Globalization definitions
跨文化交际
Unit1Barriers in intercultural communicationLanguage differenceNonverbal communicationstereotypesWorldview1，Worldview is the set of systematized beliefs and values by which a cultural group evaluates and attaches meaning to the surrounding reality (Gudykunst 1984).2，Worldview is the most important perception because it is a culture’s orientation toward the fundamental issues about relationships among super-nature, nature and man, the meaning of life and existence.Culture(P. 40)CommunicationCommunication is the dynamic, systematic process in which meanings are created and reflected in human interaction with symbols.Inter-cultural communicationInter-cultural communication is the communication that takes place between people of different cultural backgrounds.Intercultural communicative competenceIntercultural communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds.Inter-cultural awarenessThe awareness of or sensitivity to inter-cultural differences in different aspects of the communication processDifferent types of inter-cultural communication1，International communication:Communication between people from different nations.2，Interethnic communication:Communication between members of the same race but different ethnic backgrounds.3，Interracial communication:Communication between members of different races which pertains to physical characteristic. Interracial communication may or may not be intercultural.What cultural elements directly influences communication?Cultural valuesWorldview (religion)Social organizations (family and state).What are the nonverbal behavior that are attached cultural meanings to?gestures, postures, facial expressions, eye contact and gaze, touch, etc.Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people andeconomic activity. The term can also refer to the transnational circulation of ideas, languages, and popular cultureAdvantages Of Globalization•With globalization, there is a global market for companies to trade their products and a wider range of options for people, to choose from among the products of different nations.•Competition keeps prices relatively low, and as a result, inflation is less likely to occur.•The focus is diverted and segregated among all the nations. No country remains the single power head; instead the world tends to be a multi-polar one.•Globalization leads to lowered trade barriers which are beneficial for Lesser Developed Nations.•Through globalization, countries can increase their comparative advantage, and produce goods and services more efficiently by specializing.•Competition keeps prices relatively low, and as a result, inflation is less likely to occur.Disadvantages Of Globalization•Globalization is causing Europeans to lose their jobs as work is being transferred to the Asian countries.•Globalization is the cause for the invasion of infectious diseases.•Poor countries are exploited by the richer countries where the work force is taken advantage of and low wages are implemented.•Large gap between wealth exist, where the gap between the richer countries and the poorer countries widens. Richer countries can easily bully poorer countries.•Multinational corporations begin to destroy the environment to gain profit.Unit2Stumbling blocks in intercultural communicationAssumption of similaritiesLanguage differencesNonverbal misinterpretationPreconceptions and stereotypesTendency to evaluateHigh anxietyConclusionTwo definitionsEmpathy (移情) is the ability to put oneself into the mental shoes of another person tounderstand her emotions and feelings. (Alvin Goldman )Empathy is what happens to us when we leave our own bodies...and find ourselves either momentarily or for a longer period of time in the mind of the other. We observe reality through her eyes, feel her emotions, share in her pain." (Alvin Goldman)Essential elements of communicationContextParticipantsMessagesChannelsNoiseFeedbackCommunication noise refers to influences on effective communication that influencethe interpretation of conversations.Unit3Why is one culture different from another?On the surfacePerception (how we sense the world)Belief (what we believe as true)Value (a system of criteria known asrules and guideposts)More deeplyWorld view (religion)- Spiritual and psychological needs of people (life and death, creation of universe, relationship between humans and nature)- Social aspects of a culture (origin of society and groups within the society, relationship of individuals and groups to one another)Family (gender roles, individualism-collectivism, age, social skills)History (government, community, political system, key historical heroes, geography) Cultural patterns- conditions that contribute to the way in which a people perceive and think about the world- the manner in which they live in that worldDifferent friendshipsAmerican friendship: Few Americans stay put for a lifetime. With each move they are making new friends. “Friend”may be someone who has known for a few weeks in a new place a childhood playmate a business associate or a trusted confidant.American friendship carries a light burn of commitment and is tentative and subject to change.French friendship: Friends are generally of the same sex (male) and friendship is a one-to-one relationship that demands a keen awareness of the other person’s intellect, temperament, and particular interests. Friendship in France is separated from the family life.German friendship: Friendship is more a matter of feeling. Within the family the closest relationship is between brothers and sisters. Outside the family men and women find in their closest friends of the same sex. Friends are brought into the family. Based on mutuality of feeling disagreement between friends is regarded as a tragedy.British friendship: Friendship is based on shared activities. Friendship is formed outside the family circle. Misjudgment will lead to a break in friendship.How high-context and low-context affect intercultural communication•Lack of enough data, people from low-context cultures often feel uncomfortable with the vagueness and inexactness and will ask very blunt(生硬的), inappropriate questions, which will make high-context culture members become impatient and irritated.•People in high-context cultures perceive low-context people less credible.•Conflicts are differently perceived and responded to.high-context: discreetly and subtlyLow-context: directly spell it outUnit4Summary: language and culture•Language is a reflection of culture, and culture is a reflection of language.•Culture influences language by way of symbols and rules for using those symbols, as well as our perceptions of the universe (the meaning associated with the symbols).•Language, on the other hand, would seem to have a major impact on the way an individual perceives and conceptualizes the world.Basis of Sapir-Whorf hypothesisLanguage is a guide to social realityLanguage as reflection of valuesLanguage thought and cultureWe are not born with a language full of fixed ways of expressing our experience, which may restrain or influence our thoughts. Language becomes our shaper of ideas rather than simply our tool for reporting ideas.Language directs its speakers in the perceptions of reality; it gives them ways to analyze and to categorize experience. Such perceptions are unconscious and outside the control of the speaker.In a sense, people speaking different languages tend to perceive the world in different ways.Unit5•Verbal: connected with words and their use•Verbal communication: communication done both orally and in written language•It is easier to use words to represent one’s experiences within the same culture because people share many similar experiences.•It is more troublesome in verbal communication across cultures because people’s experiences, beliefs, values, customs, traditions and the like are different.Conversation patternsHigh-involvement Vs high considerateness (Deborah Tannen)Directness Vs indirectness (Levine & Adelman)Ping-pong game style Vs bowling game style (Levine & AdelmanVerbal communication stylesDirect Vs Indirect verbal style1. Direct Verbal Interaction StyleA.statements clearly reveal the speaker's intentions;B.talk in a forthright tone of voice;2. Indirect Verbal Interaction StyleA. tend to hide the speaker's real intentions;B. talk with subtle difference in tone of voice;Person-oriented Vs Status-oriented verbal style1.Person-Oriented Verbal Style (individual-centered verbal mode)a.emphasizes the importance of informality & role suspension(悬置)b.symmetrical interactionc.respecting unique, personal identity ?2. Status-Oriented Verbal Style ( role-centered verbal mode )a.formality& large power distanceb.asymmetrical interactionc.honoring prescribed power-based membership identitiesSelf-enhancement Vs Self-effacement verbal style• 1. Self-Enhancement Verbal Style boasts one's accomplishments / achievement & ability.• 2. Self-Effacement Verbal Style humbles oneself through verbal means, hesitations, modest talk, and the use of self-deprecationUnit SixHaptics (体触学) is the study of how we touch in communication.(体触学研究如何利用身体接触传达信息)Nonverbal codes refer to communicative messages which are not in word form. Overview of Nonverbal Communication1.Body LanguageGeneral appearance and dress, Gestures, Eye contact, Facial expression, Posture, Touching 2. ParalanguageSilence, Pitch3.Environment LanguageSpace, Time安德逊（Andersen)1）时间学(chronemics)——研究人们利用时间的方式及其意义。
3全球化概念,全球化维度,全球化与国家、区域、城市、跨国公司
Source: Index of Economic Freedom, Heritage Foundation, 2008
时间框架
全球化何时开始？
古代
现代时期
后现代
历史开始起
19世纪
二战以后
基础
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
探险、战争与贸易 大众生产与消费 自由贸易
加速
殖民主义探险时期 工业革命
电讯系统与交通 技术
系统 形态
帝国主义 / 重商业 主义
帝国
帝国主义 / 资本主 义
民族国家
资本主义 / 公司 主义（团体主义）
经济集团
全球化的维度
1 经济全球化（Economic Globalization） 世界经济通过全球生产、全球市场、全球金融的 安排形成全球化。
跨国公司通过全球范围的运作引起新的国际劳动 分工，即制造业部门从发达国家向发展中国家转 移。
• 放松管制（De-regulation）: cut down the rules and regulations of the state
• 机构精简（Downsizing）: cut down the size of the state bureaucracy
• 私有化（Privatization）: cut down the public sector, sell it off to provide more space for the private sector
“a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions - assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity” (David Held)
综合英语教程1-Unit2-part2
Language Points of Para.1-2
1.a negative adverb, when it is put at the beginning of a sentence, the sentence should be partially inverted Similar words: no, not, never, seldom, little, hardly, at no time, in no way, not until, not only…but also, hardly/scarcely…when, No sooner… than …
Text Analysis
Para.1-2 Questions: 1. In which aspect are American homes different from traditional Chinese home? 2. What are the differences introduced in these paragraphs?
Para.3-4 Questions: 1. As for the interior arrangement, what are American homes and Chinese homes like respectively? 2. What are the cultural differences reflected?
T 5. Rarely did young children in Chinese families have their own private spaces in the house. T 6. In a traditional Chinese house in the north of China, people tend to rank the importance of the rooms in their houses according to their distance from the kitchen-dining room. F 7. Because of the differences in houses, Americans and Chinese have different views towards the idea of privacy and individual rights.
词汇学复习
第一单元英语词汇概说1.词是语音、形态和意义的统一体，音和形是词的物质外壳，意义是词的物质内容。
Word is the combination of pronunciation, morphology and meaning.2.词是在口语和书面语中能独立、自由使用的并具备完整意义的语言最小单位。
Word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used on its own in oral and written language.3.词汇（vocabulary, lexicon）: collection of words4.词汇是语言（language）的基本要素（语音、语法、词汇）之一。
Pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary5.Active vocabulary（积极性词汇）: speaking/writing vocabularyPassive vocabulary（消极性词汇）: reading/guessing vocabulary6.词汇学（lexicology）: the science of wordsLexicology is the branch of linguistics that investigates, describes and theorizes about vocabulary. 作为语言学的一个分支，词汇学对词汇进行调查研究、描述并予以理论化。
第二、三单元英语基本构词法1.词素（morpheme）是语言中语音和语义的最小结合体。
Morpheme is the minimum unit of meaning.2.构词法（1）词缀法（affixation/derivation派生法）Prefixation 前缀法；Suffixation 后缀法Prefix do not generally change the world-class(词性) of the stem but only modify its meaning.(except “en-”, ”be-”, ”a-”) 三个可以决定词性的前缀Suffix mainly change the word-class ( except “less”)（2）复合法（compounding或composition）→复合词compound（3）转化法（conversion）也叫功能转换法（functional shift）或转移法（transmutation）（4）缩略法（abbreviation或shortening）·截短词clipped wordsapocope截除词尾，aphaeresis 截除词首front and back clipping截除首尾，syncope截除词腰·首字母缩略词initialisms·首字母拼音词acronyms·拼缀词blending e.g. stagflation = stagnation + inflation注：Acronym differ from initialism in that they are pronouncedas words rather than as sequences of letter.（5）逆生法（back formation）e.g. laser为首字母拼音词，因词尾形似后缀-er，则逆生出动词lase。
globalization全球化
the first stock limited corporation established in March 20, 1602 disbanded in 1799 organize mercenaries issue currency
dominate the colonies
What is globalization?
1. a phenomenon and process of the development of the human society 2. ten aspects of globalization
The Historical Process of Globalization
International trade gained unprecedented development
In the 1950s,the scientific and technological revolution was rised. The colonial countries in the Asia, Africa and Latin America got rid off the colonial rule. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the cold war ended.
It was allowed to make a formal treaty with other country .
The First Multinational Company Which Invests in China
It set up its first office in beijing,China in1984.
globalization
The definition of culture
Social and historical development of mankind in the process of creation of material wealth and spiritual wealth. 人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物 质财富和精神财富的总和。
1. one view does not exist" globalization of culture ", " cultural globalization "to" globalization "concept of universal; 2. globalization "is" cultural
流动，经历了跨国化、局部的国际化以及全球 化这几个发展阶段。货物与资本的跨国流动是 全球化的最初形态。在此过程中，出现了相应
的地区性、国际性的经济管理组织与经济实体， 以及文化、生活方式、价值观念、意识形态等 精神力量的跨国交流、碰撞、冲突与融合。
Developing Process
Globalization is in the world scope since 1980s emerging new phenomenon, is the basic characteristic of the times. Generally speaking, from the material form, globalization refers to the
The benefits of globalization is not universal. The rich are getting richer
What Is Globalization
What Is Globalization?Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.Globalization is not new, though. For thousands of years, people—and, later, corporations—have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalization from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalization is “farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper.”This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment. Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business structure.Technology has been the other principal driver of globalization. Advances in information technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have given all sorts ofindividual economic actors—consumers, investors, businesses—valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analyses of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners.Globalization is deeply controversial, however. Proponents of globalization argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living, while opponents of globalization claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at a popular and at a governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labor, goods, and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalization.To find the right balance between benefits and costs associated with globalization, citizens of all nations need to understand how globalization works and the policy choices facing them and their societies. tries to provide an accurate analysis of the issues and controversies regarding globalization, especially to high-school and college students, without the slogans or ideological biases generally found in discussions of the topics. We welcome you to our website.Globalization: What Is It?New Era Replaces Cold War and Space Ageby Keith Porterfor People around the globe are more connected to each other than ever before. Information and money flow more quickly than ever. Goods and services produced in one part of the world are increasingly available in all parts of the world. International travel is more frequent. International communication is commonplace. This phenomenon has been titled "globalization.""The Era of Globalization" is fast becoming the preferred term for describing the current times. Just as the Depression, the Cold War Era, the Space Age, and the Roaring 20's are used to describe particular periods of history; globalization describes the political, economic, and cultural atmosphere of today.While some people think of globalization as primarily a synonym for global business and trade, it is much more than that. The same forces that allowbusinesses to operate as if national borders did not exist also allow social activists, labor organizers, journalists, academics, and many others to work on a global stage.While coming up with a definition is difficult, an even greater challenge is deciding whether globalization is a good thing or a bad thing. Click here to find out more about that debate.GlobalizationGlobalization is a difficult term to define because it has come to mean so many things. In general, globalizationglobalizationglobalization refers to the trend toward countries joining together economically, through education, society and politics, and viewing themselves not only through their national identity but also as part of the world as a whole. GlobalizationGlobalizationGlobalization is said to bring people of all nations closer together, especially through a common medium like the economy or the Internet.GlobalizationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaGlobalization (or globalisation) describes an ongoing process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through a globe-spanning network of exchange. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.[1] However, globalization is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic, technological, sociocultural, political, and biological factors.[2] The term can also refer to the transnational dissemination of ideas, languages, or popular culture.DefinitionsAn early description of globalization was penned by the American entrepreneur-turned-minister Charles Taze Russell who coined the term 'corporate giants' in 1897.[3] However, it was not until the 1960s that the term began to be widely used by economists and other social scientists. It had achieved widespread use in the mainstream press by the later half of the 1980s. Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired numerous competing definitions and interpretations.[4]The United Nations ESCWA has written that globalization "is a widely-used term that can be defined in a number of different ways. When used in aneconomic context, it refers to the reduction and removal of barriers between national borders in order to facilitate the flow of goods, capital, services and labour... although considerable barriers remain to the flow of labour.... Globalization is not a new phenomenon. It began in the late nineteenth century, but its spread slowed during the period from the start of the First World War until the third quarter of the twentieth century. This slowdown can be attributed to the inwardlooking policies pursued by a number of countries in order to protect their respective industries.. however, the pace of globalization picked up rapidly during the fourth quarter of the twentieth century...."[5]Saskia Sassen writes that "a good part of globalization consists of an enormous variety of micro-processes that begin to denationalize what had been constructed as national — whether policies, capital, political subjectivities, urban spaces, temporal frames, or any other of a variety of dynamics and domains."[6]Tom G. Palmer of the Cato Institute defines globalization as "the diminution or elimination of state-enforced restrictions on exchanges across borders and the increasingly integrated and complex global system of production and exchange that has emerged as a result."[7]Thomas L. Friedman has examined the impact of the "flattening" of the world, and argues that globalized trade, outsourcing, supply-chaining, and political forces have changed the world permanently, for both better and worse. He also argues that the pace of globalization is quickening and will continue to have a growing impact on business organization and practice.[8]Noam Chomsky argues that the word globalization is also used, in a doctrinal sense, to describe the neoliberal form of economic globalization.[11]Herman E. Daly argues that sometimes the terms internationalization and globalization are used interchangeably but there is a significant formal difference. The term "internationalization" (or internationalisation) refers to the importance of international trade, relations, treaties etc. owing to the (hypothetical) immobility of labor and capital between or among nations.[citation needed]Adrián Ravier of the Hayek Foundation summarize the globalization as such the process that arises spontaneously in the market and acts by developing a progressive international division of labour, eliminating restrictions on individual liberties, reducing transportation and communication costs,and increasingly integrating the individuals that compose the “great society.” [12]Finally, Takis Fotopoulos argues that globalisation is the result of systemic trends manifesting the market economy’s grow-or-die dynamic, following the rapid expansion of transnational corporations. Because of the fact that these trends have not been offset effectively bycounter-tendencies that could have emanated from trade-union action and other forms of political activity, the outcome has been globalisation. This is a multi-faceted and irreversible phenomenon within the system of the market economy and it is expressed as: economic globalisation, namely, the opening and deregulation of commodity, capital and labour markets which led to the present form of neoliberal globalisation; political globalisation, i.e., the emergence of a transnational elite and the phasing out of the all powerful-nation state of the statist period; cultural globalisation, i.e., the worldwide homogenisation of culture; ideological globalisation; technological globalisation; social globalisation.[13]HistoryThe historical origins of globalization are the subject of on-going debate. Though some scholars situate the origins of globalization in the modern era, others regard it as a phenomenon with a long history.Perhaps the most extreme proponent of a deep historical origin for globalization was Andre Gunder Frank, an economist associated with dependency theory. Frank argued that a form of globalization has been in existence since the rise of trade links between Sumer and the Indus Valley Civilization in the third millenium B.C.[14] Critics of this idea point out that it rests upon an overly-broad definition of globalization.Others have perceived an early form of globalization in the trade links between the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire, and the Han Dynasty. The increasing articulation of commercial links between these powers inspired the development of the Silk Road, which started in western China, reached the boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued onwards towards Rome.[citation needed]The Islamic Golden Age was also an important early stage of globalization, when Muslim traders and explorers established a sustained economy across the Old World resulting in a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and technology. Globally significant crops such as sugar and cotton became widely cultivated across the Muslim world in this period, while thenecessity of learning Arabic and completing the Hajj created a cosmopolitan culture.[15]The advent of the Mongol Empire, though destabalizing to the commercial centers of the Middle East and China, greatly facilitated travel along the Silk Road. This permitted travelers and missionaries such as Marco Polo to journey successfully (and profitably) from one end of Eurasia to the other. The so-called Pax Mongolica of the twelfth century had several other notable globalizing effects. It witnessed the creation of the first international postal service, as well as the rapid transmission of epidemic diseases such as bubonic plague across the newly-unified regions of Central Asia.[16] These pre-modern phases of global or hemispheric exchange are sometimes known as archaic globalization.Up to the time of the voyages of discovery, however, even the largest systems of international exchange were limited to the Old World. The sixteenth century represented a qualitative change in the patterns of globalization because it was the first period in which the New World began to engage in substantial cultural, material and biologic exchange with Africa and Eurasia. This phase is sometimes known as proto-globalization. It was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, particularly the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire, and later the British Empire and Dutch Empire. It can be said to have begun shortly before the turn of the 16th century, when the two Kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula - the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Castile, began to send exploratory voyages to the Americas and around the Horn of Africa. These new sea routes permitted sustained contact and trade between all of the world's inhabited regions for the first time.[citation needed]Global integration continued through the expansion of European trade in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Portuguese and Spanish Empires colonized the Americas, followed eventually by France and England. Globalization has had a tremendous impact on cultures, particularly indigenous cultures, around the world. In the 15th century, Portugal's Company of Guinea was one of the first chartered commercial companies established by Europeans in other continent during the Age of Discovery, whose task was to deal with the spices and to fix the prices of the goods.[citation needed]In the 17th century, globalization became a business phenomenon when the British East India Company (founded in 1600), which is often described as the first multinational corporation, was established, as well as the Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602) and the Portuguese East IndiaCompany (founded in 1628). Because of the large investment and financing needs and the high risks involved with international trade, the British East India Company became the first company in the world to share risk and enable joint ownership of companies through the issuance of shares of stock: an important driver for globalization.[citation needed]The 19th century witnessed the advent of globalization in something approaching its modern form. Industrialization permitted the cheap production of household items using economies of scale, while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities and manufactures. Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century imperialism. After the Opium Wars and the completion of the British conquest of India, the vast populations of these regions became ready consumers of European exports. Meanwhile, the conquest of new parts of the globe, notably sub-Saharan Africa, by the European powers yielded valuable natural resources such as rubber, diamonds and coal and helped fuel trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and the United States.[citation needed]It was in this period that areas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Pacific islands were incorporated into the world system. The first phase of "modern globalization" began to break down at the beginning of the 20th century with the first World War. Said John Maynard Keynes[17],“ The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea, the various products of the whole earth, and reasonably expect their early delivery upon his doorstep. Militarism and imperialism of racial and cultural rivalries were little more than the amusements of his daily newspaper. What an extraordinary episode in the economic progress of man was that age which came to an end in August 1914. ”The novelist VM Yeates criticised the financial forces of globalisation as a factor in creating World War I.[18]The final death knell for this phase of globalization came during the gold standard crisis and Great Depression in the late 1920s and early1930s.[citation needed]Globalization in the middle decades of the twentieth century was largely driven by the global expansion of multinational corporations based in the United States and the worldwide export of American culture through the new media of film, television and recorded music.In late 2000s, much of the industrialized world entered into a deep recession.[19] Some analysts say the world is going through a period of deglobalization after years of increasing economic integration.[20][21] Up to 45% of global wealth had been destroyed by the global financial crisis in little less than a year and a half.[22]Modern globalizationGlobalization, since World War II, is largely the result of planning by politicians to break down borders hampering trade to increase prosperity and interdependence thereby decreasing the chance of future war[citation needed]. Their work led to the Bretton Woods conference, an agreement by the world's leading politicians to lay down the framework for international commerce and finance, and the founding of several international institutions intended to oversee the processes of globalization.These institutions include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank), and the International Monetary Fund. Globalization has been facilitated by advances in technology which have reduced the costs of trade, and trade negotiation rounds, originally under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on free trade.Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through international agreements —GATT. Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the World Trade Organization (WTO), for which GATT is the foundation, have included:Promotion of free trade:elimination of tariffs; creation of free trade zones with small or no tariffsReduced transportation costs, especially resulting from development of containerization for ocean shipping.Reduction or elimination of capital controlsReduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businessesCreation of subsidies for global corporationsHarmonization of intellectual property laws across the majority of states, with more restrictionsSupranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g. patents granted by China would be recognized in the United States)Cultural globalization, driven by communication technology and the worldwide marketing of Western cultural industries, was understood at first as a process of homogenization, as the global domination of American culture at the expense of traditional diversity. However, a contrasting trend soon became evident in the emergence of movements protesting against globalization and giving new momentum to the defense of local uniqueness, individuality, and identity, but largely without success.[23]The Uruguay Round (1986 to 1994)[24] led to a treaty to create the WTO to mediate trade disputes and set up a uniform platform of trading. Other bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.World exports rose from 8.5% in 1970, to 16.1% of total gross world product in 2001.[25] (broken lnk)[citation needed]Measuring globalizationLooking specifically at economic globalization, demonstrates that it can be measured in different ways. These center around the four main economic flows that characterize globalization:Goods and services, e.g., exports plus imports as a proportion of national income or per capita of populationLabor/people, e.g., net migration rates; inward or outward migration flows, weighted by populationCapital, e.g., inward or outward direct investment as a proportion of national income or per head of populationTechnology, e.g., international research & development flows; proportion of populations (and rates of change thereof) using particular inventions (especially 'factor-neutral' technological advances such as the telephone, motorcar, broadband)As globalization is not only an economic phenomenon, a multivariate approach to measuring globalization is the recent index calculated by the Swiss think tank KOF. The index measures the three main dimensions of globalization: economic, social, and political. In addition to three indices measuring these dimensions, an overall index of globalization and sub-indices referring to actual economic flows, economic restrictions, data on personal contact, data on information flows, and data on cultural proximity is calculated. Data is available on a yearly basis for 122 countries, as detailed in Dreher, Gaston and Martens (2008).[26] According to the index, the world's most globalized country is Belgium, followed by Austria, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The least globalized countries according to the KOF-index are Haiti, Myanmar, the Central African Republic and Burundi.[27]A.T. Kearney and Foreign Policy Magazine jointly publish another Globalization Index. According to the 2006 index, Singapore, Ireland, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Canada and Denmark are the most globalized, while Indonesia, India and Iran are the least globalized among countries listed.Effects of globalizationGlobalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as:Industrial- emergence of worldwide production markets and broader access to a range of foreign products for consumers and companies. Particularly movement of material and goods between and within national boundaries.[citation needed]Financial - emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for borrowers. As these worldwide structures grew more quickly than any transnational regulatory regime, the instability of the global financial infrastructure dramatically increased, as evidenced by the financial crises of late 2008.[citation needed]Economic - realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital. The interconnectedness of these markets, however meant that an economic collapse in any one given country could not be contained.[citation needed]Political - some use "globalization" to mean the creation of a world government which regulates the relationships among governments andguarantees the rights arising from social and economic globalization.[31] Politically, the United States has enjoyed a position of power among the world powers, in part because of its strong and wealthy economy. With the influence of globalization and with the help of The United States’ own economy, the People's Republic of China has experienced some tremendous growth within the past decade. If China continues to grow at the rate projected by the trends, then it is very likely that in the next twenty years, there will be a major reallocation of power among the world leaders. China will have enough wealth, industry, and technology to rival the United States for the position of leading world power.[32]Informational - increase in information flows between geographically remote locations. Arguably this is a technological change with the advent of fibre optic communications, satellites, and increased availability of telephone and Internet.Language - the most popular language is English.[33]About 35% of the world's mail, telexes, and cables are in English.Approximately 40% of the world's radio programs are in English.About 50% of all Internet traffic uses English.[34]Competition - Survival in the new global business market calls for improved productivity and increased competition. Due to the market becoming worldwide, companies in various industries have to upgrade their products and use technology skillfully in order to face increased competition.[35]Ecological- the advent of global environmental challenges that might be solved with international cooperation, such as climate change,cross-boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Since many factories are built in developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free trade may increase pollution. On the other hand, economic development historically required a "dirty" industrial stage, and it is argued that developing countries should not, via regulation, be prohibited from increasing their standard of living.Cultural - growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness and identities which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to increase one's standard of living and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and participate in a "worldculture". Some bemoan the resulting consumerism and loss of languages. Also see Transformation of culture.Spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity (e.g. through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood movies). Some consider such "imported" culture a danger, since it may supplant the local culture, causing reduction in diversity or even assimilation. Others consider multiculturalism to promote peace and understanding between peoples.Greater international travel and tourism. WHO estimates that up to 500,000 people are on planes at any one time.[36]Greater immigration, including illegal immigrationSpread of local consumer products (e.g., food) to other countries (often adapted to their culture).Worldwide fads and pop culture such as Pokémon, Sudoku, Numa Numa, Origami, Idol series, YouTube, Orkut, Facebook, and MySpace. Accessible to those who have Internet or Television, leaving out a substantial segment of the Earth's population.Worldwide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games.Incorporation of multinational corporations in to new media. As the sponsors of the All-Blacks rugby team, Adidas had created a parallel website with a downloadable interactive rugby game for its fans to play and compete.[37]Social - development of the system of non-governmental organisations as main agents of global public policy, including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[38]TechnicalDevelopment of a Global Information System, global telecommunications infrastructure and greater transborder data flow, using such technologies as the Internet, communication satellites, submarine fiber optic cable, and wireless telephonesIncrease in the number of standards applied globally; e.g., copyright laws, patents and world trade agreements.Legal/Ethical。
传播学专业英语
传播学专业英语Chapter One Introduction to Mass CommunicationKey Termscommunication 传播，交通：mass communication, be in communication with,feedback 反馈: asked the students for feedback on the new curriculum.interpersonal communication ⼈际传播:interpersonal relationshipsencoding 编码: audio encoding, hybrid encodingdecoding 解码: adaptive decodingpublic relations 公共关系noise 噪⾳,响声，⽆⽤数据，吸引注意的⾔⾏medium 媒介（media），⼿段，mass medium ⼤众媒介，⼤众传播⼯具，影响⼤量观众的⼀种公众媒介mass communication ⼤众传播，⼤众传播⼯具inferential feedback 推断性反馈reciprocal messages 交互讯息：（reciprocal互惠的，彼此相反的）cultural definition of communication 传播的⽂化定义dominant culture （mainstream culture）主流⽂化bounded culture (co-culture) 亚⽂化: bounded functiontechnological determinism 技术决定论: (determinism决定论，宿命论)visual communication 视觉传播third participant 第三⽅：（participant 参与者，参与的）concentration of ownership 所有权集中convergence 融合，会合点，集中，收敛conglomeration 集团化，混合物，凝聚：The state of being conglomeratedeconomies of scale 规模经济；因经营规模扩⼤⽽得到的经营节约oligopoly 寡头式的垄断，求过于供的市场情况（oligopolies）globalization 全球化：globalizeaudience fragmentation 受众分析：（audience：听众，观众，读者。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
表1：全球化的定義 項
次
人名或機構定義
1 David Held et
al.當代社會生活的所有層面（包括文化、犯罪、金融、宗教精神等），在整個世界的相互聯繫上，已經日益擴張、深入和加速。
2 Ulrich Beck 跨國行動者從權力、取向、認同和網絡等各種面向穿透
和侵蝕主權國家的過程。
3 R. Cohen and
P. Kennedy 時空概念的變化、文化互動的增長、世界所有居民都面臨共同問題的增加、相互聯繫和相互依存的增強、跨國行為體的發展和跨國組織網絡的擴展，以及全方位的一體化。
4 A. G. McGrew 組成當代世界體系的國家與社會之間的聯繫和相互溝通
的多樣化，是世界某個部份發生的事情、決定和活動能
夠對全球遙遠地方的個人和團體產生重要影響。
5 Barbara Parker
(2005: 49) 對傳統界限，例如國家、時間、空間等等日漸增加的穿透性。
6 喬治‧索羅斯
(2002: i) 全球化等於資金的自由流動，而國家也愈來愈受到全球金融市場及跨國企業的主導。
7 Kenich Ohame 國與國間貿易界限或障礙的消弭。
8 Peter Dicken 為傳統國際生產、投資及貿易形式上的轉變。
9 Douglas
Kellner (2002)
高度複雜、矛盾和模糊的制度與社會關係，以及牽涉商
品、勞務、想法、科技、文化形式和人的流動。
10 卡爾‧海因
茲‧巴奎
全球化係以貿易聯繫的密切程度為基準，國際貿易額佔
全球生產的比例越高，世界經濟全球化的程度就越高。
11 Richard C.
Longworth
全球化可視為全球經濟體系的形成，使企業家能夠在世
界任何地方籌募資金，藉著這些資金，利用世界任何地
方之科技、通訊、管理和人才，在世界任何地方製造商
品，賣給世界任何地方的顧客。
12 Richard G.
Harris (1993)
經濟學者通常將全球化視為生產、分配和商品行銷的國
際化。
13 Christopher
Chase-Dunn et
al. (2000)
全球化通常意指通訊和運輸科技的改變，資本流動和商
品貿易日增的國際化，以及經濟競爭的主戰場從國內市
場轉移到世界市場。
14 Tonelson
(1997)
受全球快速成長的商品、勞務、資本、資訊和有時人們
的流動，所引起日增的國際市場整合。
15 Anderson
(2001)
從事國際商業成本的下降，全球化的效應將增強商品、
勞務、科技、概念、金融、資本和勞動的國際市場之整
合。
16 David Harvey 主要因運輸和通訊科技的發展，所產生的一種時空壓縮。
17 Malcom
Waters (1995:
3)
地理位置對社會和文化限制持續衰微的社會過程，且人
們也越來越此種變化。
18 J. Knight and
H. de Wit
技術、經濟、知識、人類、價值、理念等跨越國界的流
動，這些流動受制於各國不同的歷史，傳統和文化等的
限制，產生不同程度的影響。
資料來源：項1-2，引自宋興洲（2002）；項3，引自楊雪冬（2003: 1）；項4，引自楊雪冬（2003: 18-19）；項7-8，引自Parker (2005: 4) ；項10-11 ，引自鄒勳元（2001）；項16，引自戴曉霞（2002）；項18，引自楊靜子（2005）。
表2：經濟全球化的定義
項
次
人名或機構定義
1 奧斯特雷1生產要素在全球範圍內廣泛流動，實現資源最佳配置的過程。
2 IMF2跨國商品及服務貿易與國際資本規模和形式的增加，以及技術的廣泛迅速傳播使世界各國經濟的相互依賴性增強。
3 雅克‧阿達資本主義經濟體系對世界的支配與控制。
4 托本等人全球化是指各國通過貿易，對外直接投資和資本流動，信息網絡和文化交流而形成的高度融合和相互依賴關係。
5 洪朝輝
(2000)
跨區域的貿易、資本、信息、市場、企業和人口的擴展
過程，並對地球另一區域民眾和社區的影響存在相當的
廣度、強度和速度。
6 Thompson, 經濟全球化趨勢包含幾個相互關連的層面，即生產過程1 OECD 前首席經濟學家。
2參見IMF 出版的1997 年《世界經濟展望》。
Flecker
and Wallace 的國際化、世界市場的一體化、國際勞工分工、跨國企業的國籍背景日趨淡化、金融市場的自由化和國際化，以及通過經濟和政治整合各國制度架構的趨同化等。
7 鄒勳元
(2001)
資本主義下自由市場理念的充分延伸，拜科技與通訊技
術之賜，而使貿易、金融、生產、銷售等要素突破了以
往疆界的限制，在全世界的範圍內尋求最有效率的結
合，以達到個人或企業最大利益為目標。
8 楊雪冬 (2003:
31)
資本追逐利潤所產生的一系列現象的總和。
這些現象包
括商品、勞務、人員和資本的跨國界流動，也包括各類
跨國界統一市場的形成。
9 Burgoon Brian
(2001)
經濟全球化牽涉自由化和較大的貿易流量、資產組合投
資和直接投資。
資料來源：項1-4，引自張彤玉、丁國杰（2005）；項6，引自程曉農（1997）。
表3：全球化的開始時間
項
次
人名或機構開始時間體現形式
1 秦暉 (2003) 1840年代英國敲開中國的貿易大門（資本主義的全球化）、馬克斯號召無產者聯合起來（共產主義的全球化）
2 Karl Marx 15世紀現代資本主義
3 Immanuel
Wallerstein
15世紀資本主義世界體系
4 Roland
Roberson
1870-1920 年包括多個面向（文化屬性）
5 Anthony
Giddens
18世紀現代化
6 Howard V.
Perlmutter
東西方衝突的
結束
全球文明
7 Clive Gamble 人類大致完成在全球的分布
8 Malcom
Waters
15-16世紀重商主義的開端
資料來源：項2-6，引自魏澤民、林志昶（2005）。
項7-8，引自楊雪冬（2003: 4）。
目前學術界對全球化的解釋，主要有四種不同的學派（洪朝輝，2000）：
一、新馬克斯學派或新左派（Neo-Marxists or Neo-Left）：主要代表人物為 S.
Amin、A. Callinicos 和 S. Gill。
主張經濟全球化等同於帝國主義化和西化，國家已淪為國際資本的代理人，最終會導致全球性不公平和不公正的兩極分化。
二、新自由派（Neo-Liberals）：主要代表人物為 K. Ohmae 和 W. Grieder。
主張全球經濟和市場將朝一體化發展，且絕大多數國家將在全球化過程中受益。
3
三、懷疑派（the skeptical thesis）：代表人物為 P. Hirst 和 G. Thompson。
主
張第一：全球化是一種「錯誤的誇張」，認為19 世紀後葉，已經出現了全球經濟、市場和金融的高度一體化，並不輸於1990 年代時的狀況4；
第二、經濟區域化或經濟國際化可能比經濟全球化更為適合描述過去數十年的狀況，而區域化不可能成為全球化的助力；第三、國家的政策主權不大會受到經濟國際化的影響，遑論國家的消亡；第四、經濟國際化更加造成許多第三世界國家經濟發展的邊緣化，以及全球財富分配的不均。
四、轉型學派（the transformationalist thesis）：代表人物為A. Giddens, J. A.
Scholte 和 M. Castells。
主張全球化是推動社會、政治和經濟轉型的主要動力，並正在重新塑造現代社會和世界秩序。
它對世界的影響很大，但很難預測它的發展方向和全球新世界的風貌。
目前大部分的文獻，將全球化的起點認定為近代西歐。
在分析全球化進程的驅動因素，經濟因素顯得非常重要，並容易分析（楊雪冬，2003: 6）。
3例如一國政府可透過解除管制、民營化、降低稅賦和減少支出等措施，讓企業達成全球最佳實務，以推動經濟成長和增進社會福祉，參見鄒勳元（2001）。
4 19 世紀末，美國的出口金額佔GNP 的8% ，並不比一百年後少；1990 年代，在新興市場融通的外國資金佔10% ，顯示資本的流動性不及百餘年前1880 年的水準；1900 年，有14% 的美國人在國外出生，1990 年代，只有7% 。
所以至少就經濟史的觀點，1990 年代的全球化程度未必比19 世紀末期來得高（今日經濟1999）。