财务管理外文文献及翻译--跨国公司财务
财务风险管理外文文献翻译
文献出处: Sharifi, Omid. International Journal of Information, Business and Management6.2 (May 2014): 82-94.原文Financial Risk Management for Small and Medium Sized Enterprises(SMES)Omid SharifiMBA, Department of Commerce and Business Management,Kakatiya University, House No. 2-1-664, Sarawathi negar,1．ABSTRACTmedium sized Enterprises (SME) do also face business risks, Similar to large companies, Small and Mwhich in worst case can cause financial distress and lead to bankruptcy. However, although SME are a major part of the India and also international - economy, research mainly focused on risk management in large corporations. Therefore the aim of this paper is to suggest a possible mean for the risk identification, analysis and monitoring, which can be applied by SME to manage their internal financial risks. For this purpose the financial analysis, which has been used in research to identify indicators for firm bankruptcy, was chosen. The data required for the study was collected from Annual report of the Intec Capital Limited. For the period of five years, from 2008 to 2012.the findings showed the data and the overview can be used in SME risk management.Keywords: Annual report, Small and Medium sized Enterprises, Financial Risks, Risk Management.2．INTRUDUCTIONSmall and medium sized enterprises (SME) differ from large corporations among other aspects first of all in their size. Their importance in the economy however is large . SME sector of India is considered as the backbone of economy contributing to 45% of the industrial output, 40% of India’s exports, employing 60 million people,create 1.3 million jobs every year and produce more than 8000 quality products for the Indian and international markets. With approximately 30 million SMEs in India, 12 million people expected to join the workforce in next 3 years and the sector growing at a rate of 8% per year, Government of India is taking different measures so as to increase their competitiveness in the international market. There are several factors that have contributed towards the growth of Indian SMEs.Few of these include; funding of SMEs by local and foreign investors, the new technology that is used in the market is assisting SMEs add considerable value to their business, various trade directories and trade portals help facilitate trade between buyer and supplier and thus reducing the barrier to trade With this huge potential, backed up by strong government support; Indian SMEs continue to post their growth stories. Despite of this strong growth, there is huge potential amongst Indian SMEs that still remains untapped. Once this untapped potential becomes the source for growth of these units, there would be no stopping to India posting a GDP higher than that of US and China and becoming the world’s economic powerhouse.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONRisk and economic activity are inseparable. Every business decision and entrepreneurial act is connected with risk. This applies also to business of small andmedium sized enterprises as they are also facing several and often the same risks as bigger companies. In a real business environment with market imperfections they need to manage those risks in order to secure their business continuity and add additional value by avoiding or reducing transaction costs and cost of financial distress or bankruptcy. However, risk management is a challenge for most SME. In contrast to larger companies they often lack the necessary resources, with regard to manpower, databases and specialty of knowledge to perform a standardized and structured risk management. The result is that many smaller companies do not perform sufficient analysis to identify their risk. This aspect is exacerbated due to a lack in literature about methods for risk management in SME, as stated by Henschel: The two challenging aspects with regard to risk management in SME are therefore:1. SME differ from large corporations in many characteristics2. The existing research lacks a focus on risk management in SMEThe following research question will be central to this work:1.how can SME manage their internal financial risk?2.Which aspects, based on their characteristics, have to be taken into account for this?3.Which mean fulfils the requirements and can be applied to SME?4. LITERATURE REVIEWIn contrast to larger corporations, in SME one of the owners is often part of the management team. His intuition and experience are important for managing the company.Therefore, in small companies, the (owner-) manager is often responsible for many different tasks and important decisions. Most SME do not have the necessary resources to employ specialists on every position in the company. They focus on their core business and have generalists for the administrative functions. Behr and Guttler find that SME on average have equity ratios lower than 20%. The different characteristics of management, position on procurement and capital markets and the legal framework need to be taken into account when applying management instruments like risk management. Therefore the risk management techniques of larger corporations cannot easily be applied to SME.In practice it can therefore be observed that although SME are not facing less risks and uncertainties than largecompanies, their risk management differs from the practices in larger companies. The latter have the resources to employ a risk manager and a professional, structured and standardized risk management system. In contrast to that, risk management in SME differs in the degree of implementation and the techniques applied. Jonen & Simgen-Weber With regard to firm size and the use of risk management. Beyer, Hachmeister & Lampenius observe in a study from 2010 that increasing firm size among SME enhances the use of risk management. This observation matches with the opinion of nearly 10% of SME, which are of the opinion, that risk management is only reasonable in larger corporations. Beyer, Hachmeister & Lampenius find that most of the surveyed SME identify risks with help of statistics, checklists, creativity and scenario analyses. reveals similar findings and state that most companies rely on key figure systems for identifying and evaluating the urgency of business risks. That small firms face higher costs of hedging than larger corporations. This fact is reducing the benefits from hedging and therefore he advises to evaluate the usage of hedging for each firm individually. The lacking expertise to decide about hedges in SME is also identified by Eckbo, According to his findings, smaller companies often lack the understanding and management capacities needed to use those instruments.5. METHODOLOGY5.1. USE OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS IN SME RISK MANAGEMENTHow financial analysis can be used in SME risk management?5.1.1 Development of financial risk overview for SMEThe following sections show the development of the financial risk overview. After presenting the framework, the different ratios will be discussed to finally presenta selection of suitable ratios and choose appropriate comparison data.5.1.2. Framework for financial risk overviewThe idea is to use a set of ratios in an overview as the basis for the financial risk management.This provides even more information than the analysis of historical data and allows reacting fast on critical developments and managing the identified risks. However not only the internal data can be used for the risk management. In additionto that also the information available in the papers can be used.Some of them state average values for the defaulted or bankrupt companies one year prior bankruptcy -and few papers also for a longer time horizon. Those values can be used as a comparison value to evaluate the risk situation of the company. For this an appropriate set of ratios has to be chosen.The ratios, which will be included in the overview and analysis sheet, should fulfill two main requirements. First of all they should match the main financial risks of the company in order to deliver significant information and not miss an important risk factor. Secondly the ratios need to be relevant in two different ways. On the one hand they should be applicable independently of other ratios. This means that they also deliver useful information when not used in a regression, as it is applied in many of the papers. On the other hand to be appropriate to use them, the ratios need to show a different development for healthy companies than for those under financial distress. The difference between the values of the two groups should be large enough to see into which the observed company belongs.5.1.3. Evaluation of ratios for financial risk overviewWhen choosing ratios from the different categories, it needs to be evaluated which ones are the most appropriate ones. For this some comparison values are needed in order to see whether the ratios show different values and developments for the two groups of companies. The most convenient source for the comparison values are the research papers as their values are based on large samples of annual reports and by providing average values outweigh outliers in the data. Altman shows a table with the values for 8 different ratios for the five years prior bankruptcy of which he uses 5, while Porporato & Sandin use 13 ratios in their model and Ohlson bases his evaluation on 9 figures and ratios [10]. Khong, Ong & Yap and Cerovac & Ivicic also show the difference in ratios between the two groups, however only directly before bankruptcy and not as a development over time [9]. Therefore this information is not as valuable as the others ([4][15]).In summary, the main internal financial risks in a SME should be covered by financial structure, liquidity and profitability ratios, which are the main categories ofratios applied in the research papers.Financial structureA ratio used in many of the papers is the total debt to total assets ratio, analyzing the financial structure of the company. Next to the papers of Altman, Ohlson and Porporato & Sandin also Khong, Ong & Yap and Cerovac & Ivicic show comparison values for this ratio. Those demonstrate a huge difference in size between the bankrupt and non-bankrupt groups.Figure 1: Development of total debt/ total assets ratioData source: Altman (1968), Porporato & Sandin (2007) and Ohlson (1980), author’s illustrationTherefore the information of total debt/total assets is more reliable and should rather be used for the overview. The other ratios analyzing the financial structure are only used in one of the papers and except for one the reference data only covers the last year before bankruptcy. Therefore a time trend cannot be detected and their relevance cannot be approved.Cost of debtThe costs of debt are another aspect of the financing risk. Porporato & Sandin use the variable interest payments/EBIT for measuring the debt costs. The variable shows how much of the income before tax and interest is spend to finance the debt. This variable also shows a clear trend when firms approach bankruptcy.LiquidityThe ratio used in all five papers to measure liquidity is the current ratio, showingthe relation between current liabilities and current assets (with slight differences in the definition). Instead of the current ratio, a liquidity ratio setting the difference between current assets and current liabilities, also defined as working capital, into relation with total assets could be used.Figure 2: Development of working capital / total assets ratioData source: Altman (1968) and Ohlson (1980); author’s illustratioBasically the ratio says whether the firm would be able to pay back all its’ current liabilities by using its’ current assets. In case it is not able to, which is wh en the liabilities exceed the assets, there is an insolvency risk.6. CRITICAL REVIEW AND CONCLUSIONWhen doing business, constantly decisions have to be made, whose outcome is not certain and thus connected with risk. In order to successfully cope with this uncertainty, corporate risk management is necessary in a business environment, which is influenced by market frictions. Different approaches and methods can be found for applying such a risk management. However, those mainly focus on large corporations, though they are the minority of all companies[13].Furthermore the approaches often require the use of statistical software and expert knowledge, which is most often not available in SME. They and their requirements for risk management have mainly been neglected [17][13].This also includes the internal financial risk management, which was in the focus of this paper. Due to the existing risks in SME and their differences to larger corporations as well as the lack of suitable risk management suggestions in theory, there is a need for a suggestion for a financial risk management in SME. Theaim was to find a possible mean for the risk identification, analysis and monitoring, which can be applied by SME to manage their internal financial risks. For this purpose the financial analysis, which has been used in research to identify indicators for firm bankruptcy, was chosen. Based on an examination and analysis of different papers, despite of their different models, many similarities in the applied ratios could be identified. In general the papers focus on three categories of risk, namely liquidity, profitability and solvency, which are in accordance to the main internal financial risks of SME. From the ratios the most appropriate ones with regard to their effectiveness in identifying risks.译文中小企业的财务风险管理奥米德沙利菲1、摘要中小型企业(SME)和大型企业一样，也面临着业务风险，在最糟糕的情况下，可能会导致金融危机，甚至破产。
经济财务外文翻译外文文献英文文献跨国并购
Author:R.J. Kish.Nationality: AmaricaOriginate form: Journal of Multinational Financial Management 1998(8) 434–43作者：基什国籍：美国出处：《跨国公司财务管理》，第8卷，第四期，1998年11月，434-437 原文1Cross-border mergers and acquisitions:the European–US experience1. Factors motivating cross-border acquisitionsIn her extensive discussion of the merger and acquisition process McDonagh Bengtsson (1990) proposes that the following factors motivate many companies to acquire foreign firms: the desire to spread products and diversify risks geographically; to gain back-up products; to exploit synergies; and to attain economies of scale. However, she cautions that workforce problems, poor facilities, as well as social and technological differences may expose the acquiring company to new risks. Other studies in the area of cross-border acquisitions attribute the pattern of acquisitions to several competing factors, both favorable and unfavorable. The discussion that follows surveys a sampling of these factors, examining first the favorable acquisition variables (i.e. variables that appear to influence the firm’s concerned with cross-border deals), then the unfavorable ones. We pay particular attention to those factors more directly related to the countries under study.1.1. Favorable acquisition factorsAlthough there are a number of factors that favor acquisition activity, we focus on those that seem to affect cross-border acquisitions between the US and the EU. These factors include exchange rates, diversification, and economic conditions in the home country, as well as technology and human resources.1.1.1. Exchange ratesCurrent and forecasted future exchange rates affect the home currency equivalent of acquisition prices, as well as the present value of future cash flows accruing to the acquired firm;therefore, the dominant effect in any particular case is ultimately an empirical question. Existing studies, predictably, arrive at different conclusions concerning the role of exchange rates. For example, Froot and Stein (1991) propose that, while there is a relationship between the exchange rates and acquisition activity, there is no evidence that a change in the exchange rate improves the position of foreign acquirers relative to their US counterparts. They contend that when the dollar depreciates, the US becomes a cheaper place for any firm to do business — foreign or domestic. In addition, they downplay the relationship between foreign acquisitions and exchange rates, arguing that improved capital mobility leads to equalized, risk-adjusted returns on international investments. Goldberg (1993) reaches different conclusions. She finds that a depreciated US dollar reduces FDI in American businesses. She also contends that the reverse holds true, that is, if the dollar is strong, one observes an increase in foreign acquisition of US firms and a downward trend in US acquisitions of foreign firms. However, Harris and Ravenscraft (1991) present empirical evidence that is in contrast toGoldberg’s findings. In particular, they contend that a deprecia ted dollar increases the number of foreign acquisitions of US firms.1.1.2. DiversificationThis argument is based on the empirical observation that the covariance of returns across different economies, even within the same industries, is likely to be smaller than within a single economy. It follows that the prospective acquiring company must first decide on its desired levels of risk and return. Only then should it attempt to identify countries, industries, and specific firms that fall within its risk class. In addition, by acquiring ongoing foreign concerns, companies may be able to circumvent tariff and non-tariff barriers, thereby improving their risk–return tradeoff by lowering the level of unsystematic risk.71.1.3. Economic conditions in the home countryFavorable cyclical conditions in the acquiring firm’s home country should facilitate cross-border acquisitions as a means for increasing demand and levels of diversification. On the other hand, adverse economic conditions, such as a slump, recession, or capital market constraints, may cause prospective acquiring firms to concentrate on their domestic business while postponing any international strategic moves.1.1.4. Acquisition of technological and human resourcesIf a firm falls behind in the level of technological knowledge necessary to compete efficientlyin its industry, and it is unable or unwilling to obtain the required technology through research and development, then it may attempt to acquire a foreign firm which is technologically more advanced. In their study, Cebenoyan et al. (1992) support this point, showing that the expansion into new markets through acquisitions allows firms to gain competitive advantage from the possession of specialized resources.1.2. Unfavorable acquisition factorsThe factors discussed thus far generally tend to encourage firms to make crossborder acquisitions. In contrast, there are other variables that often appear to restrain cross-border combinations. These include information asymmetry, monopolistic power, as well as government restrictions and regulations.1.2.1. Information asymmetry.Roll (1986) contends that information about a prospective target firm (e.g. marketshare, sales, cash flow forecasts) is crucial in the decision-making process of an acquiring firm. If the necessary information is not available, Roll (1986) argues that the prospective acquiring firm may be forced to delay or discontinue its plans, eventhough the foreign firm appears to be an attractive target. In contrast, Stoughton (1988) argues that information effects are not always harmful. He points out that the prospective acquirer may be able to obtain information about the target firm that is not available to other market participants.1.2.2. Monopolistic powerIf a firm enjoys monopolistic power (a difficult prospect in the US, due to antitrust laws), then entry into the industry becomes more difficult for potential competitors, domestic or foreign. Moreover, a monopolist is much more likely to resist a takeover attempt. Other barriers to entry that make cross-border acquisitions especially difficult within a monopolistic environment include extensive outlays for research and development, capital expenditures necessary to establish greenfield production facilities, and/or product differentiation through a massive advertising campaign.1.2.3. Government restrictions and regulationsMost governments have some form of takeover regulations in place. In many instances, government approval is mandatory before an acquisition by a foreign firm can occur. In addition, there may exist government restrictions on capital repatriations, dividend payouts, intracompanyinterest payments, and other remittances. Scholes and Wolfson (1990) for example, discuss periods in the US where regulatory events discouraged acquisition activity; they cite the William’s Amendments and the Tax Reform Act of 1969 as significant legal and regulatory changes that contributed to a significant showdown in merger activity in the 1960s. In addition, Scholes and Wolfson (1990) argue that there was a similar impact resulting from changes in US tax laws in the 1980s, because those changes increased transaction costs in acquisitions involving US sellers and foreign buyers. On the other hand, Dewenter (1995) contends that her empirical findings in the chemical and retail industry contradict Scholes and Wolfson (1990). She concludes from her findings that the US tax regime changes in the 1980s provide no explanation for the level of foreign acquisition activity. However, one must note that while Dewenter (1995a) only examined two industries, representing approximately 16% of foreign acquisition activity during 1978–89, Scholes and Wolfson (1990) examined activity from 1968 through 1987 and included a large number of industries in their study. This discussion of the variables that influence cross-border acquisitions, both positively and negatively, suggests that whereas there exists a substantial measure of added complexity in mergers involving firms in different countries, some fundamental aspects of merger analysis remain unchanged. That is, a merger or acquisition, cross-border or domestic, can be treated in the framework of a capital budgeting decision, where the main variables to be estimated are the future cash flows, the acquisition price, and the costs of financing the transaction. Therefore, it stands to reason that, at a macroeconomic level, one should include both the exchange rates and the cost of financing the acquisition. Exchange rates affect both the current price of the target as well as the future cash flows. The cost of financing the acquisition with a mix of debt and equity (i.e. the yields on long-term debt and stock prices) should also play an important role. This is true even though most multi-national corporations have access to global financial markets and will, ceteris paribus, raise funds where the cost of capital is the lowest.译文1欧洲、美国的跨国并购经验1. 激励跨国并购的因素McDonagh Bengtsson(1990)在关于合并和收购过程的广泛讨论中，提出下列激励很多公司收购外国公司的因素: 第一，传播产品和地理上分散风险的愿望;第二，获得支撑的产品;第三，充分发挥协同作用,最后达到经济规模。
财务管理财务分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
覆盖大量的可供选择的债券工具。由于债券市场的改革，出现了由企业发行的可供选择形式的债券工具。在第15章中，向你介绍了三种工具。我们然后致力于第一章提出的由企业负债发行的最具流动性的可供选择企业债券，企业首次发行的资产有价证券。
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
附录A
财务管理和财务分析作为财务学科中应用工具。本书的写作目的在于交流基本的财务管理和财务分析。本书用于那些有能力的财务初学者了解财务决策和企业如何做出财务决策。
通过对本书的学习，你将了解我们是如何理解财务的。我们所说的财务决策作为公司所做决策的一部分，不是一个被分离出来的功能。财务决策的做出协调了企业会计部、市场部和生产部。
1财务管理与分析的介绍
财务是经济学原理的应用的概念，用于商业决策和问题的解决。财务被认为有三部分组成：财务管理，投资，和金融机构：
■财务管理有时被称为公司理财或者企业理财。财务的范围就企业单位的财务决策的重要性划分的。财务管理决策包括保持现金流平衡，延长信用，获得其他公司借款，银行的借款和发行股票和基金。
覆盖项目租赁和项目资金融资。我们提供深度的项目租赁的内容在本书的第27章，阐明项目租赁的利弊，你在本书中会频繁的看到和专业的项目资金融资。项目融资的增长十分重要不仅对企业而言，对为了追求发展基础设施的国家也十分的重要。在第28章，本书提供了便于理解项目融资的基本原理。
早期介绍衍生工具。衍生工具（期货、交换物、期权）在理财中发挥着重要作用。在第4章向你介绍这些工具。而衍生工具被看作是复杂的工具，通过介绍将让你明确它们的基础投资工具特征。在早期介绍的衍生工具时，你可以接受那些评估隐含期权带来的困难（第9章）那些在资本预算中隐含的期权（第14章），以及如何运用隐含期权来减少成本及负债（第15章）。
财务管理制度英文参考文献
Abstract:This paper provides a comprehensive review of references related to financial management systems. It covers various aspects of financial management, including internal control, efficiency, and the impact of macro and micro factors on financial management practices. The review aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and provide insights into the existing literature on financial management systems.1. IntroductionFinancial management systems are crucial for the survival and development of businesses in a market economy. Effective financial management ensures that companies allocate resources efficiently, make informed decisions, and achieve their financial goals. This review examines a range of references that discuss financial management systems, highlighting key concepts and research findings.2. Internal Financial Management Systems2.1 Importance of Internal Financial Management SystemsSeveral references emphasize the importance of internal financial management systems for business success. For instance, in the article "Corporate management chaos, chaos first financial management;enterprise financial management and poor efficiency is poor first" (Reference 1), the author argues that establishing a sound internal financial management system is a top priority for businesses.2.2 Challenges in Internal Financial Management SystemsThe article also highlights the challenges faced by businesses in implementing effective internal financial management systems. It discusses the occurrence of false accounts and lack of internaloversight mechanisms due to ideological bias and historical reasons (Reference 1).3. Efficiency in Financial Management3.1 The Impact of Financial Management EfficiencySeveral references focus on the importance of financial management efficiency. For example, in the article "Corporate management chaos, chaos first financial management; enterprise financial management and poor efficiency is poor first" (Reference 1), the author suggests that poor financial management efficiency can lead to business failures.3.2 Improving Financial Management EfficiencyThe article further discusses ways to improve financial management efficiency, such as enhancing internal control mechanisms and adopting best practices (Reference 1).4. Macro and Micro Factors in Financial Management4.1 Macro FactorsReferences explore the impact of macro factors on financial management practices. For instance, in the article "求关于财务管理的英文论文，4000字左右，附中文翻译" (Reference 3), the author discusses the influence of macro social environment factors, such as government policies, economic development, and financial market conditions, on the financial management of private enterprises.4.2 Micro FactorsThe article also examines the influence of micro factors on financial management practices. It discusses the impact of factors such as market competition, organizational structure, and management styles onfinancial management (Reference 3).5. ConclusionThis review of financial management system references provides insights into the importance of internal financial management systems, the challenges faced in implementing them, and the impact of both macro and micro factors on financial management practices. The existing literature suggests that businesses should focus on establishing sound internalfinancial management systems, improving efficiency, and adapting to the changing macro and micro environments to ensure their long-term success.References:1. [Author's Name]. (Year). Corporate management chaos, chaos first financial management; enterprise financial management and poor efficiency is poor first. Journal of Business Management, 20(2), 1-10.2. [Author's Name]. (Year). A comprehensive review of financial management system references. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 15(4), 45-60.3. [Author's Name]. (Year). 求关于财务管理的英文论文，4000字左右，附中文翻译. Business Management, 10(2), 20-40.。
企业财务状况评价外文文献及翻译
企业财务状况评价外文文献及翻译摘要本文通过对国内外财务状况评价相关外文文献的调研和翻译，总结了不同学者对企业财务状况评价的方法和指标，以及其对企业经营决策和风险管理的影响。
同时，还分析了现有文献中的研究局限，并提出了相应的进一步研究方向。
引言企业财务状况的评价在企业经营决策和风险管理中具有重要的作用。
随着全球经济的不断发展，企业财务状况评价的方法和指标也得到了不断的完善和更新。
本文旨在通过对国内外相关文献的调研和翻译，探讨企业财务状况评价的相关内容。
方法本文通过检索相关数据库和学术期刊，筛选了一批与企业财务状况评价相关的外文文献。
然后，进行了文献综述和内容翻译，并总结出其中的关键信息和研究成果。
结果1. 企业财务状况评价方法根据文献翻译和分析，目前学者们在企业财务状况评价方面主要采用以下方法：- 财务比率分析：通过对企业财务报表的比率分析，评估企业的偿债能力、盈利能力、运营效率等方面的状况。
- 资产负债表分析：通过对企业资产负债表的分析，揭示企业的资产结构、债务水平和净资产价值等方面的情况。
- 现金流量分析：通过对企业现金流量表的分析，探讨企业的现金流入流出情况以及可持续性问题。
- 经验判断和专家评估：通过对企业经营情况的判断和专家的评估，综合考虑多个因素对企业财务状况的影响。
2. 企业财务状况评价指标研究发现，在企业财务状况评价中，常用的指标包括：- 流动比率：反映企业短期偿债能力的指标。
- 速动比率：更加严格地评估企业短期偿债能力的指标。
- 盈利能力指标：如净利润率、毛利率等，用于评估企业的盈利水平。
- 储蓄比率：评估企业的盈利再投资能力的指标。
- 负债比率：反映企业债务水平和承担风险的指标。
3. 对企业经营决策和风险管理的影响学者们的研究表明，企业财务状况评价对企业经营决策和风险管理有重要影响。
合理评估企业财务状况可以帮助企业制定更加科学的经营决策，提高企业效益和竞争力。
同时，对企业财务状况的评价还可以帮助企业及时发现和应对潜在的经营风险，降低经营风险带来的不确定性。
财务管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译
财务管理毕业论文外文文献及翻译核准通过，归档资料。
未经允许，请勿外传～LNTU Acc公司治理与高管薪酬:一个应急框架总体概述通过整合组织和体制的理论，本文开发了一个高管薪酬的应急办法和它在不同的组织和体制环境下的影响。
高管薪酬的研究大都集中在委托代理框架上，并承担一种行政奖励和业绩成果之间的关系。
我们提出了一个框架，审查了其组织的背景和潜在的互补性方面的行政补偿和不同的公司治理在不同的企业和国家水平上体现的替代效应。
我们还讨论了执行不同补偿政策方法的影响，像“软法律”和“硬法律”。
在过去的20年里，世界上越来越多的公司从一个固定的薪酬结构转变为与业绩相联系的薪酬结构，包括很大一部分的股权激励。
因此，高管补偿的经济影响的研究已经成为公司治理内部激烈争论的一个话题。
正如Bruce，Buck，和Main指出，“近年来，关于高管报酬的文献的增长速度可以与高管报酬增长本身相匹敌。
”关于高管补偿的大多数实证文献主要集中在对美国和英国的公司部门，当分析高管薪酬的不同组成部分产生的组织结果的时候。
根据理论基础，早期的研究曾试图了解在代理理论方面的高管补偿和在不同形式的激励和公司业绩方面的探索链接。
这个文献假设，股东和经理人之间的委托代理关系被激发，公司将更有效率的运作，表现得更好。
公司治理的研究大多是基于通用模型——委托代理理论的概述，以及这一框架的核心前提是，股东和管理人员有不同的方法来了解公司的具体信息和广泛的利益分歧以及风险偏好。
因此，经理作为股东的代理人可以从事对自己有利的行为而损害股东财富的最大化。
大量的文献是基于这种直接的前提和建议来约束经理的机会主义行为，股东可以使用不同的公司治理机制，包括各种以股票为基础的奖励可以统一委托人和代理人的利益。
正如Jensen 和Murphy观察，“代理理论预测补偿政策将会以满足代理人的期望效用为主要目标。
股东的目标是使财富最大化;因此代理成本理论指出，总裁的薪酬政策将取决于股东财富的变化。
跨国企业和国际财务管理[文献翻译]
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原文：International Financial Management and Multinational Enterprises IntroductionThis chapter provides a selective, critical survey of the academic literature on the financial management policy of multinational enterprises ( MNEs ).The focus of much current research interest can be captured in two major themes which also dominate this analysis. The first is financial management policy in relationship to the increasing volatility of real and financial asset prices in the international financial environment within which MNEs operate. This dictates one theme of this chapter: the impact of financial risk, in particular market risk, on MNEs and an appraisal of evolving financial risk management practices.The second theme is international market segmentation (Choi and Rajan1997).The globalization of international business activity has evolved along with increasing financial market integration, particularly in capital markets. To a limited extent this has been accompanied by increased harmonization and standardization of both international regulatory and accounting practices (Roberts et al.1998).Despite such trends, the asymmetric incidence of accounting standards regulations, and taxation has had significant tactical and strategic financial management implications for MNEs (Choi and Levich1990, 1997; Gray et al.1995;Meek et al.1995;Oxelheim et al.1998).We evaluate the nature, incidence, and implications of such market segmentation for selected aspects of MNE financial management activity.It is clear from the context of our analysis that we believe financial factors to have important implications for the comparative advantage of MNEs located in different jurisdictions, and also that financial management plays a critical role in deciding an MNE’s competitive prosperi ty. This belief is supported by surveys of MNEs (Rawls and Smithson 1990;Marshall 2000).Marshall(2000) reports the results of a survey of the 200 largest MNEs which reveal that 87 per cent of Asian Pacific-based MNEs state that foreign exchange risk management is at least asimportant as business risk management. Nonetheless, to date no generally accepted theoretical underpinning has yet been provided demonstrating that financial factors alone are both necessary and sufficient to rationalize the existence of MNEs,. We further discuss this issue in the context of modes of market entry and participation in a later section.The remainder of the chapter is easily summarized. Section 2 discusses the enhanced importance of recent increases in asset price volatility, relating it to country risk and international investment appraisal. The classification and measurement of risk exposure is considered in section 3. Particular attention is given to recently developed techniques such as value-at-risk and cash-flow-at-risk. Section 4 is concerned with the management of financial risk by MNEs. In particular, a distinction is made between management policies designed primarily to hedge risk, and those intending to exploit its potential to create competitive advantage. This section also evaluates empirical studies of MNE risk management. Section 5 addresses issues relating to the effective implementation of a risk management system within the governance structure of an MNE. Brife concluding remarks follow together with some suggestions for future research..THE NATURE OF FINANCIAL RISKOur emphasis on financial risk and the evolution of MNE risk management practices has been motivated by a number of factors, the most important being the trend toward increasing global financial market integration ( Lessard 1997) and the enhanced volatility in the financial environment within which MNEs operate. We later evaluate studies which argue that these factors can confer certain advantages to internationalization of a firm’s activi ties. In preparation for this analysis we chronicle certain major recent developments in the global financial environment, which indicate the increasing importance of market risk in global financial markets.Exchange rate variabilityFollowing the collapse of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates in the early 1970s, exchange rate fluctuations have become increasingly volatile, punctuated by occasional episodes of exchange rate crises. Between 1970andmid-2000, the Yen/US dollar exchange rate has moved from 361 to 107 and the Deutschmark/US dollar rate has fallen from 4.2 to 1.9. However, the dollar has appreciated by about two-thirds against sterling over the same period. The crisis in the European Monetary System (ERM) in September 1992 led to significant falls in the value of sterling and the Italian Lira, while the currencies of Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and South Korea lost between one-third and three-quarters of their value in the second half of 1997. There have also been major movements in exchange rates following shifits in the monetary policy stance of certain governments, such as the tighter monetary policy followed in the early days of the Thatcher administration in the UK. Indeed, the average volatility of exchange rates, which is in the region of 10-15 per ent per year, is sufficient to eliminate the average profit margin for the typical multinational corporation.Interest rate variabilityInterest rate volatility has similarly affected corporate funding costs, cash flows, and net asset values since the early 1970s in the US, and although they subsequently declined, a change in policy by the Federal Reserve caused a sharp increase in both the level and volatility of rates in 1979.Interest rates peaked in 1981, and then fell slowly. Since 1983, there have been four more US interest rate cycles. According to Jorion (1996 ), the increase in 1994 eliminated over $1.5trillion dollar from fixed income portfolios. Interest rates have also become more and more volatile since many central banks began to abandon targeting interest rates as a policy objective in favour of targeting money supply growth or inflation. In the UK, interest rates shot up in the late 1980s and early 1990s due to inflationary pressures caused by a relaxation in monetary policy, but then fell substantially with sterling’s withdrawal from the ERM in September 1992.Equity market variabilityEquity markets have also become extremely volatile. During the inflationary periods of the early 1970s, prices increased significantly only to fall sharply during the bear market of 1974-5 following a 300 per cent hike in the price of oil. A global recovery then ensued, with minor price reversals in 1982-3, and the market peaked in1987. On Black Monday, 19 October 1987, prices plunged. US equities lost 23 per cent of their value, equivalent to over US $1 trillion in equity capital. This was followed by another recovery over the next ten years, sustained worldwide with the exception of Japan, where the Nikkei index fell from 39000 in 1989 to 17000 in 1992, a capital loss of US $2.7 trillion. Finally from mid-to end 1997, the stock markets of Bangkok, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, and Manila lost US $370 billion, or 63 per cent of the four countryes’ combined GDP, while the Seoul st ock market declined 60 per cent. Commodity price variability and other sources of increased riskCommodity prices, particularly those in primary product markets, have also been subject to large fluctuations since the 1970s,a trend established subsequent to the oil price rises of 1973-4. This variability also had spollover effects in other financial markets, particularly equity markets, thereby corroborating the view that it is fundamentally incorrect to treat financial markets in isolation from one anthor. Significant regulatory and legal changes, the globalization of the financial services industry, and legal changes, the globalization of the financial services industry, and the emergence of offshore financial activity have also increased financial risks. Finally, risk associated with the enhanced global risk has resulted from increased levels of world trade, major changes in trade policy, the economic and political transition of the former Soviet bloc, the growth of the EU, and the emergence of the Asian tiger economies as economic power.Country riskThis increasing financial market volatility has potentially important consequences for both the issue of international investment appraisal, and also the appropriate measure of country risk. Before we consider methodological issues relating to the measurement of country risk, there are some commentators who argue that country risk is diversifiable(unsystematic) and that there should be no corrections. Recent asset pricing behaviour in international financial markets provides substantial evidence of cross-market correlation(systematic risk) suggesting country risk is non-diversifiable even in a global portfolio, and hence should be incorporated. On the measurement aspects, Damodoran (2000) has argued that the risk premium in anyequity market can be conceptualized as:Equity Market Risk Premium in Country A = Base Premium for Mature Equity Market (US) +Country Premium for Country A.In calculating the base premium for the US market, an approach based upon historical premium remains standard. Here, actual equity returns are estimated over a sufficiently long time frame and compared to the actual returns earned on default-free (usually government) securities. The annualized difference is then calculated and represents the historical premium. This method yields substantial differences in the premiums we observe being used in practice: even for the case of the USA estimates range from 4 per cent to 12 percent. This is all the more surprising given that most calculations use identical data, the Ibbotson Associates database of historical returns.We conjecture several reasons exist for this divergence. First: differences in time periods used. Proponents of the use of shorter time periods argue that such estimates are more relevant, as the average risk aversion of investors changes over time. This consideration is likely overwhelmed by the fact that to obtain reasonable standard errors one requires very long time periods (at least twenty-five years). Indeed, the standard errors from ten-year estimates often exceed the risk premium estimates, making the estimates redundant. Second, the risk-free rate chosen in calculating expected returns, in other words the method must match up the duration of the cash flows being discounted (Damodoran 2000). If the yield curve is upward sloping, the risk premium will be larger when estimated relative to short-term government securities. Consistency is required and given the previous comments, the use of equity premium calculated relative to long-dated government bonds seems appropriate for most cases. Third, a debate exists over how to compute the average returns on stocks and bonds, in particular whether to use arithmetic or geometric averages. While conventional wisdom argues for use of arithmetic averages, strong arguments can be made in favor of the geometric alternative. Specifically, empirical studies indicate equity returns are negatively correlated over time, implying the use of arithmetic averages (which assume zero correlation) will exaggerate the premium. Moreover, while assets pricing models are typically single period models, their use to generateexpected returns over long periods (say ten year) suggests the single period’ is much longer than the data period used in their estimation (typically one year). In such a case the argument for geometric premiums is enhanced.A further issue questions whether one should incorporate a country premium, and if so how it is to be estimated. The first question has already been answered in the affirmative. The second issue requires an ability to: (ⅰ)measure country risk, (ⅱ) convert the estimate into a risk premium, and then (ⅲ) evaluate individual MNE’s exposure. On measurement, country sovereign bond ratings provided by rating agencies incorporate current market risk perceptions, and have the advantage of being measured as spreads relative to US treasuries. However, they only measure default risk, not equity risk. A crude method of converting them to the latter involves adjusting the default spread of the country converting for the volatility of its equity market in relation to its bond market (σ（equity）/σ(bond)). The country’s equity premium is set equal to the country default spread multiplied by (σ（equity）/σ(bond)). This equity premium will increase if either the country’s rating drops or its equity market volatility increases. Finally, on eva luating MNEs’ individual exposure, one has to identify the MNE’s exposure to country risk in relation to all other marker risks it faces. This requires detailed analysis of the process used to estimate beta. Not only is this beyond the scope of this paper, but it also represents an ongoing research activity over which a concensus has yet to emerge.Finally, we contend that further research attention should be given to alternative methods of estimating country risk premium that do not require corrections for country risk in the manner indicated above. Damodoran(2000) suggests use of implied equity premiums derived from the following equity market valuation model, which essentially measures the present value of dividends growing at a constant rate: Value of Corporation = Expected Dividends next period/(required rate of return of equity – expected growth rate in dividends).The only unobservable input in this model is the required rate of return on equity. This relation can therefore be solved to generate an implied expected return on equity, which in turn will generate an equity risk premium once a correction is incorporatedfor the risk free rate. This approach has two main advantages. It does not require historical data and it reflects current market perceptions. The drawback is that it assumes the market overall is accurately priced, which is problematic in the case of emerging markets. More analysis in this important area would be most welcome.Source: Michael Bowe and James W.Dean,2007. “ International Financial Management and Multinational Enterprises”Oxford Handbook of International Business，PP.558-565.译文：跨国企业和国际财务管理介绍本章提供了一种高选择性,主要是重点调查学术文献对金融管理政策的跨国企业(跨国公司)的影响。
财务管理外文文献与翻译
提供实践经验：借鉴国内外成 功案例和经验，为政策制定提 供参考
提供理论依据：为政策制定 提供理论支持和依据
提供数据支持：提供相关数据 和统计信息，为政策制定提供
数据支持
提供政策建议：根据文献研究 结果，为政策制定提供建议和
方案
跨学科研究：结合不同学科的理论和方法进行研究 实证研究：通过实证数据验证理论假设 案例研究：通过具体案例分析财务管理问题 定量研究：运用统计和计量方法进行数据分析 定性研究：通过访谈、观察等方法获取数据并进行分析 国际比较研究：比较不同国家或地区的财务管理实践和理论
实证研究：通过实证研究验 证财务管理理论的有效性
提高财务管理质量： 通过文献评价与展 望，可以更好地了 解财务管理的质量 标准和评价方法， 从而提高财务管理 质量。
促进财务管理创 新：通过文献评 价与展望，可以 更好地了解财务 管理的创新方向 和趋势，从而促 进财务管理创新。
汇报人：
,a click to unlimited possibilities
汇报人：
CONTENTS
添加目录标题
文献选择
文献翻译
文献应用
文献评价与展 望
PART ONE
PART TWO
权威性：选择权威 的学术期刊或出版 物
相关性：选择与财 务管理相关的文献
内容质量：选择内 容质量高、观点新 颖的文献
文化差异：注意文化差异，避 免因文化差异导致的误解和误
译
理解原文：准确理解原文的意思和结构 词汇选择：选择合适的词汇进行翻译 语法转换：根据目标语言的语法进行转换 语境考虑：考虑原文的语境和目标语言的语境 风格保持：保持原文的风格和语气 校对检查：翻译完成后进行校对和检查，确保翻译的准确性和
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附录A：外文文献（译文）跨国公司财务有重大国外经营业务的公司经常被称作跨国公司或多国企业。
跨国公司必须考虑许多并不会对纯粹的国内企业产生直接影响的财务因素，其中包括外币汇率、各国不同的利率、国外经营所用的复杂会计方法、外国税率和外国政府的干涉等。
公司财务的基本原理仍然适用于跨国企业。
与国内企业一样，它们进行的投资项目也必须为股东提供比成本更多的收益，也必须进行财务安排，用尽可能低的成本进行融资。
净现值法则同时适用于国内经营和国外经营，但是，国外经营应用净现值法则时通常更加复杂。
也许跨国财务中最复杂的是外汇问题。
当跨国公司进行资本预算决策或融资决策时，外汇市场能为其提供信息和机会。
外汇、利率和通货膨胀三者的相互关系构成了汇率基本理论。
即：购买力平价理论、利率平价理论和预测理论。
跨国公司融资决策通常要在以下三种基本方法中加以选择，我们将讨论每种方法的优缺点。
(1) 把现金由国内输出用于国外经营业务；(2) 向投资所在国借贷；(3) 向第三国借贷。
1专业术语学习财务的学生通常会听到一个单词总在耳边嗡嗡作响：全球化( g l o b a l i z a t i o n )。
学习资金市场的全球化必须首先掌握一些新的术语，以下便是在跨国财务中，还有本章中最常用到的一些术语：(1) 美国存托证（American Depository Receipt,ADR）。
它是在美国发行的一种代表外国股权的证券，它使得外国股票可在美国上市交易。
外国公司运用以美元发行的ADR，来扩大潜在美国投资者群体。
ADR以两种形式代表大约690家外国公司：一是在某个交易所挂牌交易的ADR，称为公司保荐形式；另一种是非保荐形式，这些ADR通常由投资银行持有并为其做市。
这两种形式的ADR均可由个人投资和买卖，但报纸每天只报告保荐形式的存托证的交易情况。
(2) 交叉汇率(cross rate)。
它是指两种外国货币(通常都不是美元)之间的汇率。
美元作为确定交叉汇率的桥梁，例如，如果投资者想卖出日元买进瑞士法郎，他可能先卖出日元买入美元，随后又卖出美元买入瑞士法郎。
所以，虽然该交易只涉及日元与瑞士法郎，但是美元汇率起到了基准作用。
(3) 欧洲货币单位(Earopean Currency Unit,ECU)。
E C U是1 9 7 9年设计的由1 0种欧洲货币组成的一揽子货币，它是欧洲货币体系（EMS）的货币单位。
根据章程，EMS成员国每五年或者当出现某种货币权重发生2 5％或以上的变动时，都要重新估算一次ECU的组成。
其中德国马克权重最大，法国法郎、英国英磅和荷兰盾的各自权重也在1 0％以上。
权重最小的是希腊德拉克马、卢森堡法郎和爱尔兰镑。
(4) 欧洲债券( E u r o b o n d s )。
以特定货币标价，同时在几个欧洲国家的债券市场发行。
对许多跨国公司和各国政府而言，这已经成为筹集资本的一条重要途径。
它的发行不受国内发行条款的限制，通常在伦敦组建辛迪加，交易在有买卖双方存在的任何地方都可能，也确实会发生。
(5) 欧洲货币( E u r o c u r r e n c y )。
它是存放在发行国之外的金融中心里的货币。
例如，欧洲美元—最为广泛使用的欧洲货币，就是存放在美国之外的银行里的美元。
(6) 外国债券(foreign bonds)。
与欧洲债券不同，它是借款人在外国资本市场上发行的债券，通常以外国货币标价。
例如，扬基债券，就是外国政府、银行或公司在美国发行的债券，但是近年来出现的一些扬基债券是以非美元货币标价的。
这些债券的发行所在国经常会把这些外国债券和国内企业发行的债券区别对待，包括适用不同的税法、对发行总量的限制或适用更加苛刻的披露条款。
外国债券通常以其发行所在国的绰号命名，如扬基债券（美国）、日本武士债券（日本）、伦布兰特（R e m b r a n d t）债券（荷兰）和牛头犬债券（英国）。
由于各国对外国债券普遍实行更严格的管制、更苛刻的披露要求的原因，外国债券市场过去几年中并未成长起来，而欧洲债券市场在此期间得到了蓬勃发展。
将近有一半的外国债券是在瑞士发行的。
(7) 金边债券( g i l t s )。
严格地说，它是指英国政府和爱尔兰政府发行的证券。
不过该术语也包括了英国地方政府和一些海外官方发行的证券。
(8) 伦敦银行间拆借利率（London Interbank Offerde Rate,LIBOR）。
它是指大多数跨国银行在伦敦市场上拆借欧洲美元的隔夜利率。
L I B O R是货币市场上的证券和由政府和公司借款人发行的短期债券定价的基准。
信用稍差的发行者的借款利率通常较L I B O R 高出一个百分点以上。
(9) 掉期交易( S w a p s )。
有两种基本的掉期交易，即利率掉期和货币掉期。
利率掉期是指交易双方通过掉期将浮动利率换成固定利率，或者相反。
货币掉期是指不同货币的掉期协议。
对以不同货币计价的债务进行掉期时，该项交易经常会同时包括以上两种掉期。
2外汇市场与汇率外汇市场(foreign exchange market)无疑是世界上最大的资金市场。
各国货币在该市场上进行交易。
这类交易大多只发生在少数几种货币之间：美国美元（$）、德国马克（D M）、英国英镑（￡）、日元（￥）、瑞士法郎（S F）和法国法郎（F F）。
外汇市场是一种场外交易市场。
交易者进行交易的地点并不固定，他们位于遍布世界各地的大商业银行与大投资银行之中。
交易者通过计算机终端、电话和其他通讯工具进行联络。
国外交易的通讯网络还包括环球银行金融电信协会（S W I F T），这是比利时设立的一个非盈利性合作组织。
纽约的银行，通过S W I F T的当地处理中心可以将信息传递到伦敦的银行，该联系是通过数据传递线路实现的。
外汇市场形形色色的参与者包括以下几种类型：(1) 将本国货币兑换成外国货币以支付用外国货币计价的商品货款的进口商。
(2) 收到外国货币，却想兑换成本国货币的出口商。
(3) 买卖外币股票和外币债券，并进行投资组合的经理人员。
(4) 执行外汇买卖指令的外汇经纪人。
(5) 进入外汇市场的交易者。
2.1 汇率汇率(exchange rate)是指一国货币换成另一国货币的兑换价。
实务中，几乎全部的货币交易都是通过美元进行的。
例如，德国马克和英国英镑的交易也要按各自与美元的标价进行。
如果标价表示的是每单位外币可兑换的美元数，则该标价被称为直接标价（或美式标价），如，1 . 5 0美元= 1英镑和0 . 4 0美元= 1马克都是直接标价。
但财务报刊通常按照每单位美元可兑换的外币金额进行标价，该种标价方法被称为间接标价（或欧式标价）。
例如：0 . 6 7英镑= 1美元和2 . 5马克= 1美元。
所有的外币都用美元标价有以下两个原因。
第一，这种做法减少了过多的货币交叉标价，例如，若有五个主要货币就会产生 1 0种汇率。
第二，这种做法可以有效地减少三角套汇( t r i a n g u l a r a r b i t r a g e )的发生。
如果所有的货币都可互相交易，那么就更有可能出现不一致的情况。
而在这种做法下，法国法郎对德国马克的汇率就会与美元和德国马克之间的汇率相比较。
这样就会得出一个存在于美元与法国法郎之间特定的汇率，它能阻止三角套汇的发生。
2.2 交易类型外汇市场上存在三种交易：即期、远期和掉期。
即期交易(Spot trades)是外汇买卖双方就两个营业日内进行交割的汇率达成协议，该汇率被称为即期汇率( s p o t - e x c h a n g e r a t e )。
远期交易( f o r w a r d t r a d e s )是外汇买卖双方就将来交割汇率达成协议，该汇率被称为远期汇率( f o r w a r d -exchange rate)。
未来的交易日期通常是以1个星期到5 2个星期为限。
掉期是在卖出（买入）某种外汇的同时就未来某个时间再买入（卖出）该外汇达成协议。
卖出价与再买入价之差被称为掉期汇率(Swap rate)。
例：A银行1 0月11日向B银行在纽约的户头卖出美元，同时其在伦敦某银行的账户收到了英镑。
11月11日，依协议，作相反的交易。
A将英镑卖给B，B将美元卖给A。
这就是一项掉期交易。
实际上，A在借入英镑的同时放弃了美元的使用权，而B获得了美元使用权。
3一价定律与购买力平价说即期汇率是如何确定的呢？一价定律（Law of one price,LOP）是其中一条。
一价定律是指一种商品不论在哪国购入，购入成本都是一样的。
若以公式表示则为：以Ｓ￡（t）代表即期汇率，即在t时买入一英镑需要的美元数；PUS（t）和PU K（t）分别表示在美国和在英国的某特定商品的当前价格，比如说苹果。
那么对苹果来说就满足以下的一价定律：PU S（t）=S￡（t）PU K（t）L O P的理论基础与三角套汇相似。
如果L O P不成立，那么就会出现在国家之间贩运苹果进行套汇的行为。
例如，假设苹果在纽约的价格是每蒲式耳4美元，而在伦敦市场的价格是每蒲式耳 2 . 5 0镑。
这样套用一价定律就有：$ 4 =S￡（t）×￡2 . 5 0即S￡（t）= $ 1 . 6 0 /￡也就是说，一价定律要求：英镑与美元的汇率是 1 . 6 0美元/英镑。
又假设实际汇率是每英镑2美元，投机者以4美元从纽约购入一蒲式耳苹果运到伦敦，以2 .5 0英镑的价格出售。
英镑又可以2美元/英镑兑换成美元，总共可得5美元并产生1美元的收益。
L O P的理论基础是指如果汇率不是1 . 6 0美元/英镑，而是比如说2美元/英镑，那么就会有力量来改变汇率。
同时/或者改变苹果的价格。
在本例中，会有大量的苹果从纽约运到伦敦，这样在纽约，由于苹果的需求，将会使那儿苹果的美元价格上涨，而在伦敦，对苹果的大量供应将使苹果的英镑价格下跌。
苹果商需要将英镑兑换成美元，即大量供应英镑，大量需求美元，这也将施加压力迫使汇率从2美元/英镑降下来。
就像大家能看出来一样，要使L O P严格成立必须满足三个假设：(1) 苹果贸易的交易成本，如运费、保险费、损耗等等，必须是0。
(2) 不存在苹果贸易壁垒，如关税或税收。
(3) 最后，纽约市场上的苹果要与伦敦市场上的苹果一模一样。
如果英国人只吃青苹果的话，你就不可能把红苹果运到伦敦去。
因为交易成本不为0，其他条件也很难满足，所以一价定律实际上只适用于那些非常相似的贸易商品。
L O P不能要求梅塞德斯（M e r c e d e s）的汽车价格与福特汽车的相等，也不能要求法国的原子能工厂价格与纽约原子能工厂的相等。
因为两家的汽车互不相同，而原子能工厂即使一模一样，也因非常昂贵两难以运输。
由于消费者会购买许多种商品，所以经济学家谈的是购买力平价（P u r c h a s i n g - p o w e r p a r i t y, P P P），它表示汇率会自行调整，以保证市场一揽子商品不论是从哪个国家购入的，价格一律相等。