财务管理专业外文文献翻译-会计财务外文翻译-外文文献中英文对照翻译
财务管理财务分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
覆盖大量的可供选择的债券工具。由于债券市场的改革，出现了由企业发行的可供选择形式的债券工具。在第15章中，向你介绍了三种工具。我们然后致力于第一章提出的由企业负债发行的最具流动性的可供选择企业债券，企业首次发行的资产有价证券。
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
附录A
财务管理和财务分析作为财务学科中应用工具。本书的写作目的在于交流基本的财务管理和财务分析。本书用于那些有能力的财务初学者了解财务决策和企业如何做出财务决策。
通过对本书的学习，你将了解我们是如何理解财务的。我们所说的财务决策作为公司所做决策的一部分，不是一个被分离出来的功能。财务决策的做出协调了企业会计部、市场部和生产部。
1财务管理与分析的介绍
财务是经济学原理的应用的概念，用于商业决策和问题的解决。财务被认为有三部分组成：财务管理，投资，和金融机构：
■财务管理有时被称为公司理财或者企业理财。财务的范围就企业单位的财务决策的重要性划分的。财务管理决策包括保持现金流平衡，延长信用，获得其他公司借款，银行的借款和发行股票和基金。
覆盖项目租赁和项目资金融资。我们提供深度的项目租赁的内容在本书的第27章，阐明项目租赁的利弊，你在本书中会频繁的看到和专业的项目资金融资。项目融资的增长十分重要不仅对企业而言，对为了追求发展基础设施的国家也十分的重要。在第28章，本书提供了便于理解项目融资的基本原理。
早期介绍衍生工具。衍生工具（期货、交换物、期权）在理财中发挥着重要作用。在第4章向你介绍这些工具。而衍生工具被看作是复杂的工具，通过介绍将让你明确它们的基础投资工具特征。在早期介绍的衍生工具时，你可以接受那些评估隐含期权带来的困难（第9章）那些在资本预算中隐含的期权（第14章），以及如何运用隐含期权来减少成本及负债（第15章）。
英文文献翻译—中英对照(财会专业)
A V AT Revenue Simulation Model for Tax ReformIn Developing CountriesGlenn P .Jenkins[Abstract]: In this paper, we develop a model to simulate policies and revenues for a value added tax (V AT) system in countries that have an indirect tax system containing sales, excise taxes, and tariffs. An application of the model is carried out for Nepal, which has recently introduced the V AT to replace its sales tax system and rationalize its excise and tariff systems. The study shows that, in a developing country, tax policies that might seem very realistic and politically noncontroversial are likely to yield a very narrow tax base. If a government of a developing country wants to rely more on the V AT over time, it must move aggressively to broaden the base and enhance compliance.[Key words]: V AT revenue, Tax reform, model, NepalⅠ. INTRODUCTIONImport tariffs and excise taxes often constitute the most important revenue sources in developing countries. Because of growing concerns in recent years about economic efficiency and tax simplicity in a competitive and integrated world economy, many countries are lowering trade taxes and replacing distorted excise taxes with consumption-type V AT. With respect to the latter, one of the most important questions is the revenue potential of alternative designs of this new tax as governments attempt to replace or enhance the level of revenues generated by their current tax system.The potential revenue which can be raised from the V AT depends on a number of factors, such as how broad the tax base will be and the extent to which businesses will comply with the tax. This issue has not been widely discussed in the public finance literature. The main purpose of this paper is to provide an analytical framework which can be used to estimate the potential tax base and associated revenues for a V AT in a typical developing country. The model developed for this purpose should be detailed enough to facilitate the estimation of the potentialrevenues for alternative tax options. Such a model can then be used to assist decision makers in setting their tax policies. To illustrate, the model is applied to the economy of Nepal. We chose Nepal because it is typical of many developing countries, having very limited statistical data and moving from a highly distorted indirect tax system to a V AT.Ⅱ. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO THE ESTIMATION OF A V AT BASEThe potential tax revenue of a V AT is greatly dependent on the number and level of tax rates, the scope of the tax base, and the degree of tax compliance. The proposed V AT is assumed to be a multistage consumption tax based on the destination principle, similar to a European-style V AT. The tax is applied to the sales of goods and services at all stages of the production and distribution chain. At each stage, vendors are able to claim tax credits to recover the tax they paid on their business inputs. As a result, the tax system is in effect applying the tax only to the value added by each vendor. Since the only tax that does not get refunded is the tax imposed on final consumption, the tax is equivalent to the retail sales tax on final consumption. While imposing a tax at a destination principle, imports are taxed in the same way as domestically produced goods, and exports are not subject to tax. Therefore, the tax essentially applies to goods and services consumed domestically.A common feature of the tax base in most V AT countries is to not tax a number of important goods or services because of political and socioeconomic considerations, technical difficulties, or administrative complexity. These goods and services generally fall into two major categories, zero-rated and tax exempt. For zero-rated commodities, the V AT is not levied on the selling price of these items. The vendor, however, receives full credit for the V AT paid on inputs used in production. If zero-rated sales occur at an intermediate stage, purchasers would not have a credit to deduct against any subsequent tax due. This would, in fact, provide a cash flow cost and benefit to the vendor and purchaser, respectively. The net revenue implications for the government would nevertheless be nil. By comparison, if zero-rated sales occur at the retail stage, it would effectively remove all the tax burden from consumers and the government would lose all the tax revenue from the sales of these goods and services.For conceptual and technical difficulties, countries employing a V AT generally exempt the domestic sales of financial intermediation and insurance services. For administrative and compliance simplicity, most V AT countries also exempt small businesses from the tax. When these goods and services are exempted, the V AT is not applied to these sales. Unlike zero-rated goods and services, vendors of exempt products are not eligible to receive any credit for the taxes paid on the inputs used to produce that good or service. The denial of input tax credits increases the production cost for the vendor, although the value added of the vendor escapes tax.Like zero-rated sales, tax exemption can occur at either an intermediate or the retail stage. Consider the tax exemption at the retail stage where goods are sold directly to consumers. Only the value added at the retail stage will not be subject to tax. In contrast, if tax exempt sales operate at the intermediate stages of the production-distribution chain, sales by the subsequent businesses acquiring the goods are effectively overtaxed to the extent that the inputs prior the exempt stage are not creditable. As a result, the tax base is not reduced, but is augmented by the cascading effect.The government could ultimately collect a greater amount of tax revenue than it would otherwise.Multiple tax rates are a common feature of some V AT systems in the developing countries. It is not uncommon to observe that a lower rate is applied to goods or services which are regarded as the necessities of life. At the same time, there are luxury goods which may be subjected to a higher rate of V AT or alternatively, a non-increditable excise tax.Three alternative approaches can be used to estimate the tax base and associated revenues, for which input-output tables, national accounts and family expenditure survey data are often required. The first approach is simply to construct an aggregate tax base. It begins with the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the economy, which is the sum of the value added in the domestic production of all goods and services. Because we are considering a destination principle V AT, we need to subtract exports and add imports to the GDP. For a consumption type V AT, the base is also reduced by the gross capital formation of the private sector. The base is further reduced by zero-rated or exempted consumption expenditures. Since vendors of exempted goods and services are unable to claim any credits for taxes paid on the inputs acquired to produce that good or service, the tax base will have to be upward adjusted. The second approach computes the base by summing the value added of each industrial sector in the economy. The base has to beadjusted for the fact that the V AT is a destination type tax and, as such, would tax imports on entry into the country and zero-rate exports. Further adjustments would have to be made for changes in inventories and for commodities which are either zero-rated or exempted. Making these adjustments by sector is usually difficult since the values of exports and imports are not readily available on an industry basis. Although an aggregate adjustment for the whole economy may be possible, detailed information by sector would be lost. The third approach is to estimate the value of goods and services purchased by consumers which would automatically capture the destination principle of the V AT since it excludes exports while imports are included. The V AT base by commodity can then be calculated using the commodity sales values at the final consumer level. The approach would also facilitate an analysis of incidence or price impact of the V AT on consumers, issues which are usually important in the political debate over sales tax reform.Ⅲ. GENERAL METHODOLOGY FOR ESTIMATING THE V AT BASEThis section explores the detailed methodology of the third approach described above. This approach depends heavily upon input-output tables. Input-output models are static in nature and, as such, do not allow for behavioral responses to policy changes. Thus, the V AT base estimation discussed in this paper does not take into account behavioral responses due to the replacement of the current sales tax system with the V AT.As was mentioned earlier, the V AT base can be estimated using the final expenditures made by various economic entities. Construction of the base can, therefore, begin with the data for domestic expenditures contained in the final demand matrix of the I-O tables. The final demand matrix generally contains a transaction matrix of a number of commodities by a number of final demand categories. The final demand categories may include many categories under each of the headings such as personal consumption, government expenditures, investment, imports, and exports. Personal consumption refers to those individuals/households or entities who acquire goods and services for their own consumption and who do not produce supplies of a commercial nature. Government expenditures include the current and capital spending by all levels ofgovernment. This would be treated in a fashion similar to personal consumption under a V AT system except that the V AT paid by the same level of government sector will not necessarily increase net government collections. Investment, however, is excluded from the base calculation since the V AT allows for an input tax credit for any business purchases including capital investment. Exports are also excluded because of the destination type V AT. Imports are ignored because purchases made by other final demand categories are inclusive of imports.The starting point in calculating the V AT base is with the amount of personal and government expenditures. This amount is equivalent to the total expenditures shown in the I-O tables. Adjustments must however, be made for several factors in order to arrive at the V AT base. What follows is a description of the relevant deductions and adjustments.Calculation of the current sales taxesSuppose that a country has a manufacturer sales tax system and the government proposes to replace it with a V AT. The gross expenditures contained in the I-O tables, expressed at purchasers' price, include the current sales taxes to be replaced. These taxes are imposed on the manufacturer's sale price of goods produced in the country and on the duty paid value of imported goods. Wholesale and retail trade margins are excluded from the tax base. Usually, these sales taxes apply also to a range of intermediate inputs and capital goods used in the production and distribution of goods and services.In order to remove the current sales taxes paid directly by personal and government sectors from each category of expenditures, one has to first construct the current sales tax base. This is accomplished by removing the retail and wholesale trade margins from purchasers' expenditures on each good or service, inclusive of sales tax.The expected current sales tax revenue from each commodity, say, the ith commodity( Ri), can be calculated by multiplying the derived tax base by the applicable tax rate and by the taxable proportion:where is the sales tax-inclusive base of the ith commodity, is the taxable proportion of theith commodity, and is the sales tax rate of the ith commodity. The magnitude of the taxableproportions depends upon the proportion of the legally taxable sales to the total sales of the items contained in each commodity category.A further calculation must be made for the hidden (or indirect) sales taxes embedded in personal and government expenditures. This represents the sales taxes which are levied on business inputs. These inputs are used in turn to produce goods and services which are ultimately sold to final consumers and governments. If sales taxes are assumed to be fully shifted forward, the taxes will be transformed into a higher price of the final goods and services. The I-O tables can be used to measure the indirect sales tax content in the goods and services purchased by final consumers and governments.The total of the above expected direct and indirect sales tax revenues over all commodities and all entities usually is not the same as the actual tax collections. This is a result of a number of factors, such as bad debt allowances, tax free allowances for small importation, tax evasion, small suppliers exemption. After adjusting for the factors which are known, the expected tax revenues are made equal to the actual tax collections by applying a calculated compliance rate. This rate is simply the ratio of the actual revenue to the expected revenue. Of course, the compliance rate may vary by commodity, depending upon market conditions and other factors.Introduction of the value-added taxThe potential revenue of the V AT extended to the retail level can be calculated by summing domestic personal and government expenditures at retail prices. This does not include expenditures made by businesses since the taxes paid on business purchases are creditable. Thus, the starting point for calculating the V AT base is with the value of all goods and services (shown in the I-O tables) purchased by personal and government sectors, net of all current sales taxes.This is the total potential tax base, which is then multiplied by the taxable proportions for each corresponding commodity in order to arrive at the V AT base. At this point, the taxable proportions are determined by the tax policies and laws under consideration. For example, the proposed V AT may zero-rate or exempt certain goods or services. In such cases, the full value of zero-rated or exempted goods and services purchased by individuals or governments has to be removed from the potential base. For exempt items, however, taxes paid on business inputs used to produce the exempt goods or services are not creditable. Therefore, an additional adjustment to the tax base is needed to account for the extent to which the vendors cannot claim input tax credit for taxes paid on business expenditures. In summary, the total potential V AT base can beexpressed as follows:Where is the percentage wholesale margin for the ith commodity, is the percentage retail margin for the ith commodity, is the total business inputs used in the production of the jthexempt sector under the proposed V AT, is the ratio of taxable inputs to the total inputs usedin the production of the jth exempt sector under the proposed V AT, and Bi ,ai and pi are defined as eqn..Special attention should be paid to long-term residential rent paid by tenants to landlords and imputed rent arising from the consumption flow by owner-occupied housing, which is normally presented as part of personal expenditures in the I-O tables or national accounts. This rent is often tax exempt and should be excluded from the tax base in order to avoid double taxation, since as an alternative, the V AT is sometimes levied on the purchase price of newly constructed dwellings. A portion of gross cash rent and imputed rent, however, would still be subject to V AT as a result of taxable expenditures made for repairs, property insurance, and certain utilities. It should be noted that the value of land is excluded in both the I-O tables and national accounts because it does not represent value added. For our purpose, the value of land is usually included as part of the purchase price of a new home. Thus, when new houses are taxable under the V AT, the personal expenditures must be adjusted upward to account for the full price of new homes. Some adjustments must be also made to gross expenditures in the government sector. For the most part, the production from this sector is usually exempt under a V AT and the associated value added would not attract the tax. On the other hand, the intermediate inputs used to produce government goods and services are usually taxable and, as a consequence, remain in the tax base of the government sector.Finally, to arrive at a benchmark estimate of revenue yield, the tax base for each commodity item is then multiplied by the compliance ratio under the current sales tax system. This adjustment implies that the compliance rate for each commodity under the proposed V AT would not be different from that being subject to the current system. The compliance rate may be adjusted upward however if one believes that the V AT system would enhance taxpayercompliance, or if the government can increase the level of administrative enforcement. On the contrary, the compliance rate may be adjusted downward if tax evasion is expected to spread with the introduction of a V AT. The total expected V AT revenues for the economy will then be equal to the summation of all adjusted tax bases across goods and services purchased by both the personal and government sectors, times the proposed V AT rates.Accrual versus actual revenue collectionsThe model developed so far provides an annual estimate of the V AT paid by final consumers and governments. These estimates are presented on an accrual basis rather than the actual revenues received by the government due to the payment lags built into the V AT system. For example, the V AT may be designed to provide a great deal of flexibility in filing requirements, depending on the size of the business. For large firms, filing may be required on a monthly basis. For smaller firms, filing may be allowed on a quarterly or annual return. Certain types of businesses such as exporters are likely to choose to file their returns on a monthly basis in order to claim input tax credits earlier. Furthermore, all taxpayers are likely to have until the end of the month following the reporting period to file their returns.From a government’s perspective, it is necessary to transform the V AT estimates from an accrual to a collection basis. One can first segregate the above annual estimate of the V AT base into the individual ``value-added'' components for primary producers, manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and other service sectors. Each of these components is then converted to a monthly basis using sales and other relevant data. For example, the retail component is distributed to each month based on monthly retail sales data. This should reflect the seasonal patterns in production and distribution channels. The appropriate collection lags should also be incorporated for each type of tax filer. The resulting revenues can then be transformed to a collection basis. This consideration will be particularly important when the V AT is first introduced into a country.Ⅳ. AN APPLICATION TO A CASE FOR NEPALThe current sales tax collected in Nepal in fiscal year 1994-95 was about 6,032 million rupees which accounts for approximately one-third of the total tax revenues. It is the single mostimportant revenue source. Like many other countries, the sales tax is imposed on the manufacturer's sale price of goods produced for domestic consumption, and on the duty paid value of imported goods. As a result, the tax applies to a range of inter-mediate inputs and capital goods used in the production and distribution channels. This tax has become not only administratively complex, but also economically inefficient. The Minister of State for Finance in Nepal announced in the July 1993 budget that the government would focus on gradually transforming the sales tax into a value-added tax. Since then, subsequent governments have had to make a series of tax policies and set tax rates in order to ensure the new sales tax system is fair, simple, efficient and produces revenue in a stable fashion.In the July 1993 budget, it was announced that the number of sales tax rates would be reduced from five to two rates, 10% and 20%. The same tax rates are applied equally to domestically produced goods and to imports in order to streamline the sales tax operation. In addition, there has been a substantial amount of government revenues collected from a number of selective excises on cigarettes, liquor, beer, soft drinks, edible oils, cement and so on. The main objective of this section is to apply the above model to the estimation of potential revenues for a V AT to be implemented in Nepal.Preparation of the basic dataThe data are quite limited in Nepal. In order to present the most up-to-date economic structure for the country, we developed a complete set of data for the FY 1994-95 since this is the latest year that data are available on the expenditure side from national accounts in Nepal.The data are arranged into three major categories-personal, business, and government. First, the detailed personal expenditure data are only available from a Household Budget Survey for 1985. These data also are separated into urban and rural for each class of commodity expenditure. Due to their different expenditure patterns and the recent massive migration from rural to urban areas, the current detailed household expenditures by commodities for the country as a whole are constructed by increasing the proportion of the total national household expenditures made in urban areas from 7% in 1985 to 12% in 1994. Using the FY 1994-95 aggregate private consumption shown in national accounts as a control total, the detailed personal expenditures by commodities are estimated.Second, the information concerning business expenditures on capital investment and intermediate inputs is very limited. The national accounts only provide an aggregate figure on private capital formation which can be further separated into machinery and equipment and construction. Using import information, the totals for machinery and equipment are further allocated among tractors, motor vehicles and parts, aircraft, telecommunications, medical equipment, and other machinery equipment. This is done in anticipation that certain goods or sectors are likely to be either zero-rated or exempted under the proposed V AT. The split between residential and nonresidential construction is also important because of their differences in the composition of mixed construction materials. For nonresidential construction, about one-third is sponsored by international organizations and is classified as expenditures of the government sector. For each construction category, detailed requirements of construction materials, labor cost, as well as profits and contract tax are provided by the Nepal Engineers' Association. In addition, the detailed intermediate inputs demanded by each of the industrial sectors are developed using the 1987 I-O tables.Third, government expenditures are separated into Regular and Development Expenditures. The latter are mostly funded by international organizations such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and bilateral donors which do not pay tariffs or other commodity taxes on their purchases. Each of the Regular and Development Expenditures can be further broken down into current and capital expenditures by commodity items or economic functions.After the basic detailed expenditures data for FY 1994-95 are constructed, the wholesale and retail margins for each commodity are removed from purchasers' expenditures on each good or service derived above .This would form the manufacturers' or importers' sales totals, inclusive of taxes, by commodity and by entity. The expected sales tax revenue for each commodity can then be calculated based on eqn (1).Simulation of the V AT revenuesThe proposed V AT will be imposed on goods and services consumed in the Kingdom of Nepal except for those specified in Schedules 1 and 2 of the V AT Act. The V AT Act will replace the Sales Tax Act, Hotel Act, Contract Tax Act, and Entertainment Act. This implies that, for revenue-neutral, at least a total of 6,857 million rupees should have been generated in FY 1994-95 if the proposed V AT was implemented.The following basic tax policies are incorporated in the model simulations for illustrative purposes:(ⅰ) impose a single rate of V AT which is extended to the retail level under the destination principle. Most personal and government expenditures are taxed, including government expenditures financed through international organizations.(ⅱ) zero-rate exported goods and services.(ⅲ)exempt unprocessed food, drug and medical services, books and newspapers, water and transportation services.(ⅳ) exempt newly constructed dwellings, residential rents, and financial services.(ⅴ) adjust the excise levies on alcoholic beverages and tobacco products to maintain their current consumer prices.Before turning to the empirical results, it is useful to recall the equivalency of the V AT to that of retail sales tax levied on the final selling price of all goods and services.The data on the latter were derived earlier in the form of gross expenditures by commodities under the personal, business, and government category. These gross expenditures represent the sum of all the expenditures on the various commodities and primary inputs contained in each category. Adjustments must be made for factors such as removal of the current sales taxes, zero-rated and exempt goods and services, and realistic tax compliance by taxpayers in order to arrive at the V AT base and the associated revenues.First, the above gross expenditures by commodities and by entities contain the amounts of the current sales taxes, directly paid by individuals and by governments, which must be deducted in calculating the V AT base. Since sales taxes are assumed to be fully shifted forward to final consumers, a further deduction must be made for the indirect sales taxes embedded in the price of personal and government expenditures. One can observe from Columns (2) and (3) of Table 1 that more than half of the current sales taxes are imposed on intermediate inputs and capital goods in Nepal. These input taxes are now embodied in the form of higher prices of goods and services sold to final consumers and governments.Second, the excise tax on alcoholic beverages and tobacco products are adjusted upward in order to maintain the same level of retail prices for consumers. The excise adjustment (DE) must equal the diff erence between the manufacturers’ sales prices of the excisable good under the newversus the current sales tax systems. That is:where is the single V AT rate, is the V AT compliance rate, is the current sales tax rateof the ith excisable good, and is the compliance rate of the current sales tax systems. is defined as eqn. (1), namely, the current sales tax-inclusive base of the ith excisable good. Hence, the adjustments shown in Column (5) of Table 1 refer to the case if the V AT rate is set at 12% and the tax compliance remains the same as the current tax system.Third, the full value of zero-rated goods or services purchased by final consumers and governments must be removed from gross expenditures. The simulation will only apply to exports, not to the goods and services paid for with foreign exchange but consumeddomestically.Fourth, for exempt goods and services that operate at the retail stage, the V AT is not levied on their selling prices nor are vendors entitled to the input tax credit. As a result, the associated input taxes that are not creditable form part of the V AT base. It should be noted that while not only unprocessed basic groceries but also basic agricultural inputs such as fertilizer seeds and pesticides are exempt. Another interesting case in Nepal is the practical difficulty of imposing a V AT on newly constructed houses because no such market prevails. New houses are normally self-constructed with assistance from relatives or friends. Therefore, new houses are treated as tax exempt and the purchases of construction materials are made subject to tax the business inputs associated with the denied input tax credits are all shown by sector in the second panel of Table 1 to form part of the V AT in Nepal.Fifth, the government is treated in the same fashion as final consumers. In other words, expenditures incurred by the government are taxed.Each of these tax policy measures presented in the V AT Act might appear reasonable and politically prudent, in the context of the economy of Nepal. But the results in Column (7) of Table 1 show that the V AT base, with the current tax compliance, has been reduced to approximately 20% gross domestic expenditure. It is also unrealistic to expect a substantial increase in compliance of the tax in a near term. If significant additional revenues are to be collected, tougher tax policies to broaden the tax base will have to be implemented. Because the share of the formal economy is relatively small in such a developing country, the potential tax base for a V AT is rather narrow. Hence, substantial political will is needed in developing countries to impose taxes on goods and services that might be exempted due to political or social considerations in developed countries.A V AT generally requires a higher level of administrative expenditures than a single stage sales tax system because of the greater number of taxpayers and the initial start up costs. This will reduce the net collection of tax revenues. There is a question of whether the V AT would lead to either greater tax enforcement or greater revenue leakage. One can argue that invoices issued by vendor registrants are proof of tax paid and, thus, constitute the basis for input tax credit claims by purchaser registrants. The invoice system may be considered by some economists or tax practitioners as a mechanism that provides an audit trail and an incentive to record。
现代企业财务管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
Discussion on the Modern Enterprise Financial ControlRyanDavidson ,JennyGoodwin-Stewart ,PamelaKentThis paper discusses the The modern enterprise is becoming China's economic development in the process of an important new force. However, with the modern enterprise investment on the scale of the expansion and extension of the growing investment levels, the modern enterprise financial control is becoming increasingly urgent. This is common in state-owned enterprise groups and private enterprise groups, a common predicament. At present, the modern enterprise is becoming China's enterprises to compete in the international market, the leading force. In a market economy under the conditions of modern business success or failure depends largely on the Group's financial management and financial control is a modern enterprise financial management of the link. Many of the modern enterprise by strengthening the financial control so that the Group significant increase efficiency, and even some loss-making by strengthening the financial control of the modern enterprise to enable companies to achieve profitability. In this paper, expounding China's modern enterprises the main problems of financial control, based on the choice of financial control method was summarized and analyzed the content of the modern enterprise financial controls, the final resolution of the financial control mode selected key factors for the modern enterprise the improvement of financial control to provide a degree of meaningful views.1 IntroductionWith China's accession to WTO, China's enterprise groups must be on the world stage to compete with TNCs from developed countries. At present the development of enterprise groups in China is not satisfactory, although there are national policies and institutional reasons, but more important is its financial management in particular, caused by inadequate financial controls. For a long time, China's enterprise group cohesion is not strong, their respective subsidiaries within the Group for the array, can not play the whole advantage; redundant construction and haphazard introduction of frequent, small investments, decentralized prominent problem: financial management is chaotic, resulting in frequent loss of control, a waste of money the phenomenon of serious; ineffective financial control, financial management loopholes. In recent years, enterprise group's financial control has been our country's financial circles. In short, the problem of exploration in our country has obvious practical significance. Clearly, China's modern enterprise financial controls are the main problem is to solve the problem of financial control method based on the choice of financial control method is the key financial control of the modern enterprise content is content, while the financial control method of choice is the ultimate ownership of the main factors that point, This train of thought here on the modern enterprise's financial control method were analyzed.2. An overview of the modern enterprise financial controlInternal control over financial control is an important part, is a subsidiary of parent company control of an important part of its financial management system is the core of. The concept of modern enterprise financial controls in accordance with the traditional definition, financial control refers to the "Financial Officers (sector) through the financial regulations, financial systems, financial scale, financial planning goals of capital movement (or the daily financial activities, and cash flow) for guidance, organization, supervision and discipline, to ensure that the financial plan (goals) to achieve the management activities. financial control is an important part of financial management or basic functions, and financial projections, financial decision-making, financial analysis and evaluation together with a financial management system or all the functions.The modern enterprise's financial control is in the investor's ownership and corporate property rights based on the generated surrounding the Group's overall objective, using a variety of financial means, the members of the enterprise's economic activities, regulation, guidance, control and supervision, so that it Management Group's development activities are consistent with the overall goal of maintaining the group as a whole. Financial control is a power to control one side of the side control, inevitably based on one or several powers. Financial control is essentially related to the interests of enterprises in the organization, the conduct of control, namely, by controlling the financial activities of the assets, personnel actions, to coordinate the objectives of the parties to ensure that business goals. The modern enterprise financial control includes two aspects: the owner funded financial control and corporate managers financial control. From the donors point of view, the essence of the modern enterprise is characterized by investor and corporate property rights of ownership and separation. Investors will invest its capital to the enterprise after their capital combined with debt capital, constitute the enterprise's capital, the formation of corporate business assets is funded by corporate property, then lost direct control over the funders in order to achieve itsCapital maintenance and appreciation of the goal, only through control of its capital manipulation of corporate assets in order to achieve the maximum capital value donors. The control of capital controls is an important property is the prerequisite and foundation for financial control. From the perspective of internal management of enterprises and its financial control target is the legal property of its operations.3 China's modern enterprises the main problems of financial controlAt present, the modern enterprise is becoming China's enterprises to compete in the international market, the leading force. In a market economy under the conditions of modern business success or failure depends largely on the Group's financial management and financial control is a modern enterprise financial management of the link. China's modern enterprise financial controls are still in the stage to be further improved, to varying degrees, there are some urgent need to address the problem: 3.1 Financial control set decentralized model of polarization, lowefficiencyIn the financial control of the set of decentralized model, China's modern enterprise polarization. The current group of financial control either over-centralization of power, the members of the business has no legal status as a subsidiary factory or workshop, the group is seen as a big business management, leadership financial rights absolute; or excessive decentralization, a large number of decentralized financial control to a subsidiary, any of its free development.In addition, the modern enterprise financial control system suited the needs of a market economy, financial control and flexibility of principle there is no organic unity. If the subordinate enterprises, with few financial decision-making power, then the temporary financial problems occur at every level always reported to the Group's headquarters, and then from the headquarters down the implementation of the decision-making at every level, so it is easy to miss market opportunities. On the contrary, when the subsidiary of financial decision-making power is too large, they easily lead to financial decision-making blind and mistakes, not only for the Group's staff to participate in market competition, failed to exercise any decision-making role, but will also become a competitor to the market to provide a tool for competitive information, hinder the the further development of enterprises.3.2 One of the lack of financial contro lFinancial control in accordance with the owner of intention, in accordance with relevant laws and regulations, systems and standards, through certain financial activities and financial relations, and financial activities to promote all aspects of the financial requirements in accordance with a code of conduct to conduct his activities. From China's current situation, the financial control of a modern enterprise mainly focused on ex post facto control, is often the lack of critical pre-budget and to control things. Many modern enterprises, after a decision is in advance, for further financial control tended to focus on the annual profit plan, to meet on the development of a full-year sales revenue, cost, target profit, and several other overarching objectives, without further specific decision-making technology to compile for control and management, according to the month, quarterly, annual financial budget. Therefore, the interim budget and thus difficult to compare operating performance is a matter to control the empty words. As for the ex post facto control, although based on the year-end assessment of the needs and to get some attention, they can still profit in the annual plan, based on the relevant accounting information barely supported by whom, but the effects are pretty effective. Since the ex ante control may not be effective, so subordinate enterprises throughout the implementation process of decision-making are largely outside the core business of financial control, divorced from the core business of financial control.Modern enterprises themselves do not establish a parent-subsidiary link up the financial control mechanisms, financial control their own ways, the parent company of the modern enterprise can not come to the unified arrangement of a strategic investment and financing activities, the group blindly expand the scale of investment,poor investment structure, external borrowing out of control, financial structure is extremely weak, once the economic downturn or product sales are sluggish, there barriers to capital flows, the Group into trouble when they become addicted. An internal financial assessment indicators are too single, not fully examine the performance of subsidiaries. A considerable number of modern enterprise's internal assessment targets only the amount of the contract amount and profit 2.3.3 regardless of the financial and accounting functions, institutional settings are not standardizedAt present, China's financial and accounting sector enterprises are usually joined together, such a body set up under the traditional planned economic system, still capable to meet the management needs, but the requirements of modern enterprise system, its shortcomings exposed. Manifested in: (1) financial services targeted at business owners, it is the specific operation and manipulation of objects is the enterprise's internal affairs, while the accounting of clients within the enterprise and external stakeholders, would provide open accounting information must reflect the "true and fair" principle. Will be different levels of clients and flexibility in a merger of two tasks, will inevitably lead to interference with the financial flexibility of the fairness of accounting. (2) The financial sector is committed to the financial planning, financial management, the arduous task, but flexible in its mandate, procedures and time requirements more flexible, but assume that the accounting information collection, processing, reporting and other accounting work, and flexibility in work assignments weak, procedures and time requirements more stringent and norms. If the enterprises, especially in modern enterprises to financial management and accounting work are mixed together, is likely to cause more "rigid" in accounting work runs more "flexible" financial management is difficult to get rid of long-standing emphasis on accounting, financial management light situation.3.4 irregularities in the operation of a modern enterprise fundsAt present, the modern enterprise fund operation of the following problems: First, a serious fragmentation of the modern enterprise funds. Some of the modern enterprise have not yet exceeded a certain link between the contractual relationship to conduct capital, operating, and its essence is still the executive order virtual enterprise jointly form of intra-group members are still strict division of spheres of influence, difficult to achieve centralized management of funds, unification deployment of large groups is difficult to play the role of big money. Second, the stock of capital make an inventory of modern enterprise poor results. Result of the planned economy under the "re-output, light efficiency, re-extension, light content, re-enter, light output" of inertia, making the enterprise carrying amount of funds available to make an inventory of large, but the actual make an inventory of room for small, thus affecting the to the effect of the stock of capital. Third, the modern enterprise funds accumulated a lot of precipitation.3.5 Internal audit exists in name onlyAt present, enterprises in the financial monitoring of internal audit work to become a mere formality process. The first formal audit management. Hyundai organized every year in different forms of audit, has become a fixed procedure, but because the internal audit staff and the audited entity at the same level, thus in the company's financial problems can not get to the bottom, just a form of and going through the motions. This audit not only failed to exercise any oversight role, to some extent encouraged the small number of staff violations of law. Second, nothing of audit responsibilities. Internal audit is a modern enterprise group commissioned by the audit staff members of Corporate Finance to conduct inspection and supervision process, and therefore the auditors have had an important mandate and responsibilities. But in reality, become a form of audit work, audit officers, whether seriously or not, are not required to bear the responsibility, thus making the audit is inadequate supervision. Third, the audit results and falsified. Audit results should be true and can be *, but in reality the different audit bodies of the same company during the same period of the audit, results are often different, and a far cry from, these are false true performance of the audit findings.4. Selected financial control model should be considered a major factor Generally speaking, the modern enterprise selects the financial control mode, the main consideration should be given these factors: equity concentration, a subsidiary of the degree of influence of the parent company financial strategy, organizational structure, development strategy, the group scale.From the group-level point of view, the parent company of the subsidiaries of the associated control to be strict control of the company, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the control to be strict control of the relatively holding subsidiaries, therefore, the parent company of the wholly owned subsidiary of and advantages of holding subsidiaries with centralized control, the quality holding subsidiaries and any shares of a subsidiary of the separation of powers system. To maintain and enhance the core competitiveness of modern enterprises of different degree of importance of a subsidiary should be taken to a different control mode. Have a significant impact on the subsidiary, the parent company must maintain a high degree of centralized control and management right, even partially, the separation of powers must be confined within the framework of centralized; right with the Group's development strategy, core competencies, core business and for the foreseeable the future development of relations in general, a subsidiary of little impact, from improving management efficiency, play to their enthusiasm and enhance the resilience of the market competition point of view, using decentralized type of management system, a better option.From the organizational structure point of view, U-type structure is a typical centralized structure, and accordingly, its financial control model should also be authoritarian style. H-is an organic organizational structure, a more loose linkages between various departments, departments have greater flexibility in the organization structure, with decentralized financial control model is more suitable, while the M-type structure belonging to phase Rong-type organizational structure, so the use of centralized financial control model can be used either decentralized model.From the operating characteristics of point of view, the different characteristics of the modern enterprise management, financial control mode selection will be different. And integration operations in a single case, all units within the group has a great business contacts, financial control naturally require higher degree of centralization. Enterprises to adopt diversification, because each subsidiary where the industry is different from the operational linkages between the various subsidiaries is relatively small, difficult to implement a modern enterprise integrated centralized control, and therefore the financial control of all subsidiaries should be given to the appropriate authority.From the development stage point of view, the modern enterprises in the different stages of development, in order to meet the needs of business development will take a different mode of financial control. Generally speaking, companies in the early stages of the development of small, relatively simple operations, using centralized financial control mode, you can better play the same decision-making and resource integration advantages in the industry has created a scale. With the continuous expansion of company size, business areas and constantly open up, Centralized financial control mode can not meet the company's financial controls and management methods on the need for diversification, and this time, we need more subsidiaries in all aspects of and more authority, so that the financial control model of a modern enterprise gradually to decentralized development.In addition, the financial control model should be subject to the enterprise's development strategy, fully reflects the company's strategic thinking. The company's development strategy can be divided into stable angina strategy, expansion-type strategy, tight-based strategies and hybrid strategies. Enterprises at different stages of the strategic choice of a particular need for financial control in accordance with * a different pattern. Stable implementation of the strategy is usually within the company can be a high degree of centralization of some; to implement expansionary strategy, companies tend to a more flexible decentralized type control mode to suit their developing needs of the market; the implementation of tight-based company's business strategy, all major financial activities must be strictly controlled, thus emphasizing centralization; hybrid strategy for the implementation of the company, it should be operated according to the characteristics of each subsidiary to take a different control mode.References:[1] Han Wei mold. Finance and Accounting Review of regulatory hot spots [M]. Beijing: Economic Science Press, 2004[2] Lin Zhong-gao. Financial governance. Beijing: Economic Management Publishing House [M], 2005[3] Yan Li Ye. Xu Xing-US; Enterprise Group Financial Control Theory and Its Implications, economics, dynamic [J], 2006[4] Lu Jie. On the internal financial control system improvements and management of popular science (research and practice) [J], 2007[5] Chen Chao-peng. Improve the corporate financial control measures, business accounting [J], 2007[6] Huang Xi. On the Enterprise Group Financial Control [J]. Chinese and foreign entrepreneurs, 2006, (06)[7] Jiang-feng tai. Enterprise Group Financial Control Studies [J]. Marketing Week. Theoretical study, 2006, (08)现代企业财务管理的探讨瑞安戴维森，珍妮古德温-斯图尔特，帕梅拉肯特本文探讨现代企业正在成为中国经济发展过程中的一个重要的新力量。
财务管理类本科毕业论文外文翻译(原文+译文)
财务管理类本科毕业论文外文翻译〔原文+译文〕财务管理类本科毕业论文外文翻译译文：[美]卡伦·A·霍契.《什么是财务风险管理？》.《财务风险管理要点》. 约翰.威立国际出版公司,2022:P1-22.财务风险管理尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。
全球市场越来越多的问题是，风险可能来自几千英里以外的与这些事件无关的国外市场。
意味着需要的信息可以在瞬间得到，而其后的市场反响，很快就发生了。
经济气候和市场可能会快速影响外汇汇率变化、利率及大宗商品价格，交易对手会迅速成为一个问题。
因此，重要的一点是要确保金融风险是可以被识别并且管理得当的。
准备是风险管理工作的一个关键组成局部。
什么是风险？风险给时机提供了根底。
风险和暴露的条款让它们在含义上有了细微的差异。
风险是指有损失的可能性，而暴露是可能的损失，尽管他们通常可以互换。
风险起因是由于暴露。
金融市场的暴露影响大多数机构，包括直接或间接的影响。
当一个组织的金融市场暴露，有损失的可能性，但也是一个获利或利润的时机。
金融市场的暴露可以提供战略性或竞争性的利益。
风险损失的可能性事件来自如市场价格的变化。
事件发生的可能性很小，但这可能导致损失率很高，特别麻烦，因为他们往往比预想的要严重得多。
换句话说，可能就是变异的风险回报。
由于它并不总是可能的，或者能满意地把风险消除，在决定如何管理它中了解它是很重要的一步。
识别暴露和风险形式的根底需要相应的财务风险管理策略。
财务风险是如何产生的呢？无数金融性质的交易包括销售和采购，投资和贷款，以及其他各种业务活动，产生了财务风险。
它可以出现在合法的交易中，新工程中，兼并和收购中，债务融资中，能源局部的本钱中，或通过管理的活动，利益相关者，竞争者，外国政府，或天气出现。
当金融的价格变化很大，它可以增加本钱，降低财政收入，或影响其他有不利影响的盈利能力的组织。
金融波动可能使人们难以规划和预算商品和效劳的价格，并分配资金。
[参考实用]财务管理外文文献及翻译
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FinancialManagementandAnalysisisanintroductiontotheconcepts,tools,andap plicationsoffinance.ThepurposeofthisteGtbookistocommunicatethefundamentals offinancialmanagementandfinancialanalysis.ThisteGtbookiswritteninawaythatwille nablestudentswhoarejustbeginningtheirstudyoffinancetounderstandfinancialdeci sion-makinganditsroleinthedecision-makingprocessoftheentirefirm.ThroughouttheteGtbook,you’ll seehowweviewfinance.Weseefinancialdecisio n-makingasanintegralpartofthe firm’s decision-making,notasaseparatefunction.Fi nancialdecision-makinginvolvescoordinationamongpersonnelspecializinginaccou nting,marketing,andproductionaspectsofthefirm.Theprinciplesandtoolsoffinanceareapplicabletoallformsandsizesofbusinessent erprises,notonlytolargecorporations.Justastherearespecialproblemsandopportuni tiesforsmallfamily-ownedbusinesses(suchaswheretoobtainfinancing),therearespec ialproblemsandopportunitiesforlargecorporations(suchasagencyproblemsthataris ewhenmanagementofthefirmisseparatedfromthe firm’s owners).Butthefundamen talsoffinancialmanagementarethesameregardlessofthesizeorformofthebusiness.F oreGample,adollartodayisworthmorethanadollaroneyearfromtoday,whetheryouar emakingdecisionsforasoleproprietorshiporalargecorporation.Weviewtheprinciplesandtoolsoffinanceasapplicabletofirmsaroundtheglobe,notjusttoU.S.businessenterprises.Whilecustomsandlawsmaydifferamongnations,th eprinciples,theories,andtoolsoffinancialmanagementdonot.ForeGample,inevaluati ngwhethertobuyaparticularpieceofequipment,youmustevaluatewhathappenstoth e firm’s futurecashflows(Howmuchwilltheybe?Whenwilltheyoccur?Howuncertaina rethey?),whetherthefirmislocatedintheUnitedStates,GreatBritain,orelsewhere.Inaddition,webelievethatastrongfoundationinfinanceprinciplesandtherelated mathematicaltoolsarenecessaryforyoutounderstandhowinvestingandfinancingdec isionsaremade.Butbuildingthatfoundationneednotbestrenuous.Onewaythatwetryt ohelpyoubuildthatfoundationistopresenttheprinciplesandtheoriesoffinanceusingi ntuition,insteadofwithproofsandtheorems.ForeGample,wewalkyouthroughtheintu itionofcapitalstructuretheorywithnumericalandrealworldeGamples,notequationsa ndproofs.Anotherwetrytoassistyouistoapproachthetoolsoffinanceusingcareful,ste p-by-stepeGamplesandnumerousgraphs.ORGANIZATIONFinancialManagementandAnalysisispresentedinsevenparts.Thefirsttwoparts(P artsOneandTwo)coverthebasics,includingtheobjectiveoffinancialmanagement,val uationprinciples,andtherelationbetweenriskandreturn.Financialdecision-makingis coveredinPartsThree,Four,andFivewherewepresentlong-terminvestmentmanagem ent(commonlyreferredtoascapitalbudgeting),themanagementoflong-termsources offunds,andworkingcapitalmanagement.PartSiGcoversfinancialstatementanalysis whichincludesfinancialratioanalysis,earningsanalysis,andcashflowanalysis.Thelastp art(PartSeven)coversseveralspecializedtopics:internationalfinancialmanagement,b orrowingviastructuredfinancialtransactions(i.e.,assetsecuritization),projectfinancing,equipmentleasing,andfinancialplanningandstrategy. DISTINGUISHINGFEATURESOFTHETEGTBOOKLogicalstructure.TheteGtbeginswiththebasicprinciplesandtools,followedbylon g-terminvestmentandfinancingdecisions.Thefirsttwopartslayoutthebasics;PartThr eethenfocusesonthe“leftside”ofthebalancesheet(theassets)andthePartFouristhe “rightside”ofthebalancesheet(theliabilitiesandequity).Workingcapitaldecisions, whicharemadetosupporttheday-to-dayoperationsofthefirm,arediscussedinPartFiv e.PartSiGprovidesthetoolsforanalyzinga firm’s financialstatements.Inthelastchapt erofthebook,youarebroughtbackfull-circletotheobjectiveoffinancialmanagement:t hemaGimizationof owners’wealth.Graphicalillustrations.Graphsandillustrationshavebeencarefullyanddeliberatel ydevelopedtodepictandprovidevisualreinforcementofmathematicalconcepts.Fore Gample,weshowthegrowthofabankbalancethroughcompoundinterestseveralways :mathematically,inatime-line,andwithabargraph.Applications.Asmuchaspossible,wedevelopconceptsandmathematicsusingeG amplesofactualpractice.ForeGample,wefirstpresentfinancialanalysisusingasimplifi edsetoffinancialstatementsforafictitiouscompany.After you’ve learnedthebasicsus ingthefictitiouscompany,wedemonstratefinancialanalysistoolsusingdatafromWal-MartStores,Inc.ActualeGampleshelpyoubettergraspandretainmajorconceptsandto ols.Weintegrateover100actualcompanyeGamplesthroughouttheteGt,so you’re no tapttomissthem.ConsideringboththeeGamplesthroughouttheteGtandtheresearch questionsandproblems,youareeGposedtohundredsofactualcompanies.EGtensivecoverageoffinancialstatementanalysis.WhilemostteGtbooksprovidesomecoverageoffinancialstatementanalysis,wehaveprovidedyouwithmuchmorede tailinPartSiGoftheteGtbook.Chapter6andthethreechaptersinPartSiGallowaninstruc tortofocusonfinancialstatementanalysis.EGtensivecoverageofalternativedebtinstruments.Becauseoftheinnovationsint hedebtmarket,alternativeformsdebtinstrumentscanbeissuedbyacorporation.InCha pter15,youareintroducedtotheseinstruments.Wethendevoteonechaptertothemost popularalternativetocorporatebondissuance,thecreationandissuanceofasset-back edsecurities.Coverageofleasingandprojectfinancing.Weprovidein-depthcoverageofleasing inChapter27,demystifyingtheclaimsabouttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofleasi ngyoutoooftenreadaboutinsometeGtbooksandprofessionalarticles.Projectfinanci nghasgrowninimportancefornotonlycorporationsbutforcountriesseekingtodevelo pinfrastructurefacilities.Chapter28providesthebasicprinciplesforunderstandingpro jectfinancing.Earlyintroductiontoderivativeinstruments.Derivativeinstruments(futures,swap s,andoptions)playanimportantroleinfinance.Youareintroducedtotheseinstrumentsi nChapter4.WhilederivativeinstrumentsareviewedascompleGinstruments,youarepr ovidedwithanintroductionthatmakescleartheirbasicinvestmentcharacteristics.Byth eearlyintroductionofderivativeinstruments,youwillbeabletoappreciatethedifficulti esofevaluatingsecuritiesthathaveembeddedoptions(Chapter9),howtherearerealop tionsembeddedincapitalbudgetingdecisions(Chapter14),andhowderivativeinstru mentscanbeusedtoreduceortohedgethecostofborrowing(Chapter15).Stand-alonenatureofthechapters.Eachchapteriswrittensothatchaptersmayeasi lyberearrangedtofitdifferentcoursestructures.Concepts,terminology,andnotationarepresentedineachchaptersothatnochapterisdependentuponanother.Thismeansth atinstructorscantailortheuseofthisbooktofittheirparticulartimeframeforthecoursea ndtheir students’preparation(foreGample,ifstudentsenterthecoursewithsufficient backgroundinaccountingandtaGation,Chapters5and6canbeskipped).Webelieveth atourapproachtothesubjectmatteroffinancialmanagementandanalysiswillhelpyou understandthekeyissuesandprovidethefoundationfordevelopingaskillsetnecessary todealwithrealworldfinancialproblems.1IntroductiontoFinancialManagementandAnalysisFinanceistheapplicationofeconomicprinciplesandconceptstobusinessdecision -makingandproblemsolving.Thefieldoffinancecanbeconsideredtocomprisethreebr oadcategories:financialmanagement,investments,andfinancialinstitutions:■Financialmanagement.Sometimescalledcorporatefinanceorbusinessfinance,thisa reaoffinanceisconcernedprimarilywithfinancialdecision-makingwithinabusinessen tity.Financialmanagementdecisionsincludemaintainingcashbalances,eGtendingcre dit,acquiringotherfirms,borrowingfrombanks,andissuingstocksandbonds.■Investments.Thisareaoffinancefocusesonthebehavioroffinancialmarketsandthepr icingofsecurities.Aninvestment manager’s tasks,foreGample,mayincludevaluingco mmonstocks,selectingsecuritiesforapensionfund,ormeasuringa portfolio’s perfor mance.■Financialinstitutions.Thisareaoffinancedealswithbanksandotherfirmsthatspecializ einbringingthesuppliersoffundstogetherwiththeusersoffunds.ForeGample,amana gerofabankmaymakedecisionsregardinggrantingloans,managingcashbalances,set tinginterestratesonloans,anddealingwithgovernmentregulations.Nomattertheparticularcategoryoffinance,businesssituationsthatcallfortheappl icationofthetheoriesandtoolsoffinancegenerallyinvolveeitherinvesting(usingfunds )orfinancing(raisingfunds).Managerswhoworkinanyofthesethreeareasrelyonthesamebasicknowledgeoffi nance.Inthisbook,weintroduceyoutothiscommonbodyofknowledgeandshowhowit isusedinfinancialdecision-making.Thoughtheemphasisofthisbookisfinancialmana gement,thebasicprinciplesandtoolsalsoapplytotheareasofinvestmentsandfinancial institutions.Inthisintroductorychapter,we’ll considerthetypesofdecisionsfinancial managersmake,theroleoffinancialanalysis,theformsofbusinessownership,andtheo bjectiveof managers’decisions.Finally,wewilldescribetherelationshipbetweenown ersandmanagers.FINANCIALMANAGEMENTFinancialmanagementencompassesmanydifferenttypesofdecisions.Wecanclas sifythesedecisionsintothreegroups:investmentdecisions,financingdecisions,andde cisionsthatinvolvebothinvestingandfinancing.Investmentdecisionsareconcernedwi ththeuseoffunds—thebuying,holding,orsellingofalltypesofassets:Shouldwebuyan ewdiestampingmachine?Shouldweintroduceanewproductline?Selltheoldproducti onfacility?BuyaneGistingcompany?Buildawarehouse?Keepourcashinthebank?Financingdecisionsareconcernedwiththeacquisitionoffundstobeusedforinvesti ngandfinancingday-to-dayoperations.Shouldmanagersusethemoneyraisedthroug hthe firms’revenues?Shouldtheyseekmoneyfromoutsideofthebusiness?Acompan y’s operationsandinvestmentcanbefinancedfromoutsidethebusinessbyincurringd ebts,suchasthoughbankloansandthesaleofbonds,orbysellingownershipinterests.Becauseeachmethodoffinancingobligatesthebusinessindifferentways,financingdeci sionsareveryimportant.Manybusinessdecisionssimultaneouslyinvolvebothinvestingandfinancing.Fore Gample,acompanymaywishtoacquireanotherfirm—aninvestmentdecision.Howeve r,thesuccessoftheacquisitionmaydependonhowitisfinanced:byborrowingcashtom eetthepurchaseprice,bysellingadditionalsharesofstock,orbyeGchangingeGistingsh aresofstock.Ifmanagersdecidetoborrowmoney,theborrowedfundsmustberepaidwi thinaspecifiedperiodoftime.Creditors(thoselendingthemoney)generallydonotshar einthecontrolofprofitsoftheborrowingfirm.If,ontheotherhand,managersdecidetora isefundsbysellingownershipinterests,thesefundsneverhavetobepaidback.However, suchasaledilutesthecontrolof(andprofitsaccruingto)thecurrentowners.Whetherafinancialdecisioninvolvesinvesting,financing,orboth,italsowillbeconc ernedwithtwospecificfactors:eGpectedreturnandrisk.Andthroughoutyourstudyoffi nance,youwillbeconcernedwiththesefactors.EGpectedreturnisthedifferencebetwee npotentialbenefitsandpotentialcosts.Riskisthedegreeofuncertaintyassociatedwitht heseeGpectedreturns.FinancialAnalysisFinancialanalysisisatooloffinancialmanagement.Itconsistsoftheevaluationofth efinancialconditionandoperatingperformanceofabusinessfirm,anindustry,orevent heeconomy,andtheforecastingofitsfutureconditionandperformance.Itis,inotherwo rds,ameansforeGaminingriskandeGpectedreturn.Dataforfinancialanalysismaycom efromotherareaswithinthefirm,suchasmarketingandproductiondepartments,fromt he firm’s ownaccountingdata,orfromfinancialinformationvendorssuchasBloombergFinancialMarkets,Moody’s InvestorsService,Standard&Poor’s Corporation,Fitc hRatings,andValueLine,aswellasfromgovernmentpublications,suchastheFederalRe serveBulletin.FinancialpublicationssuchasBusinessWeek,Forbes,Fortune,andtheWa llStreetJournalalsopublishfinancialdata(concerningindividualfirms)andeconomicd ata(concerningindustries,markets,andeconomies),muchofwhichisnowalsoavailabl eontheInternet.Withinthefirm,financialanalysismaybeusednotonlytoevaluatetheperformance ofthefirm,butalsoitsdivisionsordepartmentsanditsproductlines.Analysesmaybeper formedbothperiodicallyandasneeded,notonlytoensureinformedinvestingandfinan cingdecisions,butalsoasanaidinimplementingpersonnelpoliciesandrewardssystem s.Outsidethefirm,financialanalysismaybeusedtodeterminethecreditworthinesso fanewcustomer,toevaluatetheabilityofasuppliertoholdtotheconditionsofalong-ter mcontract,andtoevaluatethemarketperformanceofcompetitors.FirmsandinvestorsthatdonothavetheeGpertise,thetime,ortheresourcestoperfo rmfinancialanalysisontheirownmaypurchaseanalysesfromcompaniesthatspecialize inprovidingthisservice.Suchcompaniescanprovidereportsrangingfromdetailedwrit tenanalysestosimplecreditworthinessratingsforbusinesses.AsaneGample,Dun&Bra dstreet,afinancialservicesfirm,evaluatesthecreditworthinessofmanyfirms,fromsmal llocalbusinessestomajorcorporations.AsanothereGample,threecompanies—Mood y’s InvestorsService,Standard&Poor’s,andFitch—evaluatethecreditqualityofdeb tobligationsissuedbycorporationsandeGpresstheseviewsintheformofaratingthatis publishedinthereportsavailablefromthesethreeorganizations.FORMSOFBUSINESSENTERPRISEFinancialmanagementisnotrestrictedtolargecorporations:Itisnecessaryinallfor msandsizesofbusinesses.Thethreemajorformsofbusinessorganizationarethesolepr oprietorship,thepartnership,andthecorporation.Thesethreeformsdifferinanumber offactors,ofwhichthosemostimportanttofinancialdecision-makingare:■ThewaythefirmistaGed.■ThedegreeofcontrolownersmayeGertondecisions.■Theliabilityoftheowners.■Theeaseoftransferringownershipinterests.■Theabilitytoraiseadditionalfunds.■Thelongevityofthebusiness.SoleProprietorshipsThesimplestandmostcommonformofbusinessenterpriseisthesoleproprietorshi p,abusinessownedandcontrolledbyoneperson—theproprietor.Becausetherearever yfewlegalrequirementstoestablishandrunasoleproprietorship,thisformofbusinessis chosenbymanyindividualswhoarestartingupaparticularbusinessenterprise.Thesole proprietorcarriesonabusinessforhisorherownbenefit,withoutparticipationofotherp ersonseGceptemployees.Theproprietorreceivesallincomefromthebusinessandalon edecideswhethertoreinvesttheprofitsinthebusinessorusethemforpersonaleGpense s.Aproprietorisliableforallthedebtsofthebusiness;infact,itistheproprietorwhoinc ursthedebtsofthebusiness.Ifthereareinsufficientbusinessassetstopayabusinessdebt,theproprietormustpaythedebtoutofhisorherpersonalassets.Ifmorefundsareneed edtooperateoreGpandthebusinessthanaregeneratedbybusinessoperations,theow nereithercontributeshisorherpersonalassetstothebusinessorborrows.Formostsole proprietorships,banksaretheprimarysourceofborrowedfunds.However,therearelim itstohowmuchbankswilllendasoleproprietorship,mostofwhicharerelativelysmall.FortaGpurposes,thesoleproprietorreportsincomefromthebusinessonhisorher personalincometaGreturn.Businessincomeistreatedasthe proprietor’s personalinc ome.Theassetsofasoleproprietorshipmayalsobesoldtosomeotherfirm,atwhichtimet hesoleproprietorshipceasestoeGist.Orthelifeofasoleproprietorshipendswiththelife oftheproprietor,althoughtheassetsofthebusinessmaypasstothe proprietor’s heirs.PartnershipsApartnershipisanagreementbetweentwoormorepersonstooperateabusiness.A partnershipissimilartoasoleproprietorshipeGceptinsteadofoneproprietor,thereism orethanone.Thefactthatthereismorethanoneproprietorintroducessomeissues:Who hasasayintheday-to-dayoperationsofthebusiness?Whoisliable(thatis,financiallyres ponsible)forthedebtsofthebusiness?Howistheincomedistributedamongtheowners ?HowistheincometaGed?Someoftheseissuesareresolvedwiththepartnershipagree ment;othersareresolvedbylaws.Thepartnershipagreementdescribeshowprofitsandl ossesaretobesharedamongthepartners,anditdetailstheirresponsibilitiesinthemana gementofthebusiness.Mostpartnershipsaregeneralpartnerships,consistingonlyofgeneralpartnerswh oparticipatefullyinthemanagementofthebusiness,shareinitsprofitsandlosses,andar。
财务管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译
财务管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译核准通过，归档资料。
未经允许，请勿外传～LNTU Acc公司治理与高管薪酬:一个应急框架总体概述通过整合组织和体制的理论，本文开发了一个高管薪酬的应急办法和它在不同的组织和体制环境下的影响。
高管薪酬的研究大都集中在委托代理框架上，并承担一种行政奖励和业绩成果之间的关系。
我们提出了一个框架，审查了其组织的背景和潜在的互补性方面的行政补偿和不同的公司治理在不同的企业和国家水平上体现的替代效应。
我们还讨论了执行不同补偿政策方法的影响，像“软法律”和“硬法律”。
在过去的20年里，世界上越来越多的公司从一个固定的薪酬结构转变为与业绩相联系的薪酬结构，包括很大一部分的股权激励。
因此，高管补偿的经济影响的研究已经成为公司治理内部激烈争论的一个话题。
正如Bruce，Buck，和Main指出，“近年来，关于高管报酬的文献的增长速度可以与高管报酬增长本身相匹敌。
”关于高管补偿的大多数实证文献主要集中在对美国和英国的公司部门，当分析高管薪酬的不同组成部分产生的组织结果的时候。
根据理论基础，早期的研究曾试图了解在代理理论方面的高管补偿和在不同形式的激励和公司业绩方面的探索链接。
这个文献假设，股东和经理人之间的委托代理关系被激发，公司将更有效率的运作，表现得更好。
公司治理的研究大多是基于通用模型——委托代理理论的概述，以及这一框架的核心前提是，股东和管理人员有不同的方法来了解公司的具体信息和广泛的利益分歧以及风险偏好。
因此，经理作为股东的代理人可以从事对自己有利的行为而损害股东财富的最大化。
大量的文献是基于这种直接的前提和建议来约束经理的机会主义行为，股东可以使用不同的公司治理机制，包括各种以股票为基础的奖励可以统一委托人和代理人的利益。
正如Jensen 和Murphy观察，“代理理论预测补偿政策将会以满足代理人的期望效用为主要目标。
股东的目标是使财富最大化;因此代理成本理论指出，总裁的薪酬政策将取决于股东财富的变化。
会计专业财务会计中英文对照外文翻译文献
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照外文翻译附件：外文翻译译文战略财务会计在中小企业摘要：随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步,中国的企业在一个充满机会和危险的阶段。
介绍了安全会计的含义和意义战略财务会计中存在的问题,阐述了财务策略进行小中型企业一起,最后提出了一些对策和原因。
关键词：中小企业的战略财务会计、问题、对策一个企业的不确定性的金融环境其财务活动充满风险。
除了机会,有许多的危险从时间,以时间,其财务会计。
因此,它已经成为了成功的关键一个企业的财务会计是否能跟踪的趋势变化什么是有用的吸收。
应当拒绝接受什么是有害的。
战略会计思想是非常重要的在企业的财务会计,因为我们必须努力去分析和把握一般环境和发展一个企业的发展趋势,从而提高适应能力、可变性和适用性的金融中心会计不确定环境。
目前,中小企业在100年通过了工商登记、以企业总数的90%。
因此,其战略财务会计是特别重要的,这也是本论文的主题。
1 简介战略性的财务会计是财务会计理论,根据该融资应该的在最适当的方式进行,采集到的资本必须利用和会计的最有效的方式虽然企业和决策和利润分配应该最合理。
根据其内涵,总结三个主要内容的战略财务会计,包括融资策略,投资战略和利润分配决策策略。
详情如下:融资策略高度发达的现代企业具有的销售急剧增长。
当面对这样一种局势,企业倾向于有很大的要求从股票和应收账款是资本的提升。
更大的为销售增长的张力,但更大的资本要求。
因此,在融资策略都具有十分重要的意义战略会计财务。
融资策略的功能在于明确的指导方针融资、铺设融资目标下,建立整体规模、融资渠道和方法,安排战略资本结构优化方案,从各方面对此作了相应的对策,以达到融资目标,最后预测和收集的大量资金的企业的需要。
投资策略为核心的战略财务会计,这种策略决定一个企业只能分配它的首都资源合理而有效的方法。
投资策略包括确认投资固定资产的方向、公司规模和资本规模、投资选择相关的外部扩张或内部扩张,改革旧的产品或开发新的、独立或联合操作,自有资金投资决定或贷款之间的百分比固定资产、流动资产、投资策略和风险和那些在通货膨胀。
财务管理或会计专业论文外文文献
原文：Introduction to Financial ManagementSourse:Ryan Allis.Zero to one million.February 2008Business financial management in the small firm is characterized, in many different cases, by the need to confront a somewhat different set of problems and opportunities than those confronted by a large corporation. One immediate and obvious difference is that a majority of smaller firms do not normally have the opportunity to publicly sell issues of stocks or bonds in order to raise funds. The owner-manager of a smaller firm must rely primarily on trade credit, bank financing, lease financing, and personal equity to finance the business. One, therefore faces a much more severely restricted set of financing alternatives than those faced by the financial vice president or treasurer of a large corporation.On the other hand, when small business financial management is concern, many financial problems facing the small firm are very similar to those of larger corporations. For example, the analysis required for a long-term investment decision such as the purchase of heavy machinery or the evaluation of lease-buy alternatives, is essentially the same regardless of the size of the firm. Once the decision is made, the financing alternatives available to the firm may be radically different, but the decision process will be generally similar.One area of particular concern for the smaller business owner lies in the effective management of working capital. Net working capital is defined as the difference between current assets and current liabilities and is often thought of as the "circulating capital" of the business. Lack of control in this crucial area is a primary cause of business failure in both small and large firms.The business manager must continually be alert to changes in working capital accounts, the cause of these changes and the implications of these changes for the financial health of the company. One convenient and effective method to highlight the key managerial requirements in this area is to view working capital in terms of its major components:(1) Cash and EquivalentsThis most liquid form of current assets, cash and cash equivalents (usually marketable securities or short-term certificate of deposit) requires constant supervision. A well planned and maintained cash budgeting system is essential to answer key questions such as: Is the cash level adequate to meet current expenses as they come due? What are the timing relationships between cash inflows and outflows? When will peak cash needs occur? What will be the magnitude of bank borrowing required to meet any cash shortfalls? When will this borrowing be necessary and when may repayment be expected?(2) Accounts ReceivableAlmost all businesses are required to extend credit to their customers. Key issues in this area include: Is the amount of accounts receivable reasonable in relation to sales? On the average, how rapidly are accounts receivable being collected? Which customers are "slow payers?" What action should be taken to speed collections where needed?(3) InventoriesInventories often make up 50 percent or more of a firm's current assets and therefore, are deserving of close scrutiny. Key questions which must be considered in this area include: Is the level of inventory reasonable in relation to sales and the operating characteristics of the business?How rapidly is inventory turned over in relation to other companies in the same industry? Is any capital invested in dead or slow moving stock? Are sales being lost due to inadequate inventory levels? If appropriate, what action should be taken to increase or decrease inventory?(4) Accounts Payable and Trade Notes PayableIn a business, trade credit often provides a major source of financing for the firm. Key issues to investigate in this category include: Is the amount of money owed to suppliers reasonable in relation to purchases? Is the firm's payment policy such that it will enhance or detract from the firm's credit rating? If available, are discounts being taken? What are the timing relationships between payments on accounts payable and collection on accounts receivable?(5) Notes PayableNotes payable to banks or other lenders are a second major source of financing for the business. Important questions in this class include: What is the amount of bank borrowing employed? Is this debt amount reasonable in relation to the equity financing of the firm? When will principal and interest payments fall due? Will funds be available to meet these payments on time?(6) Accrued Expenses and Taxes PayableAccrued expenses and taxes payable represent obligations of the firm as of the date of balance sheet preparation. Accrued expenses represent such items as salaries payable, interest payable on bank notes, insurance premiums payable, and similar items. Of primary concern in this area, particularly with regard to taxes payable, is the magnitude, timing, and availability of funds for payment. Careful planning is required to insure that these obligations are met on time.When small business financial management is concern, many financial problems facing the small firm are very similar to those of larger corporations. For example, the analysis required for a long-term investment decision such as the purchase of heavy machinery or the evaluation of lease-buy alternatives, is essentially the same regardless of the size of the firm. Once the decision is made, the financing alternatives available to the firm may be radically different. Manager must continually be alert to changes in working capital accounts, the cause of these changes and the implications of these changes for the financial health of the company.As a final note, it is important to recognize that although the working capital accounts above are listed separately, they must also be viewed in total and from the point of view of their relationship to one another: What is the overall trend in net working capital? Is this a healthy trend? Which individual accounts are responsible for the trend? How does the firm's working capital position relate to similar sized firms in the industry? What can be done to correct the trend, if necessary?Of course, the questions posed are much easier to ask than to answer and there are few "general" answers to the issues raised. The guides which follow provide suggestions, techniques, and guidelines for successful management which, when tempered with the experience of the individual owner-manager and the unique requirements of the particular industry, may be expected to enhance one's ability to manage effectively the financial resources of a business enterprise.企业财务管理在中小企业的特点是，在许多不同的情况下，需要面对有所不同的一系列问题和机会比那些面临一个大公司。
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第一部位外文文献中文对照部分（中英文共5768字）财务管理类本科毕业论文外文翻译译文：[美]卡伦·A·霍契.《什么是财务风险管理？》.《财务风险管理要点》.约翰.威立国际出版公司,2005:P1-22.财务风险管理尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。
全球市场越来越多的问题是，风险可能来自几千英里以外的与这些事件无关的国外市场。
意味着需要的信息可以在瞬间得到，而其后的市场反应，很快就发生了。
经济气候和市场可能会快速影响外汇汇率变化、利率及大宗商品价格，交易对手会迅速成为一个问题。
因此，重要的一点是要确保金融风险是可以被识别并且管理得当的。
准备是风险管理工作的一个关键组成部分。
什么是风险？风险给机会提供了基础。
风险和暴露的条款让它们在含义上有了细微的差别。
风险是指有损失的可能性，而暴露是可能的损失，尽管他们通常可以互换。
风险起因是由于暴露。
金融市场的暴露影响大多数机构，包括直接或间接的影响。
当一个组织的金融市场暴露，有损失的可能性，但也是一个获利或利润的机会。
金融市场的暴露可以提供战略性或竞争性的利益。
风险损失的可能性事件来自如市场价格的变化。
事件发生的可能性很小，但这可能导致损失率很高，特别麻烦，因为他们往往比预想的要严重得多。
换句话说，可能就是变异的风险回报。
由于它并不总是可能的，或者能满意地把风险消除，在决定如何管理它中了解它是很重要的一步。
识别暴露和风险形式的基础需要相应的财务风险管理策略。
财务风险是如何产生的呢？无数金融性质的交易包括销售和采购，投资和贷款，以及其他各种业务活动，产生了财务风险。
它可以出现在合法的交易中，新项目中，兼并和收购中，债务融资中，能源部分的成本中，或通过管理的活动，利益相关者，竞争者，外国政府，或天气出现。
当金融的价格变化很大，它可以增加成本，降低财政收入，或影响其他有不利影响的盈利能力的组织。
金融波动可能使人们难以规划和预算商品和服务的价格，并分配资金。
有三种金融风险的主要来源：1、金融风险起因于组织所暴露出来的市场价格的变化，如利率、汇率、和大宗商品价格。
2、引起金融风险的行为有与其他组织的交易如供应商、客户，和对方在金融衍生产品中的交易。
3、由于内部行动或失败的组织，特别是人、过程和系统所造成的金融风险。
什么是财务风险管理？财务风险管理是用来处理金融市场中不确定的事情的。
它涉及到一个组织所面临的评估和组织的发展战略、内部管理的优先事项和当政策一致时的财务风险。
企业积极应对金融风险可以使企业成为一个具有竞争优势的组织。
它还确保管理，业务人员，利益相关者，董事会董事在对风险的关键问题达成协议。
金融风险管理组织就必须作出那些不被接受的有关风险的决定。
那些被动不采取行动的战略是在默认情况下接受所有的风险。
组织使用各种策略和产品来管理金融风险。
重要的是要了解这些产品和战略方面，通过工作来减少该组织内的风险承受能力和目标范围内的风险。
风险管理的策略往往涉及衍生工具。
在金融机构和有组织的交易所，衍生物广泛地进行交易。
衍生工具的合约的价值，如期货，远期，期权和掉期，是源自相关资产的价格。
衍生物利用利率，汇率，商品，股票和固定收入的证券，信贷，甚至是天气进行交易。
这些产品和市场参与者使用策略来管理金融风险，与由投机者用来提高风险的杠杆作用是相同。
虽然可以认为，衍生工具的广泛使用增加了风险，衍生品的存在使那些希望通过把它传递给那些寻求风险及相关机会的人降低了风险。
估计财务损失的可能性是非常令人满意的。
然而，概率标准的理论往往在金融市场的分析中不适用。
风险通常不会孤立存在的，通常会和几个风险的相互作用，必须认真考虑在发展中国家的金融风险是如何产生的。
有时，这些相互作用是很难预测的，因为它们最终取决于人的行为。
金融风险管理是一个持续不断的过程。
随着市场需求的变化和完善，战略必须得到执行。
有关的修改反映不断变化的市场利率，变化的预期营商环境，或例如不断变化的国际政治条件。
一般来说，这个过程可以概括如下：1、识别并优先考虑关键的财务风险。
2、确定适当的风险容忍程度。
3、按照政策实施风险管理战略。
4、按需要衡量，报告，监控和改进。
多样化多年来，公司资产的风险评价的可变性仅仅基于其回报。
与此形成对比的是,现代投资组合理论不仅考虑了一项资产的风险，而且是经济体总体风险的组合。
由于风险多样化，组织可以有机会来降低风险。
在投资组合管理方面，在一定限度内给个别部件组合提供了多样化的机会。
一个多元化的资产组合中包含的回报是不同的，换句话说，彼此之间的关系是弱或负面的。
考虑到一个投资组合的风险是非常有用的，并且应考虑改变或增加的潜在风险的总数。
多样化是一个管理金融风险的重要工具。
通过预设的组织，对手之间的多样化可以减少突发事件对组织所造成的不利影响而引起的风险。
其中投资资产多元化减少了发行人失败的损失程度。
多样化的客户、供应商和金融来源减少了一个组织的贸易被外面变化控制的负面影响的可能性。
虽然损失的风险仍然存在，多样化的机会可以减少大的不良结果。
风险管理过程金融风险管理过程中的战略使一个组织去管理与金融相关的风险市场。
风险管理是一个动态过程，应逐步发展成一个组织和它的生意。
它涉及和影响了许多方面，包括国债，销售，营销，法律，税务，商品组织和企业融资。
风险管理过程包括内部和外部分析。
该进程的第一部分包括确定和排列金融机构面临的风险和了解其相关性。
有必要审查该组织及其产品，管理，客户，供应商，竞争对手，价格，行业的发展趋势，资产负债结构，并在行业中的地位。
也有必要考虑利益相关者和他们的目标和风险承受能力。
一旦清楚地了解这些风险的出现，就可实施适当的策略会同风险管理政策。
例如，有可能改变的地方，从而减少该组织的暴露和风险。
另外，可能对现有的衍生工具进行风险管理。
另一种经营战略风险是接受所有的风险和损失的可能性。
有三个广泛的风险管理办法：1、什么都不做，在默认情况下，积极或被动地接受一切风险。
2、对冲一部分，通过确定那些可以而且应该进行对冲的风险。
3、所有可能的风险对冲。
风险的计量和报告提供给决策者与信息执行者决定和监测的结果，在它的前面和后面都采取策略来减轻。
由于风险管理进程仍在进行，报告和反馈可以用来精化系统的修改或改进策略体系。
活跃的决策过程是风险管理的重要组成部分。
讨论潜在的损失和为降低风险的决策提供了一个讨论重要问题与各种关于利益相关者的观点的场所。
财务比率的影响因素和价格财务比率及价格受多项因素的影响。
关键是要了解影响市场的因素，因为这些因素，反过来影响到一个组织的潜在风险。
影响利率的因素利率是许多市场价格的主要组成部分和重要的经济晴雨表。
它们是由真实利率加上通货膨胀的预期成分组成的，因为通货膨胀降低了贷款人的资产购买力。
离到期日越近，它的不确定性就越大。
利率也是资金的供给和需求和信贷风险的反射。
利率对企业和政府来说是非常重要的，因为他们是资金成本的关键因素。
大多数公司和政府债务融资需要扩展和基建项目。
当利率增加，对借款人有显著的影响。
利率也影响到其他金融市场的价格，所以他们的影响是深远的。
对利率的其他组件可能包括一个风险溢价，以反映借款人的信用。
例如，政治或主权风险的威胁可能导致利率上升，有时很大，因为随着投资者需求的增加，额外的补偿违约风险也会增加。
影响市场利率水平的因素包括：1、通货膨胀的预期水平2、总体经济状况3、货币政策和央行的立场4、外汇市场活动5、外国投资者对债务证券化的需求6、外债突出的水平7、金融和政治稳定收益率曲线收益率曲线产量是一种图形法，表示的是一系列条件成熟。
例如，一个收益率曲线可能说明产量在(一天一夜之间成熟)30年里的关系。
通常情况下，利率是零息政府率。
由于目前的利率反映的是预期的，收益曲线提供了有关未来市场预期的利率的有用信息。
前向启动利率的默示条款可以计算收益曲线的信息。
例如，使用一两个年到期利率，预计的一年期利率在一年的时间开始时才能确定。
对收益曲线的形状进行了分析和对广泛的市场参与者进行监测。
由于人们对它的期望，它通常被认为是未来经济活动的预测和可能提供的经济基本面有待改变的信号。
一般产量的收益率曲线向上倾斜是具有正斜率，就像贷方或投资者要求更高的利率因为贷款期限和借款人的持续的时间更长了。
由于期限至到期日，借款人违约的机会增加，贷款人要求相应的补偿。
利率构成的收益率曲线也受预期的通货膨胀率影响。
除了借款人的贷款和风险的部分，投资者要求借款人至少达到预期的通货膨胀率。
如果投资者预期的未来的通胀率会变得更高, 他们将会被要求延长还款期限，以弥补这种不确定性产生的更多的保费。
因此，期限越长，利率越高(在其它条件相同的情况)，一个向上倾斜的收益率曲线就产生。
有时，短期资金的需求大幅增加，短期利率可能上升超过了长期利率的水平。
收益曲线向下倾斜，这是它的外观反演的结果。
短期资金成本高，否则将有损于通过投资获得扩张，使经济增长放缓或衰退。
最后，利率上升使短期和长期资金的需求都减少。
在所有利率下降到一个正常的曲线，可能会出现由于经济增长放缓而带来的回报。
出处: [美]卡伦·A·霍契.《什么是财务风险管理？》.《财务风险管理要点》.约翰.威立国际出版公司,2005:P1-22.第二部分外文原文Financial Risk ManagementAlthough financial risk has increased significantly inrecent years, risk and risk management are not contemporaryissues. The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that havenothing to do with the domestic market. Information is available instantaneously, which means that change, andsubsequent market reactions, occur very quickly. The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates, interest rates, and commodity prices. Counterparties can rapidly become p roblematic. As a result, it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management.What Is Risk?Risk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss, while exposure is the possibilityof loss, although they are often used interchangeably. Riskarises as a result of exposure.Exposure to financial markets affects most organizations, either directly or indirectly. When an organization has financial market exposure, there is a possibility of loss butalso an opportunity for gain or profit. Financial market exposure may provide strategic or competitive benefits.Risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from events such as changes in market prices. Events with a low probability ofoccurring, but that may r esult in a high loss, are particularly troublesome because they are often not anticipated. Put another way, risk is the probable variability of returns.Since it is not always possible or desirable to eliminaterisk, understanding it is an important step in determining how to manage it. Identifying exposures and risks forms the basisfor an appropriate financial risk management strategy.How Does Financial Risk?Financial risk arises through countless transactions of a financial nature, including sales and purchases, investmentsand loans, and various other business activities. It can arise as a result of legal transactions, new projects, mergers and acquisitions, debt financing, the energy component of costs,or through the activities of management, stakeholders, competitors, foreign governments, or weather. When financialprices change dramatically, it can increase costs, reduce revenues, or otherwise adversely impact the profitability ofan organization. Financial fluctuations may make it more difficult to plan and budget, price goods and services, andallocate capital.There are three main sources of financial risk:1. Financial risks arising from an organization’s exposure to changes in market prices, such as interest rates, exchange rates, and commodity prices.2. Financial risks arising from the actions of, and transactions with, other organizations such as vendors, customers, and counterparties in derivatives transactions3. Financial risks resulting from internal actions or failures of the organization, particularly people, processes, and systemsWhat Is Financial Risk Management?Financial risk management is a process to deal with the uncertainties resulting from financial markets. It involvesassessing the financial risks facing an organization and developing management strategies consistent with internal priorities and policies. Addressing financial risks proactively may provide an organization with a competitive advantage. It also ensures that management, operational staff, stakeholders, and the board of directors are in agreement onkey issues of risk.Managing financial risk necessitates making organizational decisions about risks that are acceptable versus those that are not. The passive strategy of taking noaction is the acceptance of all risks by default.Organizations manage financial risk using a variety ofstrategies and products. It is important to understand howthese products and strategies work to reduce risk within thecontext of the organization’s risk tolerance and objectives.Strategies for risk management often involve derivatives. Derivatives are tradedwidely among f inancial institutions and on organized exchanges. The value of derivatives contracts,such as futures, forwards, options, and swaps, is derived from the price of the underlying asset. Derivatives trade on interest rates, exchange rates, commodities, equity and fixed income securities, credit, and even weather.The products and strategies used by market participants to manage f inancial risk are the same ones used by speculators to increase leverage and risk. Although it can be argued thatwidespread use of derivatives increases risk, the existence of derivatives enables those who wish to reduce risk to pass italong to those who seek risk and its associated opportunities.The ability to estimate the likelihood of a financial loss is highly desirable. However, standard theories of probability often fail in the analysis of financial markets. Risks usually do not exist in isolation, and the interactions of severalexposures may have to be considered in developing an understanding of how financial risk arises. Sometimes, these interactions are difficult to forecast, since they ultimately depend on human behavior.The process of financial risk management is an ongoing one. Strategies need to be implemented and refined as the market and requirements change. Refinements may reflect changing expectations about market rates, changes to the business environment, or changing international political conditions,for example. In general, the process can be summarized as follows:1、Identify and prioritize key financial risks.2、Determine an appropriate level of risk tolerance.3、Implement risk management strategy in accordance with policy.4、Measure, report, monitor, and refine as needed.DiversificationFor many y ears, the riskiness of an asset was a ssessed based only on the variability of its returns. In contrast, modernportfolio theory considers not only an asset’s riskines s, but also its contribution to the overall riskiness of the portfolioto which it is added. Organizations may h ave an opportunity to reduce risk as a result of risk diversification.In portfolio management t erms, the addition of individual components to a portfolio provides opportunities for diversification, within limits. A diversified portfolio contains assets whose returns are dissimilar, in other words,weakly or negatively correlated with one another. It is useful to think of the exposures of an organization as a portfolio and consider the impact of changes or additions on the potentialrisk of the total.Diversification is an important tool in managing financial risks. Diversification among counterparties may reduce therisk that unexpected events adversely impact the organization through defaults. Diversification among investment assets reduces the magnitude of loss if one issuer fails. Diversification of customers, suppliers, and financing sourcesreduces the possibility that an organization will have itsbusiness adversely affected by changes outside management’s control. Although the risk of loss still exists, diversification may reduce the opportunity for large adverse outcomes.Risk Management ProcessThe process of financial risk management comprises strategies that enable an organization to manage the risksassociated with financial markets. Risk management is a dynamic process that should evolve with an organization and its business. It involves and impacts many p arts of an organization including treasury, sales, marketing, legal, tax, commodity,and corporate finance.The risk management process involves both internal andexternal analysis. The first part of the process involves identifying and prioritizing the financial risks facing anorganization and understanding their relevance. It may be necessary to examine the organization and its products, management, customers, suppliers, competitors, pricing, industry trends, balance sheet structure, and position in theindustry. It is also necessary to consider stakeholders andtheir objectives and tolerance for risk.Once a clear understanding of the risks emerges, appropriate strategies can be implemented in conjunction with risk management policy. For example, it might be possible tochange where and how business is done, thereby reducing the organization’s exposure and risk. Alternatively, existing exposures may b e managedwith derivatives. Another strategy for managing risk is to accept all risks and the possibility oflosses.There are three broad alternatives for managing risk:1. Do nothing and actively, or passively by default, accept all risks.2. Hedge a portion of exposures by determining which exposures can and should be hedged.3. Hedge all exposures possible.Measurement and reporting of risks provides decision makers with information to execute decisions and monitor outcomes, both before and after strategies are taken tomitigate them. Since the risk management process is ongoing, reporting and feedback can be used to refine the system bymodifying or improving strategies.An active decision-making process is an important component of risk management. Decisions about potential lossand risk reduction provide a forum for discussion of important issues and the varying perspectives of stakeholders. Factorsthat Impact Financial Rates and PricesFinancial rates and prices are affected by a number offactors. It is essential to understand the factors that impact markets because those factors, in turn, impact the potentialrisk of an organization.Factors that Affect Interest RatesInterest rates are a key component in many market pricesand an important economic barometer. They are comprised of the real rate plus a component for expected inflation, since inflation reduces the purchasing power of a lender’s assets .The greater the term to maturity, the greater the uncertainty. Interest rates are also reflective of supply anddemand for funds and credit risk.Interest rates are particularly important to companies and governments because they are the key ingredient in the cost of capital. Most companies and governments require debt financing for expansion and capital projects. When interest rates increase, the impact can be significant on borrowers. Interest rates also affect prices in other financial markets, so theirimpact is far-reaching.Other components to the interest rate may include a riskpremium to reflect thecreditworthiness of a borrower. For example, the threat of political or sovereign risk can causeinterest rates to rise, sometimes substantially, as investors demand additional compensation for the increased risk of default.Factors that influence the level of market interest ratesinclude:1、Expected levels of inflation2、General economic conditions3、Monetary policy and the stance of the central bank4、Foreign exchange market activity。