SLA_二语习得重要问题总结教案资料
S L A_二语习得重要问题总结SLA 期末考试提纲Week 9Chapter 1 Introducing Second Language AcquisitionChapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definition:1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of individualsand groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classrooms.rmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts.4.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturallyin early childhood, usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may ha ve more than one “first” language.5.Second language (L2): In its general sense, this term refers to any language that isacquired after the first language has been established. In its specific sense, this term typically refers to an additional language which is learned within a context where it is societally dominant and needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes.The more specific sense contrasts with foreign language, library language, auxiliary (帮助的，辅助的) language, and language for specific purposes.6.Target language: The language that is the aim or goal of learning.7.Foreign language: A second language that is not widely used in the learners’ immediatesocial context, but rather one that might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.8.Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning,especially when books and journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.9.Auxiliary language: A second language that learners need to know for some officialfunctions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.10.L inguistic competence: The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of alanguage. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.11.L inguistic performance: The use of language knowledge in actual production.12.C ommunicative competence: A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociolinguisticsdefined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003)13.P ragmatic competence: Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret andconvey meaning within communicative situations.14.M ultilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.15.M onolingualism: The ability to use only one language.16.S imultaneous multilingualism: Ability to use more than one language that were acquiredduring early childhood.17.S equential multilingualism: Ability to use one or more languages that were learned afterL1 had already been established.18.I nnate capacity: A natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn oracquire language.19.C hild grammar: Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic interms of production and comprehension.20.I nitial state: The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include theunderlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.21.I ntermediate state: It includes the maturational changes which take place in “childgrammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language.22.F inal state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adultgrammar.23.P ositive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.24.N egative transfer: Inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Alsocalled interference.25.Poverty-of-the-stimulus: The argument that because language input to children isimpoverished and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.26.S tructuralism: The dominant linguistic model of the 1950s, which emphasized thedescription of different levels of production in speech.27.P honology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systemsgenerally.28.S yntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences,such as ordering and agreement.29.S emantics: The linguistic study of meaning.30.L exicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.31.B ehaviorism: The most influential cognitive framework applied to language learning inthe 1950s. It claims that learning is the result of habit formation.32.A udiolingual method: An approach to language teaching that emphasizes repetition andhabit formation. This approach was widely practiced in much of the world until at least the 1980s.33.T ransformational-Generative Grammar: The first linguistic framework with an internalfocus, which revolutionized linguistic theory and had profound effect on both the study of first and second languages. Chomsky argued effectively that the behaviorist theory of language acquisition is wrong because it cannot explain the creative aspects of linguistic ability. Instead, humans must have some innate capacity for language.34.P rinciples and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework thatfollowed Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.35.M inimalist program: The internally focused linguistic framework that followedChomsky’s Principles and Parameters model. This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.36.F unctionalism: A linguistic framework with an external focus that dates back to the earlytwentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School (布拉格学派) of Eastern Europe.It emphasizes the information content of utterances and considers language primarily as a system of communication. Functionalist approaches have largely dominated European study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.37.N eurolinguistics: The study of the location and representation of language in the brain, ofinterest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century and one of the first fields to influence cognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in 1960s.38.C ritical period: The limited number of years during which normal L1 acquisition ispossible.39.C ritical Period Hypothesis: The claim that children have only a limited number of yearsduring which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffered brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.40.I nformation processing (IP): A cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (likelearning of other complex domains) proceeds from controlled to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.41.C onnectionism: A cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning inthe 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from increasing strength of associations between stimuli and responses.42.V ariation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematicdifferences in learner production which depend on contexts of use.43.A ccommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion thatspeakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.44.S ociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims thatinteraction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition.Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.45.E thnography(人种论、民族志) of communication: A framework for analysis oflanguage and its functions that was established by Hymes(1966). It relates language use to broader social and cultural contexts, and applies ethnographic methods of data collection and interpretation to study of language acquisition and use.46.A cculturation(文化适应): Learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting tothose values and behavior patterns.47.A cculturation Model/Theory: Schumann’s (1978) theory that identi fies group factors suchas identity and status which determine social and psychological distance between learner and target language populations. He claims these influence outcomes of SLA.48.S ocial psychology: A societal approach in research and theory that allows exploration ofissues such as how identity, status, and values influence L2 outcomes and why. It has disciplinary ties to both psychological and social perspectives.PART TWO: Short & Long answers:Chapter 11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist,sociolinguists and social psycholinguists? P3（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.（2）Psychologists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.2.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, librarylanguage and auxiliary language? P4（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.3.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than other? P5The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Ling uistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.Chapter21.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age.P10The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:●Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language;●A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specificdomains;●Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 is required;●Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;●A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficiencyin another language;●A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge ofanother language;●An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to theirtechnologies or literatures.2.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning? P13（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.3.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively? P17-18The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.4.How does intermediate states process? P18-19The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.5.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)? P20Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur.It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.6.What is a facilitating condition for language learning? P20While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.7.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity forlanguage. P21-24The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie（指原则、理由构成某学说...的基础，潜在于...之下) language acquisition was prominently espoused (采纳或支持事业理念)by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the inputthey receive: Children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system. Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include datafor all of the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset of possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints which allow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access to general constraintsand principles which govern language could account for the relatively short time it takes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for the fact that it does so systematically and without any “wild” divergences. This could be so because innate principles lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to the lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles are thus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input: Inspite of the surface differences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.8.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of languageacquisition. What is the difference between the two? P25-26Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.9.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from apsychological perspective? P26-27(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and thatlearning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innateknowledge or abstraction of rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.10.W hat are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective? P27(1) Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to languageacquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction. (2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.Week10Chapter 5 Social contexts of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definitionmunicative competence: A basic tenet of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speakerneeds to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”(Saville-Troike 2003)nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language toat least some extent.3.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs insystematic ways from language addressed to native or very fluent speakers.4.Direct Correction: Explicit statements about incorrect language use.5.Indirect correction: Implicit feedback about inappropriate language use, such asclarification requests when the listener has actually understood an utterance.6.Interaction Hypothesis: The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which takeplace in social interation facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility ofinput for mental processing.7.Symbolic mediation: A link between a person’s current mental state and higher orderfunctions that is provided primarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (of language, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.8.Variable features: Multiple linguistic forms (vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax,discourse) that are systematically or predictably used by different speakers of a language, or by the same speakers at different times, with the same meaning or function.9.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variableelement.10.P sychological context: factors associated with the amount of attention which is beinggiven to language form during production, the level of automaticity versus control in processing, or the intellectual demands of a particular task.11.M icrosocial context: features of setting/situation and interaction which relate tocommunicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.12.A ccommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion thatspeakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to .13.Z PD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area of potential development where the learnercan only achieve that potential with assistance. Pa rt of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory. 14.S caffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform anyspecific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.15.I ntrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind,viewed by Vygosky as a sociocultural phenomen.16.I nterpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.17.S ocial institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice toregulate and organize the life of people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.18.A cculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values andbehavioral patterns.19.A dditive bilingualism: The result of SLA in social contexts where members of adominant group learn the language of a minority without threat to their L1 competence or to their ethnic identity.20.S ubtractive bilingualism: The result of SLA in social contexts where members of aminority group learn the dominant language as L2 and are more likely to experience some loss of ethnic identity and attrition of L1 skills—especially if they are children.21.F ormal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which aresocial institutions that are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.22.I nformal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settingswhere people contact—and need to interact with—speakers of another language.PART TWO: Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicativecompetence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture.The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, and even somewhat divergent meanings for the “same” lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from th at of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA? P101-102a) L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic & communicative competence (CC)? Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”, such as a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation? Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affectthe feedback provided to students?ⅰ. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency of input structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;c) From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a。
《第二语言习得研究》重点知识点
《第二语言习得研究》重点知识点一、第二语言习得理论1.第二语言习得与第一语言习得的区别：第二语言习得是指学习者在已经掌握第一语言的基础上学习第二语言，与第一语言习得有所不同。
2.共同的习得条件：第二语言习得与第一语言习得都受到认知、社会、情感等多种因素的影响。
3.输入假设：学习者习得第二语言的过程中需要大量的输入来构建语言知识和语言能力。
二、第二语言习得过程1.初始期：学习者对第二语言的习得处于初始阶段，主要表现为对语言规则的不熟悉，需要借助外语教学材料和教师的指导。
2.中期：学习者开始积累语言知识，并能够进行简单的口语表达和书面表达，但仍然存在语法错误和用词不准确等问题。
3.发展期：学习者的语言技能和语言运用能力在这个阶段得到显著提高，能够流利地进行口语交流和书面表达。
4.准母语期：学习者的第二语言已经达到与母语相近的程度，几乎能够毫无困难地实现听、说、读、写等各方面的能力。
三、第二语言习得影响因素1.基础能力：个体的智力、工作记忆、认知能力等对第二语言习得有重要影响。
2.学习策略：学习者在习得第二语言过程中采取的方法和策略也对习得效果产生影响。
3.情感因素：学习者对学习第二语言的情感态度、自信心等情感因素对习得过程产生影响。
4.环境因素：学习者所处的学习环境，包括学校、家庭、社会环境等对第二语言习得有影响。
四、第二语言习得教学策略1.输出与输入平衡：教师应当提供足够的输入，同时鼓励学习者进行口语和书面的输出。
2.合作学习：通过合作学习，学习者能够在与他人进行互动中提高第二语言的流利度和准确度。
3.语境创设：教师可以通过创设各种真实的语言交际情境来提高学习者的第二语言习得效果。
4.个性化教学：教师应根据学习者的个体差异，采取不同的教学策略和方法，满足每个学习者的学习需求。
以上是《第二语言习得研究》的重点知识点。
了解这些知识点能够帮助我们更好地理解学习者在学习第二语言过程中的习得情况，并且在实际的第二语言教学中有所借鉴。
二语习得教案考试重点
二语习得教案考试重点第一章：二语习得概述1.1 定义：二语习得是指学习者在掌握母语的基础上，习得一种非母语的过程。
1.2 重要性：二语习得对于个人发展、跨文化交流和国际合作具有重要意义。
1.3 二语习得与母语习得的区别：探讨二语习得与母语习得之间的相似之处和差异。
1.4 二语习得的主要理论：介绍行为主义、认知主义、交际法和交际语言教学等理论。
第二章：二语习得的影响因素2.1 个人因素：年龄、性别、认知能力、学习动机等对二语习得的影响。
2.2 社会因素：社会环境、文化背景、语言接触等对二语习得的影响。
2.3 教育因素：教学方法、教材、教师素质等对二语习得的影响。
2.4 语言因素：语法、词汇、发音等语言要素对二语习得的影响。
第三章：二语习得的过程与阶段3.1 刺激阶段：学习者接触二语，对二语产生兴趣和好奇心。
3.2 习得阶段：学习者在语言环境中主动习得二语知识。
3.3 应用阶段：学习者将所习得的二语知识应用于实际交流中。
3.4 巩固阶段：学习者通过复习、实践等手段巩固二语知识。
第四章：二语习得的心理机制4.1 注意力：学习者关注二语知识，提高学习效果。
4.2 记忆力：学习者运用记忆策略，巩固二语知识。
4.3 语言习得装置：探讨大脑中负责语言习得的神经机制。
4.4 语言迁移：母语对二语习得的影响，包括正迁移和负迁移。
第五章：二语习得的有效策略5.1 交际法：通过实际交流，提高二语应用能力。
5.2 浸泡式学习：全身心投入二语环境，加速习得过程。
5.3 任务型教学：以完成实际任务为目标，提高学习者动机。
5.4 自我调控学习：学习者自主制定学习计划，监控学习过程。
第六章：二语习得的心理语言学6.1 心理语言学与二语习得：介绍心理语言学在二语习得研究中的应用。
6.2 语言理解与产生：探讨学习者在二语习得过程中对语言的理解和产生能力。
6.3 语言加工：分析学习者在二语习得中对词汇、语法等语言要素的加工过程。
6.4 语言习得的心理障碍：探讨学习者在二语习得过程中可能遇到的心理障碍及应对策略。
第二语言习得复习总结资料
第二语言习得复习总结一、知识点概括各种假说包括（对比分析，偏误分析，中期中介语理论，二语习得顺序，语言监控模式，文化适应模式）提出者，提出背景内容，意义，局限对比分析假说提出者lado背景在《跨文化语言学》中，系统地阐述了对比分析的内容，理论依据跟分析方法。
母语负迁移假设；建立在行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学基础上。
基本内容1 基本假设：语言迁移（1）把母语的语言形式，意义及其分布，连同母语相联系的文化迁移到第二语言系统中（2）母与二结构特征相似正迁移，有差异负迁移即母语干扰（引起困难跟偏误的主要原因或唯一原因）（3）差异与困难相对应，差异越大困难越大构成了语言习得的难度等级2分析方法系统对比学习者母语系统和目的语系统3 对比分析的两种观点目的不同分为：强势说弱势说（最大差别目标不同）强势说强调对比分析的预测功能，认为母语干扰时造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难和错误的主要原因甚至是唯一原因过高地估计了对比预测功能弱势说与其预测还不如面对现实，把重点放在事后错误的分析上，通过对比来解释偏误产生的原因意义提供了一种语言比较的方法跟程序，听说法视听法受其影响局限（1）其心理学基础行为主义心理学核心思想“刺激-反应”理论受到乔姆斯基的激烈抨击和批判（忽视了人的能动性）（2）结构主义语言学并没有为对比分析找到解决问题的出路（两种语言系统不存在共同的语言范畴如何有效地对比分析）（3）对比分析将两种语言系统的差异等同于语言习得的难度不符合逻辑（有这样情况两种语言或语言特征存在很大差异的时候并不是很难学反而是差异不大容易混淆难度更大）（4）实验研究跟教学实践是质疑偏误产生的主要原因是母语负迁移不符合实际偏误分析提出者及背景60年代中后期开始corder发表了一系列偏误分析的文章，偏误分析成为研究学习者习得过程的重要手段和方法。
corder 《学习者语言偏误的意义》开启二语习得研究的经典之作内容偏误分析的具体步骤收集资料，鉴别偏误，描写偏误，解释，评估国内近几十年研究可分为语音词汇语法语篇汉字五个领域意义（1）偏误分析是第一个关注学习者的语言系统的研究方法，通过分析学习者的语言偏误来观察和分析第二语言学习者的习得过程和习得机制，成为二语习得研究的起点。
第二语言习得 教案总结
Lecture 1 Key Issues in Second Language Acquisition1. 1 SLA---- a recent acronyma process by which people learn a SL(conscious or unconscious process) SLAthe study of these process, a branch of applied linguistics1.1.1 First language, second language, foreign languageFirst Language:--also called as native language, primary language or mother tongue--a language normally acquired during one’s childhood by means of interacting with other members of the same language community.--a language acquired in a natural setting in the process of one’s growing up.Second Language: different versions about the term--Rod Ellis (1999:11): any language other than the first language; the language acquired through formal language teaching instead of instead of through the influence of other people speaking that language. SL = FL--Chen Changyi(2001): Learning English taken as an example, English is the second language learnt by the non-English speaking people in the English spoken countries.陈昌义. 2001. ―外语与―第二语言‖不能混为一谈----由两个术语的争论引起的思考[J]. 外语教学与研究，第3期. Foreign Language--- Chen Changyi(2001): Foreign Language refers to the language learnt by foreigners in foreign countries. For the Chinese learning English in China, English is actually foreign language.--justification for making a distinction between SL and FL by Chendifferent language settingsdifferent amount of language inputdifferent learning motivations--GenerallySL and FL are used interchangeably, with no distinction made between.SL and FL refer to the language after the first language.SL and FL learning happens in natural or unnatural settingsTarget Language = Second Language or Foreign Language1.1.2 Acquisition vs. learningJustification for differentiating these two terms:A wareness involved in language learningAcquisition--focusing on the unconscious picking up of a language;--happening in natural setting;--Corder (1973): Acquisition occurs to infants and young children.Co rder, S. P. 1973. ―The elicitation of interlanguage‖ in Svartvik (ed.) 1973a.--Krashen (1981): Acquisition can also happen to an adult learning a second language in a second language environment. In such cse learners naturally pick up SL without any conscious awareness devoted to language learning. In the process of acquisition, learners’ attention is focused on meaning rather than on form.Krashen, S. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.Oxford: Pergaman Press.Learning--focusing on conscious awareness in learning a language;--occurring in tutored settings;--involving adults;1.1.3 Competence vs. performanceCompetence--consists of the mental representations of linguistic rules that constitute the speaker-hearer’s internal grammar.--evident in the institutions which the speaker-hearer has about the grammaticality of sentences.Performance--consists of the use of this grammar in the comprehension and production of language.1.1.4 SLA learning--taking place in two kinds of settings(1) natural settingschildren---eg. In immigrant families, they do reach the same level of competence as native speakers.adults---never reach full competence.Eg. Speak with the heavy accent of their local accentTask 1:The following story takes place in an immigrant family. What does it tell us about language learning?Father: Son, your mother and I will be away this weekend.Son: Say Mother again. Put your tongue between your teeth.(2) classroom settings--instructed SLA, or tutored SLA--possible for SLA learners to reach a high level of competence;--problems for SLA learnersIf lacking opportunities to practice the language in real-life communication, their L2 will not be very fluent or idiomatic;--attrition: If learning stops, their L2 will get rusty and finally forgotten.1.1.5 SLA researchesTwo major tasks In SLA study--description: describe the process of language learning;--explain why they are the way they are;Two factors involvedExternal factors internal factorsExternal factors:(1) social conditions:Learners’ wish to be identified with those speaking this language as their L1, to a large extent, determines the success or f ailure to pick up an L2.--Learners progress quickly if they perceive peers as friendly and including them;(2) input--the L2 data to which L2 learners are exposed;Internal factors--knowledge: knowledge of ones’ L1,knowledge of the real world, which helps one understand L2 input;knowledge of social interaction and communication strategies--aptitude: the ability for language learningEg: in the West: important; Critical Period Hypothesisin the oriental culture: knowledge and skill are the fruit of hard working--Universal grammarLecture 2 Learner strategies1. General knowledge about learner strategies--Input and interaction deal with what goes on outside the learner.--Learner strategies deal with what goes on in the learners’ mind.--Learner strategies can be defined as behaviors or actions learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.--Strategies are used consciously or potentially consciously for they are employed to solve problems or to compensate for the inadequacy of the learner’s L2 system.2. Classification of learner strategies:learner strategiesProduction strategies communication strategies learning strategies2.1 Production strategies--Production strategies involve learners’ attempt to use their L2 knowledge efficiently and effectively.--Production strategies refer to attempts to use existing L2 knowledge efficiently and clearly with a minimum of effort.--Production strategies may be those involving the planning of utterances and those the monitoring of utterances.2.1.1 Strategies helping with the planning of strategies--Discourse planning: If an idea takes more than one sentence to express, the learner will have to plan for several sentences and put them in a sequence that will make the idea clear to the audience.--Rehearsal: A learner may say to himself the words planned before. (eg: actors repeating lines)--Linguistic simplification: A learner may choose simple, easily constructed sentences rather than long, complex sentences to get his ideas across.--semantic simplification: A learner may choose to use some vocabulary and sentence patterns repeatedly while avoiding other expressions.2.1.2 Strategies helping with the monitoring of utterances--making corrections: monitoring--Two kinds of knowledge: (Krashen 1981)Implicit knowledge: intuitive knowledge →acquisitionExplicit knowledge →learning--A learner initiates utterances using only implicit knowledge, but is able to monitor his performance using explicit knowledge either before or after articulation. (Krashen)--Monitoring, in a broader sense, involves both implicit and explicit knowledge to correct actual outcome.2.1.3 The strategy of using formulaic language--Formulaic language: a chunk of words stored as a whole in a learner’s memory.--It may be continuous and discontinuous.Eg: all in all (continuous)no sooner…than (discontinuous)--it may be analyzable and unanalyzable.Eg: Shall we ______ tonight? (analyzable)by and large (unanalyzable)--The role of using formulaic language(1) Reducing the burden of communication.(2) helping achieve a high degree of fluency.(3) making the performance sound more idiomatic.(4) freeing up the mental capacity so that the L2 learner may direct attention to other parts of the utterance.2.2 Communication strategies (CSs)--CSs refer to attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction.--Classification of CSs------Achievement strategies------Reduction strategies2.2.1 Achievement strategies--Strategies that employed by L2 learners when they decide to keep to the original communicative goal but compensate for insufficient means either by working out on their own or by calling for the assistance of the interlocutor.--Also termed as risk-taking strategies.--classification of achievement strategies-----paraphrase-----conscious transfer-----mime-----appeal for assistance2.2.1.1 ParaphraseParaphrase: These are L2 based strategies.--Approximation: A speaker may use an approximate word, such as a near-synonym or superordinate.Eg: vegetable for cauliflower;a clock with a bell for alarm clock--In the case of approximation strategy being adopted, the word chosen is not exactly right, but is close enough to communicate the meaning intended.--Word coinage: It refers to the creation and use of a word or expression in place of an English item an L2 learner does not know or cannot recall.Eg: ice mountain →iceberg--circumlocution: When the precise word for something is not known , L2 learners may resort to paraphrase or description. Eg: Clerk: May I help you?L2 learner: Y es. Do you have the thing that binds paper together?Clerk: Do you mean a paper clip like this?L2 learner: A paper clip? No, not this. It’s like a small machine that you push with your hand.Clerk: Oh, you mean a stapler.L2 learner: Y es, a stapler.Clerk: Sure we do. They are right over here.2.2.1.2 Conscious transferConscious transfer: These strategies involve L2 learners’ turning to a language other than L2, usually his L2.--Literal translation: The learner may translate word for word from the native language.Eg: Good good study, day day up.three good students--Language switch(borrowing): L2 learners may borrow a word from Chinese when they fail to come up with the English equivalent.Eg: A: I feel very bu hao yi si, you know.B: Y ou mean you feel very embarrassed?A: Y es, embarrassed.2.2.1.3 Mime--These strategies are based on non-linguistic means.--Learners may use non-verbal devices like gestures to refer to an object or event.Eg: A: Then the plane… the plane.. Wuuu (mimes a plane taking off)B. It took off?A. Y es, it took off.2.2.1.4 Appeal for assistance--These strategies involve the cooperation and assistance of another person.--The L2 learner may consult some authority----a native speaker or one of higher L2 proficiency.Comments on achievement strategies:--benefits:(1) Learners are able to communicate meaning to some extent and keep the communication going;(2) Learners give themselves an opportunity to learn new L2 features in a real communicative context.--pitfallsLearners may fail to improve their L2 system as a result of the repeated use of CSs.Double-edged swordBack to P72.2.2 Reduction strategies--Also called avoidance strategies or risk avoiding strategies.--Learners use them when they decide to give up part of the original communicative goal so as to do away with a problem Classification of reduction strategies(1) message abandonment (topic shift)--L2 learners shift the conversation to a more familiar ground.Eg: A: We went to see a movie ―A Soldier’s Story‖.B: Oh, I haven’t seen that. What’s it about?A: About ..a soldier. It was actually not very interesting. We also went to a restaurant.(2). Topic avoidance (Silence)--L2 learners may simply avoid introducing certain topics or even taking part in a discussion because he or she fears not having sufficient vocabulary.Comments on reduction strategies:--Stay away with reduction strategiesBack to P22.3 Learning strategies--A language learning strategy is an attempt to develop L2 competence.--Learning strategies are divided into three categories:Cognitive strategies认知策略Metacognitive strategies元认知策略Social / affective strategies社会、情感策略Cognitive Strategies: These strategies are directly related to learning.Metacognitive strategies: 元认知策略These strategies involve m anaging one’s learning ones’ activities.Social / affective strategies: These strategies refer to how one relates to others.Eg: If you come across a new word in your reading and feel its meaning is important and you must learn it, you are using a metacognitive strategy. If you look it up in a dictionary, you are using a cognitive strategy. If you ask a roommate about it, you are using a social / affective strategy.--major models proposed(1) by O’Malley and Chamot--Metacognitive strategies:用于评价、管理、监控认知策略--cognitive strategies：用于学习语言的活动之中。
SLA二语习得重要问答情况总结
SLA 期末考试提纲Week 9Chapter 1 Introducing Second Language AcquisitionChapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definition:1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classrooms.rmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts.4.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first”language.5.Second language (L2): In its general sense, this term refers to any language that is acquired after the first language has been established. In its specific sense, this term typically refers to an additional language which is learned within a context where it is societally dominant and needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. The more specific sense contrasts with foreign language, library language, auxiliary (帮助的，辅助的) language, and language for specific purposes.6.Target language: The language that is the aim or goal of learning.7.Foreign language: A second language that is not widely used in the learners’immediate social context, but rather one that might be used forfuture travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.8.Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books and journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.9.Auxiliary language: A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.10.L inguistic competence: The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.11.L inguistic performance: The use of language knowledge in actual production.12.C ommunicative competence: A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”(Saville-Troike 2003)13.P ragmatic competence: Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situations.14.M ultilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.15.M onolingualism: The ability to use only one language.16.S imultaneous multilingualism: Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.17.S equential multilingualism: Ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already been established.18.I nnate capacity: A natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn or acquire language.19.C hild grammar: Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of production and comprehension.20.I nitial state: The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.21.I ntermediate state: It includes the maturational changes which take place in “child grammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language.22.F inal state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.23.P ositive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.24.N egative transfer: Inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.25.Poverty-of-the-stimulus: The argument that because language input to children is impoverished and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.26.S tructuralism: The dominant linguistic model of the 1950s, which emphasized the description of different levels of production in speech.27.P honology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.28.S yntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences, such as ordering and agreement.29.S emantics: The linguistic study of meaning.30.L exicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.31.B ehaviorism: The most influential cognitive framework applied to language learning in the 1950s. It claims that learning is the result of habit formation.32.A udiolingual method: An approach to language teaching that emphasizes repetition and habit formation. This approach was widely practiced in much of the world until at least the 1980s.33.T ransformational-Generative Grammar: The first linguistic framework with an internal focus, which revolutionized linguistic theory and had profound effect on both the study of first and second languages. Chomsky argued effectively that the behaviorist theory of language acquisition is wrong because it cannot explain the creative aspects of linguistic ability. Instead, humans must have some innate capacity for language.34.P rinciples and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.35.M inimalist program: The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Principles and Parameters model. This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.36.F unctionalism: A linguistic framework with an external focus that dates back to the early twentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School (布拉格学派) of Eastern Europe. It emphasizes the information content of utterances and considers language primarily as a system of communication.Functionalist approaches have largely dominated European study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.37.N eurolinguistics: The study of the location and representation of language in the brain, of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century and one of the first fields to influence cognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in 1960s.38.C ritical period: The limited number of years during which normal L1 acquisition is possible.39.C ritical Period Hypothesis: The claim that children have only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffered brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.40.I nformation processing (IP): A cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like learning of other complex domains) proceeds from controlled to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.41.C onnectionism: A cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from increasing strength of associations between stimuli and responses.42.V ariation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learner production which depend on contexts of use.43.A ccommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.44.S ociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.45.E thnography(人种论、民族志) of communication: A framework for analysis of language and its functions that was established by Hymes(1966). It relates language use to broader social and cultural contexts, and applies ethnographic methods of data collection and interpretation to study of language acquisition and use.46.A cculturation(文化适应): Learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavior patterns.47.A cculturation Model/Theory: Schumann’s (1978) theory that identifies group factors such as identity and status which determine social and psychological distance between learner and target language populations. He claims these influence outcomes of SLA.48.S ocial psychology: A societal approach in research and theory that allows exploration of issues such as how identity, status, and values influence L2 outcomes and why. It has disciplinary ties to both psychological and social perspectives.PART TWO: Short & Long answers:Chapter 11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and social psycholinguists? P3（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.（2）Psychologists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.2.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, library language and auxiliary language? P4（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.3.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than other? P5The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners”for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.Chapter21.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age. P10The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language;● A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic orother specific domains;●Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 isrequired;●Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of anotherlanguage;● A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where accessrequires proficiency in another language;● A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered byknowledge of another language;●An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and havingaccess to their technologies or literatures.2.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning? P13 （1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience,including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.3.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively? P17-18The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.4.How does intermediate states process? P18-19The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct”in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.5.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)? P20 Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.6.What is a facilitating condition for language learning? P20While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.7.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language. P21-24The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie（指原则、理由构成某学说...的基础，潜在于...之下)language acquisition was prominently espoused (采纳或支持事业理念)by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)C hildren’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learnedfrom the input they receive: Children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system. Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for all of the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset of possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints which allow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2)C onstraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access togeneral constraints and principles which govern language could account for the relatively short time it takes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for the fact that it does so systematically and without any “wild”divergences. This could be so because innate principles lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to the lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles are thus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3)U niversal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input: In spite of the surface differences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.8.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two? P25-26 Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.9.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective? P26-27(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or abstraction of rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.10.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective? P27(1) Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction. (2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.Week10Chapter 5 Social contexts of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definitionmunicative competence: A basic tenet of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”(Saville-Troike 2003)nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent.3.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs in systematic ways from language addressed to native or very fluent speakers.4.Direct Correction: Explicit statements about incorrect language use.5.Indirect correction: Implicit feedback about inappropriate language use, such as clarification requests when the listener has actually understood an utterance.6.Interaction Hypothesis: The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which take place in social interation facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.7.Symbolic mediation: A link between a person’s current mental state and higher order functions that is provided primarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (of language, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.8.Variable features: Multiple linguistic forms (vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse) that are systematically or predictably used by different speakers of a language, or by the same speakers at different times, with the same meaning or function.9.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variable element.10.Psychological context: factors associated with the amount of attention which is being given to language form during production, the level of automaticity versus control in processing, or the intellectual demands of a particular task.11.Microsocial context: features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.12.Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to .13.ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area of potential development where the learner can only achieve that potential with assistance. Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.14.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.15.Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind, viewed by Vygosky as a sociocultural phenomen. 16.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.17.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice to regulate and organize the life of people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.18.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns.19.Additive bilingualism: The result of SLA in social contexts wheremembers of a dominant group learn the language of a minority without threat to their L1 competence or to their ethnic identity.20.Subtractive bilingualism: The result of SLA in social contexts where members of a minority group learn the dominant language as L2 and are more likely to experience some loss of ethnic identity and attrition of L1 skills—especially if they are children.21.Formal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions that are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.rmal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact—and need to interact with—speakers of another language.PART TWO: Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture.The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, and even somewhat divergent meaningsfor the “same”lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA? P101-102a) L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic & communicative competence (CC)?Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”, such as a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation? Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affect the feedback provided to students?ⅰ. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language。
二语习得中的错误分析理论及其在教学上的应用-6页word资料
二语习得中的错误分析理论及其在教学上的应用一、引言错误分析是第二语言习得（SLA）的重要研究方法之一。
第二语言习得过程是一个不断与语言错误斗争的过程。
学习者会在语言学习和操作中犯错误，语言教师在教学过程中不可避免地会遇到学生所犯的语言输出错误。
许多研究者在研究中发现，中国学习者的写作能力十分薄弱。
写作错误是语言输出中不可忽视的现象。
语言学界对待错误的态度经历了三个阶段，部分行为主义的学者认为，应该不惜一切代价纠正错误，结果有学者认为纠正错误增加了学习者的焦虑；赞同交际法的一些学者不主张纠正错误，渐渐发展到对错误的放纵，导致了石化现象（fossilization）产生；发展到最近才产生了对待错误的理性态度。
二、错误分析理论及其相关理论（一）对比分析（Contrasive Analysis）理论以行为主义者的语言学习理论为基础的对比分析理论在20 世纪五六十年代影响很大。
这一理论的含义是：首先，我们可以对学习者的母语（native language）和目的语（target language）进行对比；然后，根据对比分析中的差异，我们可以预测会引起困难的语言项目和可能犯的错误，并利用这些预测来决定外语课程和教材中哪些项目应进行特殊处理。
最后，我们可以利用强化手段（如重复和操练）来克服母语干扰，建立新习惯。
显然，该理论认为语言学习是个刺激―反应的过程，外语学习者在学习过程中犯错误是母语习惯负迁移（negative transfer）的结果，因此，为了强调学生学习语言的准确性，有必要对错误采取有错必纠的方针，以免学生形成错误的习惯。
（二）中介语（Interlanguage）理论应用语言学家Selinker 首先使用了中介语一词来称谓“学习者在目的语发展过程中的任何阶段所建造的一种结构体系”，是外语学习者“对目的语的规律所做的不正确的归纳与推论而产生的一个语言系统”。
它既不是母语，也不是目的语，而是学习者创造性地使用的一种语言。
二语习得面临的难点与解决方案
二语习得面临的难点与解决方案一、引言二语习得指的是学习第二语言的过程，这是一个既具有挑战性又具有乐趣的过程。
在这个过程中，学习者面临着许多困难，这对他们的学习效果和心理状态都有影响。
本文将讨论二语习得面临的难点以及解决方案。
二、语言环境的不同习得第二语言的最重要的难点之一是语言环境的不同。
许多学习者在第二语言习得时，面临着来自母语和第二语言的不同环境的影响。
解决方案：为了解决这个问题，学习者需要尽可能地暴露在第二语言的环境中，例如参加本地活动、与当地人交流、观看当地电视节目等。
此外，学习者还可以通过在线社区、网络语音聊天等手段与母语为目标语言的人交流。
三、文化差异除了语言之外，文化也是学习者面临的另一个挑战。
在不同的文化环境下生长和成长的人们显然会有不同的信仰、价值观、行为方式等。
因此，学习者必须不仅掌握语言，还要理解文化差异才能真正地融入新的文化环境。
解决方案：学习者可以通过阅读相关书籍，参加文化活动，以及寻求当地人的建议来学习目标文化。
在与目标文化深入交流的同时，了解目标语言的背景和历史也会有帮助。
四、语法语法是学习第二语言过程中的基础，但同时也是一个很难克服的难点。
每种语言都有自己独特的语法规则，以及各种不同的语法异常。
这使得学习者必须花费大量时间和精力来掌握规则和不规则之间的差异。
解决方案：学习者可以通过参加语法课程、咨询导师或同行，或使用语法手册来提高他们对目标语言的语法理解。
此外，反复练习和应用目标语言的语法规则也是很重要的。
五、词汇词汇是第二语言习得中的另一个重要难题之一。
学习者在习得第二语言时必须学习许多新的词汇，这些词汇可能与母语中的词汇完全不同。
解决方案：为了克服语言习得中的词汇难题，学习者可以使用复习卡片、词汇表、拼写游戏等辅助工具。
通过使用这些工具，学习者可以提高他们的词汇量，并加强他们对目标语言的理解。
六、发音和口音发音和口音是学习第二语言时需要注意的一个重要问题。
这与学习者的母语和学习者的口音有关，同时也涉及到发音、声调和口语语法的准确性问题。
第二语言习得课程讲义
第二语言习得课程讲义程乔罡2011年10月12日第二语言习得课程讲义任课教师：张景华聊城大学外国语学院第一节语言1、语言的定义及性质2、第一语言与母语3、第二语言与外语4、语言与言语5、语言与社会6、语言与思维7、语言与文化、跨文化（文化：1）生态文化(ecologicalculture)；2）语言文化(linguistic culture)；3）宗教文化(religious culture)；4）物质文化(materialculture)；5）社会文化(social culture).跨文化：阅读下面短文，思考这些女生犯了什么错误？What is Wrong with Their “Hello”?A group of Chinese girls who just arrived at the<st1:country-region w:st="on">United States for their university education decided to visit the city of New York together. Since their school was not very far from the city, they planned to take a Greyhound bus（“灰狗”，美国一长途汽车公司名）to go there at weekend. Saturday morning, they got up ear ly and after two hours’ drive they got to the downtown of the city. They stayed there for a couple of hours, shopping and sightseeing happily. Everything seemed OK until it was the time for them to go back----they suddenly realized that they lost their way back to the Greyhound bus station. What made the situation worse was that it was getting darker. In despair, they stopped at a corner on the street and decided to ask for help. At this moment they saw a young couple passing by, so they said “Hello!” to th is couple. To their surprise, the couple looked at them coldly and hustled on. Having no way out, they approached to the next group of passerby and tried a louder“Hello!” this time. Again they got nothing but a cold shoulder from these city people.显而易见，细心的读者已经知道这些女生的错误所在了——不是语言错误，而是语用错误。
第二语言习得复习资料
第二语言习得复习资料一、引言第二语言习得是一门研究人们如何学习和掌握除母语以外的语言的学科。
对于许多学习者来说，掌握一门第二语言不仅能够拓宽交流渠道，还能增加个人的文化视野和职业发展机会。
在这篇复习资料中，我们将系统地探讨第二语言习得的相关重要内容。
二、第二语言习得的理论基础（一）行为主义理论行为主义理论认为，语言学习是一种习惯的形成。
通过不断的刺激反应强化过程，学习者逐渐养成正确的语言使用习惯。
例如，反复练习某个语法结构或单词，在得到正确的反馈和强化后，就能熟练掌握。
（二）认知理论认知理论则强调学习者的内在认知过程。
认为学习者通过对语言规则的理解、归纳和推理来学习语言。
他们会主动构建语言知识体系，而不仅仅是被动地接受外界的刺激。
（三）社会文化理论社会文化理论关注语言学习所处的社会和文化环境。
认为语言学习是通过与他人的互动和参与社会文化活动实现的。
学习者在真实的交际情境中，借助他人的帮助和指导，逐渐发展语言能力。
三、第二语言习得的关键因素（一）语言输入丰富、准确、可理解的语言输入对于第二语言习得至关重要。
这包括听、读等多种形式的输入。
例如，听英语广播、阅读英语书籍等。
（二）语言输出学习者不仅要接受输入，还需要有机会进行语言输出，如说、写。
通过输出，学习者能够检验自己的语言知识，发现不足并加以改进。
（三）学习动机强烈的学习动机能够推动学习者积极投入学习。
动机可以是内在的，如对语言本身的兴趣；也可以是外在的，如为了通过考试或获得工作机会。
（四）学习策略有效的学习策略能够提高学习效率。
比如记忆策略、认知策略、元认知策略等。
学习者要学会根据自己的情况选择和运用合适的策略。
四、第二语言习得的阶段（一）初始阶段在这个阶段，学习者通常对第二语言的语音、词汇和基本语法有初步的了解和接触，但使用能力有限。
（二）中级阶段学习者能够进行简单的交流，掌握更多的语法和词汇，但在表达上可能还存在一些错误。
（三）高级阶段学习者能够较为流利和准确地运用第二语言进行交流，对语言的理解和运用达到较高水平。
第二语言习得 复习资料
什么是二语习得理论第二语言习得理论侧重系统地研究第二语言习得的本质和习得的过程，即研究第二语言习得的心理过程、认知过程和语言过程，研究学习者在掌握了母语以后是如何学习另一套新的语言体系的，研究学习者学到了什么和没学到什么，研究为什么大部分学习者的第二语言无法达到母语的水平，研究母语对第二语言习得的影响，研究学习者运用第二语言的过程，研究语言教学对语言习得的影响，也研究第二语言学习者之间存在的巨大个体差异等等(蒋祖康，1999)。
Doughty和Ijn8(2003)指出，二语习得研究者认识到二语习得是在社会环境中发生的，并受到环境或大或小的影响。
然而，研究者同时也认识到语言学习和其他的学习一样，是不同的个体心灵内部的最大变化。
从这个意义上讲，二语习得研究已经逐步被认为是认知科学的一个分支。
总之，第二语言习得理论是心理学的一门分支学科，是对学习规律和学习条件的系统阐述，主要研究人类的行为特征和认知心理过程。
它既是一门应用性学科又是一种基础理论，因为学习理论注重把心理学的一般原理应用于学习领域，探讨行为是如何发生和变化的，并试图解释和预测行为的变化。
二语习得理论就是要为人们提供对二语习得的基本理解力，从而为形成人们的二语教育观奠定较为科学的基础。
第三节研究二语习得理论的意义和作用1．提供知识二语习得理论是人们对学习的问题进行科学研究和思维的指南和资源。
二语习得理论提供二语习得领域的知识，以及分析、探讨和从事学习研究的途径和方法，为外语教育工作者提供一个研究学习的框架，使他们把注意力集中在最值得研究的问题上。
2．知识的概括二语习得理论对有关二语习得法则的大量知识加以总结，使其系统化和条理化，以便于学习者掌握。
掌提了理论，就可以降低材料的复杂性，以便于对其进行分桥。
任何理论在抽象和筏括大旦具体知识的过程中，必然会失去一定的具体性和精确险，正因为这样。
理论才具有普遍的指导作用。
3．描述与解释(descrZbing and interP：etin8)二语习得理论是对人类从事的各种各样的：：语教育实践的理性阐述。