。
语音由声音的音高、音强、音长和音色等因素构成，具有物理属性和生理属性。
语音的物理属性包括音高、音强、音长等，生理属性包括声带、口腔等器官的运动方式。
四、语言的建筑材料——语汇语汇是语言的建筑材料，是构成语言的基本单位。
语汇包括词汇和词法两个方面。
词汇是语言的建筑材料，是构成句子的基本单位。
词法是研究词汇的构成、变化和用法的科学，包括词的构造、词类和词义等。
五、语言的结构规则——语法语法是语言的结构规则，是研究句子结构的科学。
语法包括句法、语义和语用三个方面。
句法是研究句子结构的形式和规律的科学，包括句子的构造和变化等。
语义是研究词语的意义和用法的科学，包括词义和语境等。
语用是研究语言的使用和理解的科学，包括言语行为和言语理解等。
六、语言的表达内容——语义语义是语言表达的内容，是语言所表达的意义和信息。
语义包括词汇意义和语法意义两个方面。
词汇意义是指词语所表达的基本概念和意义，如名词表示事物，动词表示动作等。
语法意义是指词语在句子中的语法功能和结构关系，如主语表示动作的主体，宾语表示动作的对象等。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter One language(word文档良心出品)
English Linguistics:An Introduction 英语语言学概论(王永强支永碧)Chapter One language• 1 What is language?• 2 What are the features of language?• 3 What are the functions of language?The definition of language•Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际的任意性的发音的符号系统。
•First ，language is a system: sound ,words, rules, meaningsElements of language are combined according to rules. Every language contains a set of rules. By system ，we mean the recurring patterns or arrangement or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. The sounds and the words which form sentences are used in fixed patterns that speakers of a language can understand each other. It is because every language has its system that it conveys the same meaning to its speakers. 语言的元素组合根据规则。
每一种语言包含一组规则。
英语自考本科语言学概论
Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。