冯友兰英译《庄子》
冯友兰英译《庄子》
西化的《庄子》——冯友兰英译《庄子》的分析一，冯友兰英译《庄子》的概况在冯友兰先生之前，已经有三位译者提供了《庄子》的英译本。
他们分别是： 1881年，巴尔弗（Frederic Henry Balfour）首次翻译了《庄子》的部分内容。
1889年，翟理斯(Herbert A. Giles)首次英译了全本的《庄子》并在伦敦出版，1926年进行修订以后，以《神秘主义者，道德家和社会改革者》为书名在纽约再版。
1891年理雅各（James Legge）的《庄子》英译连同《道德经》一起发表在米勒（Max Muller）主编的丛书《东方圣典》中。
冯友兰先生的《庄子》(内七篇)是该书的第四个英译本。
该译本于1931年由商务印书馆在上海出版，于1964年在纽约再版，1989年由外语出版社在北京重印。
1989年的重印本中，除了1931年的初版中的导言、内七篇的正文翻译（正文中穿插有郭象注的部分内容及少量译者注）、关于郭象哲学的一个附录以外，还多了冯友兰《中国哲学简史》第十章《道家的第三阶段：庄子》作为附录二，以帮助读者更好地理解庄子的文字与思想。
冯先生译《庄子》，有一个事实上的契机。
1925年年底，冯先生在燕京大学任哲学教授之时，兼课于一所华语学校，介绍中国文化，每周一次讲《庄子》。
这本《庄子》内七篇的英译，就是上课所用的读本。
授课需要是冯先生重译庄子最直接的一个原因，但并不是惟一的原因，也不是最重要的原因。
这之前的几个译本，冯先生并非不知晓，也并非见不到：他在译序中明确地表达了对以前译本的评价，并声明参考了之前译本的某些成果。
那么，冯先生不用前人的译本，不辞辛劳进行重译，原因何在？冯先生在译者导言中作了一番解释：“翻译是一种解释与评论。
就目前的《庄子》英译本而言，从文学或语言学的角度来说或许是好的，有用的，然而在解释《庄子》一书时，这些译本似乎并未触及作者真正的哲学精神。
……看来我们更需要一本更注重庄子之哲学思想的译本。
庄子英译
4. 威厄译本，庄子20世纪第一个英语全译本， 1963纽约出版，The Sayings of Chuang Chou. 5. 沃兹生（Burton Watson） ，1964 《庄子菁 华》 （Chuang Tzu: Basic Writings） 1968年， The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu. 6.梅维恒(VictorH.Mair), 1994年出版的译本 Wandering on the Way:Early Taoist Tales and Parables of ChuangTzu (《逍遥游:〈庄 子〉中的早期道家故事及寓言》) 7.汪榕培 英译 Zhuangzi 出版社：湖南人民出版 社 ,1999年
《庄子》英译 Chuang-Tzu
ABrief
Introduction of Chuang-Tzu The English Translation of ChuangTzu A Comparative study of different versions of the Translation of Chuang-Tzu
Zhuang Zi’s philosophy of worshipping the nature often leads to the pursuit of a personality of aloofness. The philosophical basis of this aloofness is relativism, that is, in his own words, “The universe and I came into being together; I and everything therein are One.”(天地与我并生，而万物 与我为一） Only through the equivalence of all things can one’s real self fuse into the world, thus the spiritual emancipation of humanity can be achieved.
第四课 逍遥游
《庄子·逍遥游》（节选）From the Zhuangzi, The Carefree Excursion（excerpted）繁体字诵读北冥有魚，其名為鯤。
鯤之大，不知其幾千里也。
化而為鳥，其名為鵬。
鵬之背，不知其幾千里也；怒而飛，其翼若垂天之雲。
是鳥也，海運則將徙於南冥。
南冥者，天池也。
《齊諧》者，志怪者也。
《諧》之言曰：「鵬之徙於南冥也，水擊三千里，搏扶搖而上者九萬里，去以六月息者也。
」野馬也，塵埃也，生物之以息相吹也。
天之蒼蒼，其正色邪？其遠而無所至極邪？其視下也，亦若是則已矣。
且夫水之積也不厚，則其負大舟也無力。
覆杯水於坳堂之上，則芥為之舟；置杯焉則膠，水淺而舟大也。
風之積也不厚，則其負大翼也無力。
故九萬里，則風斯在下矣，而後乃今掊風；背負青天而莫之夭閼者，而後乃今將圖南。
汉英双语诵读北冥有鱼，其名为鲲。
In the northern ocean there is a fish, called the leviathan,鲲之大，不知其几千里也。
which is no one knows how many thousand li in size.化而为鸟，其名为鹏。
This fish changes into a bird, called the roc,鹏之背，不知其几千里也；whose back spreads over no one knows how many thousand li.怒而飞，其翼若垂天之云。
When the bird rouses itself and flies, its wings are as clouds, hanging over the sky.是鸟也，海运则将徙于南冥。
When it moves itself in the sea, it is preparing to start for the southern ocean,南冥者，天池也。
从译者的主体性看冯友兰对《庄子》的英译
从译者的主体性看冯友兰对《庄子》的英译作者：武洁来源：《青年文学家》2014年第24期摘要：冯友兰是我国著名的哲学家，其英译本《庄子》在国内外具有重要影响。
本文以译者的主体性为切入点，从译者的先在性、创造性、个性等方面对冯友兰《庄子》英译本展开深入讨论与研究。
关键词：冯友兰；《庄子》；译者的主体性作者简介：武洁，女（1986.06-），天津工业大学外国语学院外国语言学及应用语言学专业硕士研究生。
[中图分类号]： H059 [文献标识码]：A[文章编号]：1002-2139（2014）-24--01司马迁曾用“洗洋自态以适己”来赞美《庄子》的文学表达。
冯友兰作为誉满海内外的学者，其对《庄子》的英译本受到国外读者的喜爱，本文从译者的主体性角度分析冯友兰先生对《庄子》一书的翻译。
1、译者的主体性：翻译界对于译者的地位存在争议，传统的翻译研究中，认为原作者是主人，译者处于仆人地位（陈大亮，2004），这无疑抹杀了翻译者的主体地位。
译者一方面是原作的审美主体，另一方面也是译作的创作主体，这种双重身份是客观存在的。
本文，译者的主体性是指译者既尊重翻译对象，又坚持翻译目的，在此过程中所表现出作为翻译主体特有的主观能动性。
从译者的主体构成、译者的知识现在性和译者对文本意义的再创造以及译者的翻译动机三方面探讨了译者的主题性问题。
本文笔者从译者的主体性角度，对冯友兰英译的《庄子》进行了以下分析与解读。
2、《庄子》的翻译与译者主体性的发挥2.1 译者的先在性翻译活动中，译者是主体，翻译材料是客体。
每位译者都有自己的审美价值观，因此，在面对一个译本时，每位译者都有自己的心理关注和审美期待。
这种先在性体现了译者的主体性。
具体说来，在翻译过程中，由译者提前特有的心理关注和审美期待使得文本结构和意义得以创新重构。
就《庄子》这种哲学经典著作，笔者认为，翻译之前，对于它的理解具有重要意义。
王宗炎先生曾说过“辨义是翻译之本”这就是强调理解的重要性。
《庄子》英译本评析
Watson《庄子》英译本评析王建荣（北京交通大学人文社会科学学院，北京 100044）摘要：本文就Watson《庄子》英译本展开评析，从哲学思想的传递，语言、文化差异的处理，语言风格的去留等角度，探讨该译本较为妥贴得体的处理方式和可供译者借鉴的翻译方法。
关键词：《庄子》；Watson英译本；哲学思想；语言文化差异 ；语言风格1. 引言《庄子》作为中国文化史上的哲学经典和文学瑰宝，不断有各种文字的译本将它介绍给世界各国读者欣赏。
就英译本而言，全译本、选译本就有十几种。
第一部全英译本Chuang Tzu: Mystic, Moralist, and Social Reformer由英国十九世纪著名汉学家Herbert A. Giles完成。
该译本过分自由，与原意有较大出入，维多利亚时代的语言风格读来也显冗长乏味。
1891年，牛津大学出版了James Legge的The Writings of Kwang-Kau全译本。
译者深厚的中文经典研究功力赋予该译本一定的权威，只是译文不免过分拘泥于原文，几近逐字翻译。
国内常见的是冯友兰的译本，只包括内篇。
该译本加入了晋人郭象的注疏，很好地传达了《庄子》的哲学思想。
其他一些译本在此不一一列举。
尽管这些译本各有千秋，其中最受好评的总少不了The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu（《庄子全译》），1968年由哥伦比亚大学出版社出版，译者Burton Watson还翻译过《韩非子》、《墨子》和《荀子》选译本。
翻译家奈达说：“所谓翻译，是指从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息”（谭载喜，1984）。
翻译《庄子》，不仅语义上要求传达原文复杂博大的思想体系，文体上还要体现原文自由不羁的浪漫风格。
Watson的《庄子全译》版本运用通顺流畅的现代英语，忠实贴切地传达了原文哲学内容，较好地处理了两种语言间存在的文化差异，同时译者在保存《庄子》原文独到的语言风格方面，又颇有办法，不仅有诗化的语言、各种语音修辞手段，还适度起用口头语言以实现人物对话的听觉效果。
庄子》英译标准研究
2006 年，美国学者科里亚在其互联网网站“开放论道” 上发表了《庄子：无限境界》（Zhuangzi: “Being Boundless”）。这是新世纪中《庄子》最新的电子文 本，为第七种《庄子》全译本。 2007 年 4 月 22-27 日“国际道德经论坛”在古城西 安等地举办，期间进行了《道德经》版本展览，一次展 出的就有 250 个译本，涵盖 26 种语言，它们大多数 是最近几十年内产生的。
短短一段译文，有音译，有加括号补益，又 有四个脚注，并夹杂自己的评说解释，同时 对术语翻译还保存一种谨慎的态度，目的无 非是要尽可能保存原文的文化特色，尽量保 持翻译的忠实性。
4.汪榕培英译《庄子》的整体标准：以可 读性为中心取向
阅读汪译《庄子》乃至汪译的其他典籍作品，译文措辞 得当，简洁明了，忠实流畅，传神达意，广子的思想和风格。以下汪译《庄子》 的译文就是例子 There is in the world nothing greater than the tips of the downs of a bird in autumn while Mount Tai is tiny. There is no one who lives longer than a dead baby while Peng Zu, who lived over 700 years, died young. ——天下莫大于秋毫之末，而泰山为 小，莫寿于殇子，而彭祖为夭。（《齐物论第二》）
The winds rise in the north, / Blow west, blow east, / And
now again whirl high above. / Who breathes them out, who breathes them in? ———（风起北方，一西一东， 有上彷徨。孰嘘吸是？） 从以上译例看出，葛瑞汉重视的并不是韵文之“韵”， 而在于“韵”所造成的节奏和停顿，好给读者带来了思 考的时间与空间，并使上下文之间互相呼应。
《庄子》的英译及其对英语世界的影响
语言新探《庄子》的英译及其对英语世界的影响庄婷南京航空航天大学 外国语学院摘要：庄周是战国时期伟大的思想家、哲学家和文学家，他和他的门人以及后学者所著的《庄子》(被道教奉为《南华经》)是道家经典之一，其中名篇有《逍遥游》，《齐物论》等。
庄子的文章，想象奇特，具有浓厚的浪漫主义色彩，对后世文学有很大的影响。
而《庄子》的英译版本也越来越多，如今其英译版本全译、选译已达二十余种，这些译介对英语世界产生了很大的影响。
关键词：《庄子》；英译；影响庄子(公元前369一公元前286)姓庄名周，字子休，宋国蒙地(今河南商丘)人。
他是老子思想的继承和发展者，后世将他与庄子并称为“老庄”。
The Zhuangzi，a text from the 3rd century BCE，derives its name from its purported author Zhuang Zhou 莊周who early historical sources say fl ourished between about 350 and 300 BCE.”[1]《庄子》被奉为道家的经典之作，大致可以概括为“人道为本”，“万物齐一”，“自然无为”和“逍遥而游”四个方面，取得了很高的文学成就。
目前中外的全译本、选译本已达二十余种。
此文将列举《庄子》的各种英译版本，总结概括别人对英译本的研究，讨论并分析各英译本对英语世界产生的影响，希冀对其他学者的研究有所帮助，并能有越来越多的人关注典籍翻译，投身于典籍翻译事业之中。
一、《庄子》的英译及其研究(一)《庄子》的英译版本1.国外英译西方人对《庄子》最初的接受，是因其所负载的哲学、宗教、伦理等思想。
1881-1910年间“英国的传教士们掀起了《庄子》英译的第一个高潮，希望通过译本来观察中国的文明程度和中国人的道德观念。
”[6]于是1881年，英国汉学家巴尔福第一个将《庄子》译成英文，命名为《南华真经：道家哲学家庄子的著作》。
庄子英译版 (Hughes)
ERNEST RICHARD HUGHES, born in London, 5th January 1883. M.A., Oxon.Missionary in the interior of China, 1911-29. In Shanghai, 1929 – 31. Reader inChinese Religion and Philosophy in Oxford University, 1934-41; seconded toChungking, 1942. Books include The invasion of China by the Western World,1937.CHINESE PHILOSOPHY INCLASSICAL TIMESEdited and Translated byE. A. HUGHESLONDON: J. M. DENT & SONS LTD.NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO. INC.First published 1942Last reprinted 1944Chapter 1. Excursions into Freedom.In the Northern Ocean there is a fish, its name the Kun [Leviathan], its size I know nothow many li. 1 By metamorphosis it becomes a bird called the P‟eng […Roc‟], with a back Iknow not how many li in extent. When it rouses itself and.flies, its wings darken the skylike clouds. With the sea in motion this bird transports itself to the Southern Ocean, theLake of Heaven. In the words of Ch‟i Hsieh, a recorder of marvels, …When the P‟eng transports itself to the Southern Ocean, it thrashes the water for three thousand li, and mounts in a whirlwind to the height of ninety thousand li, and flies continuously for six months before it comes to rest.‟A mote in a sunbeam (that in one sense is all that this1 Li –the Chinese mile, roughly a third of the English mile. 165166 TAO EXPERTSvast Roc is): flying dust which living creatures breathe- in and out! And that blueness ofthe sky! Is it an actual colour, or is it the measureless depth of the heavens which we gazeat from below and see a s …blue,‟ just like that and nothing more? Again take water, withoutthe dense accumulation of which there is no power for the floating of a great ship. And (think of) a cup of water upset in a corner of the hall. A tiny mustard seed becomes a ship (afloat), but the cup which held the water will remain aground because of the shallownessof the water and the size of the cup as a ship.So with the accumulation of wind, without sufficient density 1 it has no power to floathuge wings. Thus it is that the P‟eng has to rise ninety thousand li and cut off the wind beneath if. Then and not before, the bird, borne up by the down-pressed wind, floats in theazure heavens with secure support. Then and not before, it can start on its journey south.A cicada and a young dove giggled together over the P‟eng. The cicada said, …When weexert ourselves to fly up on to the tall elms, we sometimes fail to get there and are pulledback to the ground; and that is that. Why then should any one mount up ninety thousand liin order to go south?‟ Well, the man who goes out to the grassy country near by takes onlythree meals with him and comes back with his stomach well filled. But the man who has totravel a hundred li grinds flour for one night on the way; and the man who has to travel a thousand li requires food for three months. These two little creatures (the cicada and the dove), what can they know?Small knowledge is not equal to great knowledge, just as a short life is not equal to along one. How do we know this to be so? The mushroom with one brief morning‟s existence has no knowledge of the duration of a month. The chrysalis knows nothing of thespring and the. autumn. This is due to their short life. In the south of Ch‟u State1 …Density‟ seems the only word to represent t he Chinese. This is an admirable example of the realistic way in which a reallygreat poet‟s imagination works.CHUANG CHOU 167there is a Ming-ling tree whose springs and autumns make five hundred years. In theold days there was a Ta-ch‟un tree whose sp rings and autumns made eight thousandyears. Right down to the present Grandfather P‟eng 1 is famed for his immense age –although if all man matched him, how wretched they would be!...A variant version of the story of the Leviathan and the Roc is here given, winding upwith a quail laughing at the P‟eng and describing its flight among the bushes as …theperfection of flight.‟ Chuang Chou says that this is due to the difference between smalland great. He then continues:Thus it is that the knowledge of some men qualifies them for a small office and foreffecting unity in one district, whilst the moral power of another man fits him to be aruler and proves itself throughout a whole country. These men have a view ofthemselves which is like the quail‟s vie w of himself.On the other hand, Master Yung of Sung State just laughs at these men. If the wholeworld should admire or criticize him, he would neither be encouraged nor discouraged.Having determined the difference between what is intrinsic and what extrinsic, hedisputed the accepted boundaries of honour and dishonour. In this he was himself, andthere are very few such men in the world. Nevertheless he was not really rooted.Take Master Lieh. He could drive the wind as a team and go, borne aloft, away forfifteen days before returning. Such a man attains a happiness which few possess. Yet inthis, although he had no need to walk, there was still something on which he-wasdependent [viz. the wind]..Sup-posing, however, that he were borne on the normalityof the heavens and earth, driving a team of the six elements in their changes, and thuswandered freely in infinity-eternity, would there be anything then on which he wasdependent?Thus it is that I say, …The perfect man has no self, the spirit-endowed man noachievements, the sage no reputation.‟1 The Methuselah of Chinese tradition.168 TAO EXPERTS(The Emptiness of Fame.)Take the Sage-king Yao, who wished to abdicate his throne in favour of the recluse HsuYu. Yao said, …When the sun or the moon i s shining, if you should keep a torch alight, itsurely would be difficult for it to give light. When the seasonal rain is falling, if you shouldkeep on watering the ground, that would surely be waste of labour. Do you, my Teacher, establish yourself on the throne and the Great Society will be ordered. I am but a dead body. I see myself as incompetent. Pray then, reach out for the Great Society.‟Hsu Yu replied, …You, Sire, in ordering the Great Society have brought it to perfect order. If I should now take your place, it surely would be only for fame. But fame is onlythe transient part of the actual. Am I to act for a transient end? The tit builds its nest in thedeep forest, but that nest takes up no more room than a twig. The tapir drinks from a greatriver, but it only fills its belly. Return and take your kingship easily. For my part there is noway by which I can be of use to the Great Society. If a cook cannot cope with his kitchen'(and prepare the sacrificial meats), the impersonator of the dead or the liturgist in the halldoes not seize the cups and stand and take the cook‟s place.‟(The Spiritual Man and the Inability of the Non-spiritualto understand him.)Chien Wu [an inquirer about the Taoist Way] inquiredfrom Lien Shu, saying, …I heard Chi eh Yu say somethingwhich went too far and is not really true. It carried oneout, but did not bring one back, so its likeness to the bound-less Milky Way frightened me. It was grossly deceptive,removed from human experience.... He said that aspirit man lived on the Miao-ku-she mountain. His fleshand skin were like ice and snow: his delicate grace like agirl‟s. His food was not that of ordinary men, for hebreathed in the wind and drank the dew. He mounted theCHUANG CHOU 169clouds in the air and drove a team of flying dragons, wandering out beyond the Four Seas.His spirit was congealed. Yet he delivered living things from corruption and every yearmade the crops ripen. For me this was a wild tale, and I did not believe him.‟…So,‟ said Lien Shu, …th e blind man has no conception of the beauty of art, nor the deafman of the music of the bells and drums. Blindness and deafness are by no means confinedto material things. These defects also exist in relation to things of the mind pit. to knowledge], and these words of yours make it appear that you are defective in this way.The virtue in that spirit man is such that all things are of little worth to him: they are all oneto him. The world may be anxious to be governed: but why should he bother himself about society? That man, nothing can injure him. If there were a flood reaching to the sky, he would not be drowned. If there were a great drought and the metals and stones becameliquid and the soil of the mountains were burnt up, he would not be hot. Why, the very refuse of his body would serve to manufacture a great sage-emperor.(How Greater Knowledge changes a Man‟s Sense of Values.)A man of Sung State took some sacrificial caps to the State of Yueh 1 to sell. But the people of Yueh wore their hair short and adorned their bodies [? when they sacrificed], sothat they had no use for the caps. In the same way the Sage-king Yao, who ruled the peoples of the Great Society and who had brought peace to all within the Four Seas, wentto see the Four Masters of Miao-ku-she mountain. On his return to his capital, his Great Society no longer existed for him.(The sophist) Master Hui 2 in conversation with Master Chung said, …The King of Weisent me the seed of a great gourd. I planted it and the result was a gourd as big as g five-bushel measure. When I used it for holding water, it1 Yueh was a country on the borders of Chinese civilization,2 This is Hui Shih, who is dealt with in PartFour, Chapter IX,170 TAO EXPERTSwas not rigid enough to bear lifting. If I had cut it up tomake ladles, they would have been too shallow for thepurpose. There was indeed no purpose for which it wasnot too big, so I broke it to pieces as useless.‟Master Chuang said, …Sir, you were stupid over the useof big things. For example, there was a man of SungState who possessed a salve which healed chapped hands.His family, one generation after another, had been washersof silk. A stranger who had heard of this salve overed hima hundred ounces of gold for it. The clan, when calledtogether to consider tne matter, said, “We have been wash-ing silk for generations and have only made a few ouncesof gold. Now in one morning we can make a hundredounces. Let us sell the salve.” The stranger, havingobtained the salve, went and told the King of Wu, who washaving trouble with Yueh State and had made the un-known man commander of his ships. He engaged the menof Yueh in winter time [when hands get chapped], and inthe battle on the water he defeated the Yueh forces. 'Forthis he was rewarded with land and made a noble. The- ability to heal chapped hands was in both cases the same,but in the one case it meant a title of nobility, in the otherit meant being tied down to washing silk. The differencelay in the way of using the salve. Now, Master Hui, youpossessed a gourd as big as a five-bushel measure. Whythen did you not consider it as a huge cup in which youcould float on the rivers and lakes? instead of which youwere distressed that it was too shallow to be a ladle. Theconclusion, sir, is that it looks as if you had a dull mind,doesn‟t it?‟Master Hui said, …I have a huge tree.... Its greattrunk is so knobby and its small branches so twisted thatyou cannot put the measuring tools square on them. Itstands by the public road, but no carpenter casts a glanceat it. Now, Master Chuang; your words are big but ofno use. Every one agrees in rejecting them.‟Master Chuang said, …Have you never seen a wild cat, itsbody crouching low as it waits for its prey? It springs fromCHUANG CHOU 171this side to that, now high, now low – end it gets caught in a trap and dies in a net! There is the yak, so big that it looms over one like a cloud in the sky. That is being really big; and yet it is no use for catching mice. Now, sir, you have a huge tree and you are distressed because it is of no use. Why do you not plant it in the village of non-exis-tence, in the open country of nothingness. Beside it you could wander in inaction; and beneath it you could befree to sleep. No axe would cut it down, nothing would injure it, for there would be no purpose for which it might be used. Would you not be free from trouble then?‟Chapter 2. The (Inner) Harmony of (Opposing) Things. 1Tzu Ch‟i, a man from Nan Kuo, leant against a low table as he sat on the ground. Helooked up to heaven, and his breath died down. Without a sound he seemed to lose hispartnership (of soul and body). Yen Ch‟eng Tzu Yu, who was standing before him inattendance, said, …How is this, that you can make your body like a sapless tree and yourmind like dead ashes? At this moment the person leaning against the table is not the personwho was leaning against it before.‟Tzu Ch‟i said, …Yen, this is a good question you are asking. At the moment, you mustunderstand, my self was gone clean away. You have listened to the music which manmakes, but you have not listened to the music of the earth; or you may have listened to themusic of the earth, but you have not listened to the music of Heaven.‟Tzu Yu said, …May I ask you for an explanation of this?‟Tzu Ch‟i said, …The great mass of breath (in the atmosphere) is,called the wind. Thereare times when the wind does not move. When it does move, a myriad apertures arearoused to make sounds. Have you never listened to the liao liao of the wind? You knowthe cavities and holes in the rugged heights of the mountains and the woods – with trees ahundred spans in girth. There are, as it were,1 …Things‟ in this chapter, as often elsewhere, includes not only things in Nature, but also institutions and ideas of every kind.172 TAO EXPERTSnoses and mouths and ears, square sockets and round depressions, mortars and ditches andpools. So there is a roaring and a snoring, a whistling and a sizzling, a howling and ayowling. The wind dies down and there is a tiny melody: it comes at full blast and there isa great diapason. There is a lull and every hole is devoid of sound....‟Tzu Yu said, …Since the music of the earth is just a matter of all kinds of holes, andhuman music a matter of pipes, may I ask what the music of Heaven is?‟Tzu Ch‟i said, …All this blowing varies in a myriad ways. Who then can there be whoexcites all this and makes each way be itself and all of them be self-produced?‟(Supreme Knowledge and Partial Knowledge, and theConditions under which they arise.)Great knowledge includes everything: small knowledge is restricted. Great speech hasno pungency to it: small speech (may be pungent but) it is just chatter.Whether men are asleep and soul has communion with soul, or whether they are awakeand the body is freed and its contacts are the basis of intercourse, the mind is day by dayengaged in struggle. There are indecisions, grief', reservations, small fears giving rise toperturbation, great fears giving rise to recklessness.Consider the mind. In some men it shoots forth like a bolt from a cross-bow, assumingmastery of right and wrong. In others it holds back, merely guarding (the opinions) theyhave won. In others it decays like the decline of the year, in other words, day by daycrumbling away to nothing. In others it is sunk in creaturely activity from which it cannotbe drawn back. In others it is sealed with hates, in other words like an old drain (chokedwith muck). Thus the mind has one foot in the grave, and there is no way of reviving it [lit.bringing it back to the light of the sun].(Consider the emotions.) Joy and anger, sorrow and delight, anxiety and regret, the fireof sex passion 1 and the1 Emending the character pien to luan.CHUANG CHOU 173(subsequent) feeling of contentment: evanescent moods, like the music coming fromemptiness, like mushrooms coming from damp heat. Day and night alternate beforeour eyes, and there is no knowing what they may bring forth. (An emotion) gone, isgone, and to-morrow can by no means 1 reproduce it.What is the cause of the emotions? It is near to the truth to say that without themthere is no …I,‟ and without an …I‟ they have nothing to take hold of. But we areignorant as to what makes this so. There must be a True Lord, but we are least ableto discover traces of His existence. We may act in the belief that He exists, but wecannot see His form, for the Reality. that exists has no form.(Consider the body and its parts,) its nine apertures and six internal organs, all in their places. Which of them shall we like best? Or are we to be pleased with them allalike? (As a matter of fact) each has its personal function, and thus all are in theposition of servants: is that not so? As servants they have not the power to controleach other: is that not so? Then can they take turn and turn about in being master andservant? (As a matter of fact) they have a tru e ruler in his place [viz. the …I‟]; andwhether they try or not to find out his reality does not add to or subtract from thetruth about him.Once this …I‟ has received its complete form and so long as it awaits the completion of its span, it cannot be nonexistent. But as it rubs and fights against thematerial world it is moving towards this completion with the speed of a gallopinghorse; and nothing can stop this. Alas, alas, to be throughout one‟s life dispatched onservice, but to see no achievement co ming from it! To be wearied with one‟s serviceand not to know what is its final object! Surely we are right in lamenting this. Andnothing is gained by men affirming that there is no physical death. The bodydecomposes, and the mind decomposes with it. And surely we are right in alarmingthat this is supremely1 Emending mu to mo.174 TAO EXPERTSlamentable. Thus man's life is like a passing dream, 1 is it not? Unless it be that I alone am dreaming and other men are not dreaming.Men follow the dictates of their made-up minds, and there is no one who does not dothis. But how can a priori knowledge take the place of the mind choosing for itself? Thisdoes happen, but it is the ignorant who allow it to happen. To make the distinction betweenright and wron g apart from the making up of the mind is equivalent to …going to Yueh to-day and arriving there in the past.‟ 2 It amounts to making nothing be something.. But if nothing can be something, even a divine Yu 3 could not have knowledge, and there wouldbe nothing we could do about it.Take speech. It is not just an emission of breath. The man who speaks has something tosay, and what he has to say is by no means absolutely predetermined [i.e. apart from the speaker]. Are we to infer that the words exist (waiting to be said) or that they do not existuntil they are said? And this is a question of whether we can prove a distinction between human speech and the chirping of fledgelings.The question has to be asked: how the Tao becomes obscured so that there is the distinction of true and false. Also, how is speech obscured so that there is the distinction ofright and wrong? The Tao cannot go away (for a moment) and cease to be here; neith”r canwords be here [i.e. have been spoken] and be impossible. The obscuring of the Tao is in relation to one-sided thinking, and the obscuring of speech is in relation to the embroideryof eloquence. Thus it is that there are the distinctions of right and wrong made by the Confucianists and the Mohists, the one affirming what the other denies, and denying whatthe other affirms. If then we want to affirm what they (both) deny and deny what they affirm, there is no other way than that of a clearer understanding.1 Emending the character man to meng.2 The famous paradox by Hui Shih. Cp. Part Four, Chapter IX.3 The Sage-king Yu;CHUANG CHOU 175(We have to realize that) a thing is both a …That‟ and a …Tis,‟ and it cannot see itself as a …That.‟ If you know yourself, then you know. (Otherwise you do not know.) Thus it is thatI mai ntain that the …That‟ proceeds from the …This,‟ also that the …This‟ is linked to the …That.‟ The' …That‟ and the …This‟ together, life interpreted under conditions (of time)!After all, now there is life, now death; now death, now life. What is possible at one time is impossible at another: arid what is impossible at one time is possible at another. Beinglinked to the right is being linked to the wrong, and being linked to the wrong is beinglinked to the right. That is why the sages do not follow these distinctions and Co become enlightened by Heaven, 1 and are linked to the …This.‟(As has already been stated) a …This‟ is also a …That,‟ and a …That‟ is also a …This.‟ Thenin addition, a …That,‟ as also a …This,‟ is equally affirmable and deniable, with t he resultthat we cannot infer either that they exist, or that they do not exist. Do not let them get tothe point of being a pair of opposites. This is called (reaching) the axis of the Tao; for anaxis from the outset is in position at the centre of a circle and meets the requirements ofevery change endlessly. Since both the right and the wrong are endlessly (changing), therefore I maintain that there is no other way than that of illumination....The possibility of the possible and the impossibility of the impossible – it is the Tao in action which brings this about. Thus a thing is described as being so [i.e. what it is]. How is it just what it is? Through the so-ness in its being just what it is. How is it not what it is? Through the not-so-ness in its being just so. A thing never varies in having what makes it what it is, nor in having what makes it possible. There is not anything which is not what it is, nor which is impossible. Thus it is that there are roof-slats alongside of solid pillars, ugliness alongside of beauty, and to be great [kuei], to alter [kuei], to flatter [kuei], to be1 T’ien, the transcendental side to Nature,176 TAO EXPERTS marvellous [kuei]; 1 all these through Tao have the unity of mutual interpenetration. For a thing to be separated out (from the mass) is for it to become a thing. For it to become a (complete) thing is for it to de-become. Every single thing both becomes and de-becomes, 2 both processes being to and fro in the unity of mutual interpenetration.Only the man of all-embracing intelligence knows this unity of mutual interpenetration. Because he has this intelligence, he cannot be made use of but takes up his abode in its common functioning. His functioning has utility, for to be of (real) use is to interpenetrate and be interpenetrated; and to penetrate and be interpenetrated is to achieve. To arrive at achievement is about all a man can do. Following on from that comes stopping; and to stop without knowing that one is stopping that is – Tao.For a man to wear out his spirit and intelligence in an effort to make a unity of things, and to be ignorant of the fact that they are in agreement, this is to be described by …The Morning Three.‟ What do I mean by that? Well, there was a certain monkey-keeper who had charge of their diet of acorns. He ordered three in the morning and four at night for each one. The monkeys were all angry about this. The keeper said, …Very well, then, you can have four in the morning and three at night.‟ The monkeys were all pleased. Thus in name there was actually no change for the worse, whilst scope was given to feelings of pleasure and anger and the arrangement was in conformity with those feelings. It is in this way that sages by means of the surface distinctions of …the right‟ and …the wrong‟make harmony, and yet take their ease in Heaven‟s levelling out. By levelling out I mean going two ways at once.1 The modern pronunciation of these four characters given here as kueiis as follows: k’uei, kuei, ch’ueh, and kuai. The traditional rhyme of thefirst is k’uei. Chuang Chou‟s selection of these four somewhat unconnect-able concepts here is with a view to showing that there must be someconnection since the ideographs exist and, what is more, are expressed bythe same sound in speech. N.B.–I have no reason to suppose that thatsound was actually kuei, but it must have been something like it.2 The text is emended, a pu being added to the wei to make a doublenegative. Without this sense seems hardly possible.CHUANG CHOU 177 The knowledge which the men of old had was perfect in one respect. How this was so, is as follows. There were men who held that before there began to be (so many) things (in the world), that was perfection, a state of completion to which nothing could be added. Then there came a second stage in which there were a large number of things, but they had not begun to be carefully differentiated. Next to this came a stage when things were differentiated, but there had not begun to be a distinction between right (things) and wrong (things). This ornamentation (of things) as right and wrong was the process which brought about the waning of the Tao in the world, and the same process brought about the rise of personal preference. And it is equally out of the question to infer either that there really is progress and regress or that there is not. If we say there is, it is a case of …Chao‟s fine playing of the lute.‟ If we say there is not, it is a case of …Chao‟s inability to play the lute.‟ 1 Chao Wen‟s playing and Shih Huang‟s wielding of the conductor‟s baton and Master Hui‟s leaning against a Wu tree: the three experts‟ knowledge was just more or less. Hence each went on till the last year of his life; but it was only they who prized their knowledge and regarded it as extraordinary c ompared to any one else‟s. Because they prized it they wanted to enlighten people with it. But other people were opposed to their enlightening and enlightening. The result was the confusion worse confounded of Master Hui‟s argument about hardness and whiteness –his son (you know) tried for his whole life to reach the conclusion of the argument and failed. If that is the meaning of progress, then I too (in this argument) am adding to the progress. If, however, it may not be described as progress, then there is no progress, not even with me (and my arguing!). These are the reasons why sages aim at the glorious light which comes from slippery doubts. It is why they cannot be used and on the contrary make1 Chao Wen is said to have been a music master in Cheng State. The reference here seems to be to a dividedopinion about him, some, including himself, saying he was a fine player, and some that he was not.178 TAO EXPERTStheir abode in common functioning. I describe this as increasing one‟s intelligence.I will illustrate. Here are some words, and I do not know whether they are classifiable ornot as right – for any things to -be classifiable and not classifiable is for them together tomake a new class, and then they are in the same position as the other classified things. However that may be, allow me to try and say what I want to say. Since there is such athing as the beginning, there is also such a thing as a beginning before the beginning, andthere is also such a thing as a beginning to before the beginning to before the beginning.Since there is such a thing as something, there is also such a thing as nothing; and then,since there is such a thing as before the beginning of something and nothing, there is alsosuch a thing as a beginning to before the beginning of something and nothing. There we are!And I do not know which of the two, something and nothing, is something and which is nothing. Coming to myself and what I have just described, presumably it is a description of something, but I do not know whether it is really something or whether it is really nothing.(It has been argued that) 1 …in the world of our experience (there is a sense in which)there is nothing bigger than the tip of a new-grown hair, whilst a great mountain is a tiny thing: that there is no greater age than that of a baby cut off in infancy, whilst GrandfatherP‟eng (with his 700 years) died in his youth: that heaven and earth were born at the sametime that I was, and so all things in nature arid I are one and the same thing.‟ Sin ce they areone, you can still find words to express it, can you? 2 And since it has been expressed, canit still be unexpressed? …One plus the words about it makes two, and two plus the oneness(of the two) makes three.‟ If we go on like this, even the cl everest reckoner breaks down:and how much more the ordinary run of men!1 There follow quotations from Master Hui and his fellow sophists.2 Chuang Chou‟s position is that the use of words invariably involvescomparison.CHUANG CHOU 179Thus it is that by going on from nothing to something we arrive at three. Howmuch more if we go on from something to something! Don‟t let us go on! Let usstop here!The Tao has never begun to have mutually exclusive distinctions. Words, on the other hand, have never begun to have permanency. Because this is so there are linesof division. With your permission I will mention them. The left involves the right.Reasoned statements (about a thing being on the left or the right, etc. etc.) involvejudgments. Then divisions of opinion involve arguments. Then controversiesinvolve quarrels. These may be called the Eight To-and-Fro‟s. 1 What is beyond theworld of space, the sage holds within himself, but he does not reason about it. Whatis within the world of space he reasons about, but he does not make any judgmenton it. About the annals and the records of past kings he makes a judgment, but hedoes not argue, with the result that division of opinion is not really division ofopinion, nor arguing really arguing. How that comes about is by reason of the sageembracing all things. The mass of men argue with a view to demonstrating to eachother; which is why I say that arguing is not a revealing process.The supreme 2 Tao cannot be talked about, and the supreme 2 argument does not require speech. (So also) supreme benevolence is not just being charitable, supremepurity not just being disinterested, and supreme courage not just brute violence. Ifthe Tao were to glitter, it would not be the Tao. The speech which argues comesshort of what it might be. The benevolence that is stereotyped does not succeed.The purity that is flawless does not engage confidence. The courage that isabsolutely unyielding defeats its own end....Thus it is that he who knows how to stop at what he doesnot know is perfect. ‟Who can know the argument which is not put into speech andthe Tao that has no name? If1 Emending the text as Ma Hsu-lun suggests.2 The character ta (big) in many contexts' conveys the impression of meaning authoritative or transcendent.180 TAO EXPERTSthere should be the ability to know' in this way, this knowledge might be described as 'theStore of Heaven.‟ Pour into it and it does not overflow. Pour out from it and it does not become empty. It does not know the source of its k nowing. This is the meaning of …storingup the light.‟。
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西化的《庄子》——冯友兰英译《庄子》的分析一，冯友兰英译《庄子》的概况在冯友兰先生之前，已经有三位译者提供了《庄子》的英译本。
他们分别是： 1881年，巴尔弗（Frederic Henry Balfour）首次翻译了《庄子》的部分内容。
1889年，翟理斯(Herbert A. Giles)首次英译了全本的《庄子》并在伦敦出版，1926年进行修订以后，以《神秘主义者，道德家和社会改革者》为书名在纽约再版。
1891年理雅各（James Legge）的《庄子》英译连同《道德经》一起发表在米勒（Max Muller）主编的丛书《东方圣典》中。
冯友兰先生的《庄子》(内七篇)是该书的第四个英译本。
该译本于1931年由商务印书馆在上海出版，于1964年在纽约再版，1989年由外语出版社在北京重印。
1989年的重印本中，除了1931年的初版中的导言、内七篇的正文翻译（正文中穿插有郭象注的部分内容及少量译者注）、关于郭象哲学的一个附录以外，还多了冯友兰《中国哲学简史》第十章《道家的第三阶段：庄子》作为附录二，以帮助读者更好地理解庄子的文字与思想。
冯先生译《庄子》，有一个事实上的契机。
1925年年底，冯先生在燕京大学任哲学教授之时，兼课于一所华语学校，介绍中国文化，每周一次讲《庄子》。
这本《庄子》内七篇的英译，就是上课所用的读本。
授课需要是冯先生重译庄子最直接的一个原因，但并不是惟一的原因，也不是最重要的原因。
这之前的几个译本，冯先生并非不知晓，也并非见不到：他在译序中明确地表达了对以前译本的评价，并声明参考了之前译本的某些成果。
那么，冯先生不用前人的译本，不辞辛劳进行重译，原因何在？冯先生在译者导言中作了一番解释：“翻译是一种解释与评论。
就目前的《庄子》英译本而言，从文学或语言学的角度来说或许是好的，有用的，然而在解释《庄子》一书时，这些译本似乎并未触及作者真正的哲学精神。
……看来我们更需要一本更注重庄子之哲学思想的译本。
”1这是冯先生自述的重译第一理由。
看来，冯先生以纯粹的哲学文本来看待《庄子》，希望英译能够较好地阐释原作的哲学精神。
对于哲学的学习，冯先生非常强调阅读原文：“一个人若不能读哲学著作原文，要想对它们完全理解、充分欣赏，是很困难的，对于一切哲学著作来说都是如此。
这是由于语言的障碍。
”2可是，在语言障碍已然存在的情况下，要了解异国的哲学，也就不得不退而求其次，即依靠译文。
冯先生正要着手在《庄子》与英语读者之间架起沟通的桥梁。
他对于自己面临的困难以及读者不得不面对的遗憾，均有充分的认识。
他说：“中国哲学著作富于暗示的特点，使语言障碍更加令人望而生畏了。
中国哲学家的言论、著作富于暗示之处，简直是无法翻译的，只读译文的人，就丢掉了它的暗示；这就意味着丢掉了许多。
”3他进一步解释道：“一种翻译，终究不过是一种解释。
比方说，有人翻译一句《老子》，他就是对此句的意义作出自己的解释。
但是这句译文只能传达一个意思，原文还可能含有许多别的意思。
原文是富于暗示的，而译文则不是，也不可能是。
所以译文把原文固有的丰富内容丢掉了许多。
”4我们知道，冯先生是一位在北京大学哲学门受过专门的中国哲学训练的中国本土学者，并进而在美国哥伦比亚大学研究西方哲学。
他应该比别的译者更清楚中国哲学和西方哲学的总体状况和具体分野，因此，用英语来“解释和评论”《庄子》的哲学精神，对于他来说，应该相对别的译者要容易一些，他也似乎更能胜任一些。
冯先生也可能意识到自身的优势所在，因此决定重译《庄子》。
冯先生重译的第二个理由是：清代的学术在校勘古书方面取得了大量成果，使许多错杂晦涩的古书变得较为清晰易读。
但是“早期的英文译本似乎没有利用这些学者的劳动成果。
……一种体现近代学术成果的新译本也是需要的。
”5确实，文本的校勘考证对于了解文本的原始面貌和本来含意尤其关键。
清代学术的累累硕果，如不能得到利用，实为憾事。
冯友兰重译《庄子》是为了更好地向英语读者介绍庄子的哲学思想，而不是为了标新立异。
因此他“参考并自由地利用了别的译本，尤其是理雅各和翟理斯的。
译文正确时，就没有必要仅仅为了不同而不同。
”6这是真话。
对照冯友兰先生的译本跟翟理斯、理雅各的译本，可以看到，一些相对来说不那么要紧的人物鸟兽等的专有名称的译法，冯译跟前两位译者往往是一致的，其中跟翟理斯的共同点相同处更多一些；一些寓言中不涉及庄子核心思想的的叙述上，也往往跟前译本有许多雷同。
同时，冯友兰的译本有他自己的独到之处，“我常常根据我认为的对庄子哲学的正确解释给出新的翻译。
……有些重要的术语、短语以及段落，对整个章节的理解非常关键。
不同的翻译可能会使整个章节的语调和色彩变得不同。
……这一点，加上注释与评论，也使我能够称这个译本为我的译本。
”7确实，通过阅读译文，读者很容易发现冯译与前两位译者在“哲学精神”上的差别。
汪榕培、任秀桦两位先生在他们的《庄子》英译本前言中指出，冯友兰先生译本的独到之处，“包含了晋人郭象的注疏，并在附录中对郭象的哲学观点给予了评论”。
8但事实上，这只是外在的特别之处，更为本质的独到之处，却在于冯先生所一再强调的译者对于对庄子的阐释与解读，这也正是冯友兰先生重译《庄子》的真正动机，反映出冯先生对于翻译这项工作的理解。
译者对庄子的“解释和评论”，在该译本中，包括对正文的翻译，对于郭象注的选择以及译者自己的注释三部分内容。
“晋人郭象的注疏”所译出的部分，乃是经过冯先生的选择和过滤，认为可以帮助补充行文的字面含意的内容，进一步阐释庄子哲学精神；不仅如此，冯先生还经常加入自己的译者注，往往将《庄子》和郭象的哲学思想和西方哲学进行比较。
汪、任两位并认为冯译“在前言和附录中详细地论述了庄子的哲学思想，并提出了许多个人的见解，意思表达比较准确。
”9两位所谓的“比较准确”，应该是从传统的“忠实”于原文的角度而言，换言之，冯先生英译《庄子》的哲学阐释，跟中国人所大体认同的庄子哲学精神，应该是比较吻合的。
但是，通过对冯友兰译本的详细考察，包括导言、英译正文、附录等各部分内容，我们发现，冯先生虽然提出了许多“个人的见解”，但却很难说是做到了传统意义上的“比较准确”。
事实上，他在序言中对以庄子为代表的道家哲学思想的分析，以及译文的某些具体处理，多与西方哲学概念相比附，甚至时时以西方概念解释道家哲学，在两者之间轻易划上等号。
他的解说，与中国读者看到了中国学者关于《庄子》的解说，有很多不一致的地方，因此英语读者如果仅仅阅读冯译《庄子》，所了解到的庄子哲学，恐怕与中国读者有很大的差异。
下文将详细考察冯友兰英译《庄子》的一些具体处理，看看在冯先生笔下“重生”的庄子，与普通中国大众印象中的庄子，发生了什么样的变化。
二，冯友兰对庄子及其思想的总体介绍翟理斯和理雅各，都参照《史记》的简短记载尽其可能地介绍了庄子其人，甚至还介绍了老子、孔子、孟子、惠施、墨子等人及他们各自的重要观点，借以说明当时中国思想界的总体氛围，便于读者更好地理解眼前的庄子，同时也显示出译者的博学与专业；冯友兰，这位对中国古代哲学比前两位西方译者更有发言权的中国哲学家，反而将历史上对老子、庄子其人、其书的种种记载、考证与猜测通通抛在一边，（在北京的新版中，道家第三阶段的附录中对庄子其人其书作了简单的介绍。
）开门见山将老庄的思想合在一起加以讨论。
译法问题。
因此，冯友兰的导言，集中于老庄道家思想的精华内容。
在导言中，冯友兰首先引用了美国实用主义哲学家威廉·詹姆士（William James）的观点。
詹姆士将世界上所有的哲学家按气质分为“硬心的”（tough-minded）和“软心的”(tender-minded)两种，其世界观分别倾向于科学与宗教；詹姆士又认为，哲学史上调解科学与宗教之冲突的方法有两种，即实用主义（pragmatic）的方法和新现实主义（neorealistic）的方法。
紧接这这段介绍，冯友兰十分干脆地将道家归入新现实主义派，称它“既是自然的和科学的，又是神秘的和宗教的”。
10中国古代传统哲学跟西方哲学的差别之大，早已众所周知。
几乎所有别的译者都不仅强调中国哲学与西方哲学的差异，并且强调道家在中国哲学中的独特之处，借以提醒读者道家思想相对于西方人的世界观和哲学观，可能是“特殊中的特殊”。
而冯友兰这位中国学者，却不但不做类似的强调，反而将道家轻轻放入一位以西方哲学为主要视野的西方哲学家的哲学分类中，这样一来，之前译者所强调的道家思想与西方哲学之间那条巨大的鸿沟，就被轻轻掩盖了。
不管冯先生的分类是否准确，它至少不会使英语读者在阅读先期产生陌生感、距离感；这正是之前的译本（之后的译本，情况也类似）所强调的，也或许正是冯先生刻意避免的：他不希望读者因为陌生而产生排斥和畏惧的感觉，从而放弃阅读。
在接下来的导言和随后的正文翻译中，冯先生进一步做了类似的努力，即多方阐释道家与西方哲学的相似处和相关性。
在冯先生的译本中，不但频频出现西方哲学家的名字，如已经提到的威廉詹姆士，还有斯宾诺莎、黑格尔、伊壁鸠鲁等，也频频出现西方哲学和观念的名词，如“纯粹经验”、“绝对自由”、“精神自由”、“第一和谐”、“第二和谐”等等。
有必要指出的是，冯先生在提到这些西方人和西方思想的时候，几乎都是在说明他们与庄子及其思想的吻合之处，对于他们之间或细微或明显的差异，则几乎一律避而不谈。
可以说，冯先生“融道家思想与西方哲学于一炉”的动机十分明显。
三：对部分道家具体思想的探讨冯先生在译本中对于《庄子》的一些哲学名词的译法并不作解释，也不做不同译法之间的比较，只是直接给出自己的译法，并在导言和译者注中说明这些名词所包含的思想。
1，对“道”的翻译与解释冯友兰指出，“道”曾被译为“Tao，the way，the truth”等等，但未对这些译法作任何的评判。
在他自己的译文中，冯友兰选择了Tao，这种选择本身是一种态度，即the way，the truth等都不是“道”的对等词，也不能说明“道”的内涵，因此采用音译法Tao。
这并非冯先生的独创，但至少是能够接受的一种译法。
《庄子》全书论“道”最重要最完整的文字，见于《大宗师》：夫道有情有信，无为无形；可传而不可受，可得而不可见；自本自根，未有天地，自古以固存；神鬼神帝，生天生地；在太极之先而不为高，在六极之下而不为深，先天地生而不为久，长于上古而不为老。
根据陈鼓应先生的解释，这段话揭示了道的“实存性”几个特点。
11“无为”是形容道的幽隐寂静，“无形”是形容道的超乎名相。
虽然如此，道在作用上可以取得信验，因此虽然不见形象，仍然是真实存在的。
这也就是道的实存性。
其次，道又是自存的。
它“自本自根”，存在的根据就在于自身；并且具有先在性和永存性，因为它“未有天地，自古以固存”。
再次，道是天地产生的条件。