词汇学复习资料.docx
Episode 1: A General Survey of Word1.Word …A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.Vocabulary 一- Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words ofa language・ It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history ・The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 2 million words.3.Con tent word (notional word) denote clear notions and thus are known as no tional words ・They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.4.BoiTOwed words (loan words, borrowing) ™ words taken over from foreign language are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan words under 4 classes: Denizens, Aliens, translation loans, Semantic loans5.Semantic loans —are not borrowed with reference to the form, but their meaning are borrowed from another language・ In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in language・ e.g. stupid old dump6.Reference- the relationship between language and the world・ By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked ab out. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction.Although reference is abstract, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.7.Concept- which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn't affected by language・ Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. Meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use.A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.& Sense-一denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language・1.What is the importance of basic word stock?The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language, which has five characteristics: all national character, stability, productivity, polysemy, collocability.2.What are the characteristics of associative meaning?Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.It is open-ended and indetenninate. It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.3.Tell briefly about Martin Joos’ the Five Clocks?It suggests five degrees of formality: frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate.4・ What is the difference between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning?Unlike lexical meaning, different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meanings. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning whereas content words have both meanings, and lexical meaning in partial. Lexical and grammatical meanings make up the word-meaning. It is known that grammatical meaning surfaces only in use. But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the notion that the word conveys.Episode 2: Main Characteristics of English Vocabulary1.The Indo-European Language Family■一it is assumed that the world has approximately3,000(some put it 5,000)languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. It is made up of most of the language of Europe, the Nera East, and India Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and AlbanianWestern set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.2.Old English (450-1150)■一The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts, the language was Celtic. The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions・ After the Romans, the Germanic tribes called angles, Saxons and Jutes and their language, Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.3.Norman Conquest■一the Normans invaded England from France in 1066・ the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English・ Norman French became the polite speech・ 75% of them are still in use today. The situation of 3 languages (French, English, Latin) existing simultaneously continued for over a century..4.Renaissance■一In the early period of modem English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance・ Latin and Greek were recognized as the language of the Western world's great literary heritage and of great scholarship ・5.Reviving archaic words-一words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal document and religious writing or speech.6.Modern English (1150-1500) ™Modern English began with the establishment of printing in English・ Word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. Modern English is considered to be an analytic language・1.Why do we say n English is a heavy borrower?u Please justify it.English is a heavy bonower and has adopted words from all other major languages of the world. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80% of the modern English vocabulary・ As is stated in Encyclopedia Americana /The English language has vast debts・ In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed M.eg. kowtou from Chinese, long time no see from haojiubujian (Chinese), the word H dream n originally meant "joy" and ”music蔦its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.2.In the Middle English Period, what made French a dominant language in England?In 1066, in the history of England, there was Norman Conquest. The French-speaking Normans were the ruling class. French was used for all state affairs and for most social and cultural matters. Therefore, those who in power spoke French, those who were literate read and wrote in French; and any young man who sought to earn his living as a scribe learned Latin or French because there was no market for such services in English・ The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English・3・ What happened in the mid-seventeenth century in England?England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.Episode 3: Morphological Structure of English Words1.Morpheme—A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language・(The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.)2.Morph■一A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs・3.Monomorphenic words■一morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph-一Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. e.g. the morpheme of plurality (-s) has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context, e.g. in cats/s/, in bags/z/, in matches/iz/.5・ Free morphemes or free root—The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences, e.g. cat, walk. They are identical with root words・morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes一-The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words, e.g. recollection (re+collect+ion) collect - free morpheme re-and -ion are bound morphemes, (including bound root and affix) Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root—A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just likea free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -diet- for example: it conveys the meaning of n say or speak” as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand”. Contradict “speak against^. Bound roots are either Latin or Greek.Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing・& Affixes™Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes.9.Prefixes—Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war, sub+sea10.Suffixes・・・suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.l 1・Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes™Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.12.Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes—Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words・13.Root-一A root is the basic form of a word, which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. (What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.) .e.g. "internationalists^ removing inter-, -al-, -ist, -s, leaves the root nation.14.Stem—A form to which affixes of any kind can be added・ E・g・u internationalists,\ nation is a root and a stem as well.A stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus an affix・1・ What are the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes?Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes・ Modem English is an analytic language・ Most endings are lost, leaving only a few inflectional affixes, such as plural forms of nouns-s(-es), and the comparative and superlative degree forms of adjectives: -er, -est. Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes ・2.What are the differences between root and stem? Explain with examples・A root is the basic form of a word, which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.) .e.g. "internationalists" removing inter-, -al-, -ist,leaves the root nation.A stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added・ e.g. "internationalists^, nation is a root and a stem as well.A stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus an affix・A stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.Episode 4: Major Processes of Word-formation1.Affixation (Derivation)■一the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems. According to their position, affixation falls into: prefixalion and suffixation.2.Pre fixationthe formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning3.Suffixation■一Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis ・4.Adjective suffix™the suffix combines with noun or verb to create denominal or deverbal suffixes.一-adj suffixpounding (Composition—Compounding is a process of word・formation by joining two or more stems.6.Conversion (zero-derivation, functional shift)—Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense・The most productive is between nouns and verbs.1.How do you distinguish compounds from free phrases?Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects.1)Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stess.2)Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3)Grammatical features・ A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence・Episode 5: The Minor Processes of Word-FormationDefine the following terms1 ・ Blending一-is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word・2.Clipping-一shorten a Ion ger word by cutti ng a part of the origi n and using what remains instead ・ People tend to be economical in writing and speech to keep up the tempo of new life style.3.Acronymy■一is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms4.Initialisms-一are words fonned from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. It?s one of the word formations of acronymy.5.Acronyms■一are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words・・IFs one of the word formations of acronymy.6.Back-formation-一is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion ofa supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.1.What are neologisms? Give one example to illustrate them.Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. The examples go as follows:"They misunderestimated me.n M We don't want to get dixie-chicked, or anything like that, out of the gate. We’ve inves ted tens of millions of dollars in the movie.n dixie-chicked, to become the subject of ridicule and economic loss by alienating a constituency.sniglet: a term invented by comedian Rich Hall to characterize a "word that should be in the dictionary, but isn,t.,t A few examples:doork, a person who always pushes on a door marked H puH n or vice versa.lotshock, the act of parking your car, walking away, and then watching it roll past you. pupkus, the moist residue left on a window after a dog presses its nose to it.daffynition: a pun coined by reinterpreting an existing word on the basis that it sounds like another word. Under the name Uxbridge English Dictionary, making up daffynitions is a game on the BBC Radio 4 comedy quiz show Fm Sorry I Haven^t a Clue. A few examples: antelope, to run off with your mother's sister.testicle, an exploratory tickle.boomerang, what you say to frighten a meringue.pasteurize, too far to see.For more than 20 years, columnist Bob Levey of The Washington Post has been inviting readers to submit new definitions for pre-existing words. Some memorable contributions: circumvent (nJ, the opening in the front of boxer shorts.coffee (n.), a person who is coughed upon.flabbergasted (adj.), appalled over how much weight you have gained・Frisbeetarianism (nJ, the belief that, when you die, your soul flies up onto the roof and gets stuck there ・population (n.), that nice sensation you get when drinking soda.spatula (n.), a fight among vampires.testicle (n.), a humorous question on an exam.2.What are the three main sources of new English words?Three main sources of new words are:the rapid development of modem science and tech no logy;social, economic and political changes;the influence of other cultures and languages3.How do you explain the difference between backformation and suffixation? Give example to illustrate your point.Back-formation is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. As we know, Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems, and back-formation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes・ For example,is a noun suffix, it is added to noun base engine to produce a new word-engineer, however, people make can make verbs by dropping the endings such as -or in editor, and -er in butler・ This is how we derive edit and butle. The removed suffixes are not true suffixes but inseparable pars of the words.Episode 6 Motivation1.Motivation—accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning・2.Onomatopoeic Motivation™the words whose sounds suggest their meaning・(Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning). Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning・ These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by cocks, etc.3.Morphological Motivation―Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. (Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning)・ For instance, airmail means4.Semantic Motivation一-refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explained the conn ection between literal sense and figurative sense of a word).5.Etymological Motivation-一The history of the word explains the meaning of the word. (Indicate the relationship between word meaning and its origin).Episode 7 Semantic Features & Componential Analysis1 ・ Grammatical meaning—refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships, such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meanings of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. Grammatical meaning becomes important only used in actual context.2・ Lexical meaning—-is constant in all the words within or without context related to the notion that the word conveys. It has two components, conceptual meaning and associative meaning.3.Conceptual meaning (denotative meaning)-一the meaning given in the dictionary and forms thecore of wordeaning. It is constant and relative stable. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communicatio n.Episode 8 Semantic Changes1 • Three mode s of vocabulary development(1)Creation-一the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. (This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.)(2)Semantic change■一an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need・(3)Borrowing-一to take in words from other languages.(particularly in earlier time)2.Extension (generalization)■一is a term referring to the widening of meaning・ It is a process by which a word, which originally had a specialized meaning, has now become generalized・3.Narrowing (specialization)—is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.4.Elevation or amelioration—refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance・5.Degradation or pejoration of meaning-一It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense6.Transfer…words which were used to designate on thing but later changed to mean something else.1 ・ What are the linguistic factors that cause changes in meaning?Internal factors within the language system, and the influx of borrowing, analogy.Episode 9 Polysemy and Homonymy1・ Polysemy一-polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages that one word may have two or more senses or different meanings.Two approaches: Diachronic approach ,Synchronic approach・2.Radiation一-is a semantic change in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays.3.Concatenationmeaning "linking together二is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the tern had at the beginning.4.Homonyms一-are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identi cal only in sound or spelling•5・ Perfect Homonyms-一are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bank (financial institution) and bank (edge of a river)6.Homographs—are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. e.g・sow/sow7.Homophones (most common)一-are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning・ e.g. dear/dear right/rite son/sun8.Hyponymy一-deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is，the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word・ These specific words are known as hyponyms (下义i司).For instance, tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term (上义i诃)and the specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms (下义词).1 ・ What is the difference between the process of radiation and concatenation?In radiation, the meanings are independent of one other, but can all be traced back to the central meaning・ If we give a graphic description of the meanings of face, it would look very much like a wheel of the bicycle.In concatenation, the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost.2. How to differentiate homonyms from polysemies?The fundamental difference lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and the same word which has several distinguishable meanings・ One important criterion is to see its etymology, the second is semantic relatedness.Episode 10 Sense Relations1・Antonyms™words which are opposite in meaning.2. Synonyms■一are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning・ Synonyms share a likeness in denotation and in part of speech・3・ Absolute (Complete) Synonyms-一are words, which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings・ Absolute (Complete) Synonyms are restricted to high-specialized vocabulary. For instance, composition / compounding. They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology・4.Relative (Approximate) synonyms—are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.1. What are the 3 types of antonyms? Illustrate with examples.Antonyms—are words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms (according to the semantic opposition)1)Contradictory terms 一these antonyms are truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. They assertion of one is the denial of the other.e.g. alive一dead, present—absent, male—female, boy—girl, true—false, same— ifferent,i mperfect—perfect2)Contrary terms■一a scale running between two poles or extremes・ The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.E.g. rich一(well-to・do)—poor; old一(middle-aged)一young, open一(ajar)—lose, beautiful—(good-looking)—(plain)—ugly,3)Relative terms 一consist of relational oppositeness. The pairs of words indicate such a social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other, the type is also reverse terms. The two words of each pair are interdependent.e.g. parent—hild; husband一wife; predecessor一successor, employer一employee。
词汇学复习提纲
English LexicologyChapter 1 Introduction1. V ocabulary(1) The total number of words that make up a language.(2) All the words used in a particular historical period.(3) All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.2. Importance of V ocabulary(1) An extensive vocabulary aids expressions and communication.(2) V ocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.(3) Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary.(4) A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary.3. LexicologyThe literal meaning is the “science of the word”. It is a branch of linguistics which deals with English words, their origin, meaning, historical development, morphological structures, semantic structures, sense relations, idioms, formation and application.4. WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. (TB:p2)5. Sound and Meaning (TB:p3)There is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional.6. Sound and FormThe written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language. What causes the differences between sound and form?(1)The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not employ thesystem of one single letter to stand for one sound.(2) The early scribes deliberately changed spelling of words for easier recognition.(3) Dictionaries help to fix the spelling of words, which means the stabilization of spelling, meanwhile, sounds continue to change.(4) English has borrowed many words from other languages, which may not have been assimilated. Some borrowings do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, such as:7. Classification of Words(1)Criterion : by use frequency: Basic word stock ＆Non-basic vocabulary(2) Criterion: by notion: Content words ＆Functional words(3) Criterion : by origin: Native words ＆Borrowed words(4) Criterion: by morphology: Simple words, Compounds ＆Derived words, etc. 8. Features of Basic Word Stock(1)All national character (2) Stability (3) Productivity (4) Polysemy(5)Collocability9. Content and Functional WordsContent words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary and the number is ever growing, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. Functional words are stable and take a very small part of the vocabulary, i.e. prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles10. Native and Borrowed WordsNative words are not native, but words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words.Chapter 2 Development of English Vocabulary1. Indo-European Language FamilyThere are main three branches in Indo-European language family: Germantic branch, Latin branch and Slavic branch.2. Historical Influence(1) Britons: The early inhabitants of the island we now call Britain were Britons, a tribe of Celts. Their language were dialects of a small branch of the Indo-European language family— Celtic.(2) The Roman conquest: In BC 55-54 Britain was invaded by the Roman conqueror, Julius Caesar. During the 400 years of Roman occupation, the official language of government was Latin.(3) The English conquest: At the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes from the Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes.Historical Influence(4) The Danish invasion: King Alfred the Great (849-901) succeeded in driving the Danes off with force. Laying down his sword, Alfred set himself to the task of encouraging education and literature.(5) The Norman Conquest: The French-speaking Normans Duke William came in 1066. When Norman and English intermingled, many terms emloyed by Normans were adopted into English language.3. Historical Phases(1) Old English (450-1160): Old English was a highly inflected language. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowelschanges or both, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.Historical Phases(2)Middle English (1150-1500): The Middle English period was one of great changes,changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since.(3)Modern English (1500 up to now): This period may be divided into two parts: the Early Modern English (1500-1700) and the Late Modern English (1700- now).Early Modern English: The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance. In this period the study of the Latin and Greek on English was great.Late Modern English: With the rapid development of modern science and technology; social economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages, new words today sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time.4. Foreign Elements in English V ocabularyEnglish vocabulary owns most of its words from foreign language, in which Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors. Other languages have also done their part, such as Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese and Celtic, etc.5. Characteristics of English Language(1) Receptivity, Adaptability and Heterogeneity(2) Simplicity of inflection(3)Relatively Fixed Word-order6. Modes of V ocabulary Development: Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change and borrowing.Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words1. MorphemeIt is the smallest meaningful unit of language, consisting of a word or part of a word that can‟t be divided without losing its meaning.2. MorphologyIt is the study of the morphemes of a language and of the way in which they are joined together to make words.3. Types of Morphemes(1) Free and Bound MorphemesMorphemes that can exist as individual words are free morphemes. Others which function only as a word part are bound morphemes.(2) Derivational and Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.(TB:P47)Inflectional morphemes, in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.4. Morpheme and Word-formationIn morphology, words can be analyzed into morphemes, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix in word-formation.5. Root, Stem and Base: What are the differences within them?Root is a basic form of a wor d which can‟t be f urther analyzed without total loss of identity. Root cannot be further divided and carries the fundamental meaning.Stem refers to the part after moving inflectional markers.Base is the part that can take affix of any kinds (derivational and inflectional). Chapter 4 Word Formation1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word formation. The most productive are affixation(30%-40%), compounding(28%-30%) and conversion(26%). The rest of the new words come from shortening(8%-10%), blending(1%-5%) and other means.(P54)2. Affixation (or derivation) is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to roots to supply grammatical or lexical information. The morphological structure of an English word: (prefix) + root + (suffix)3. Prefixation: The process of adding a prefix to the root is called prefixation. English prefixes usually do not change the word class. Types of Prefix (TB:P55)4. Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix to the tail end of a stem, which usually changes the lexical category of the stem. Types of Suffix. Similar to the exception to the prefixes, some suffixes do change or modify the meaning without changing the lexical categories.5. Compounds: The process of combining two or more than two existing words together to form new lexical items is called compounding.6. Characteristics of Compounds(1) According to orthographic criterion, compounds are written in three ways:1) solid 2) hyphenated 3) open(2) Phonologically, compounds can often be identified as having a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3) Semantically, compoun ds can often be identified as “having a meaning which may be related to but can not simply be inferred from the meaning of its parts.7. Conversion is a main type of word-formation shifting the base to a different word class with no change of form. Converted words are often short, vivid and expressive,8. Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.9. Clipping refers to a word-formation process which involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.10. Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase, and initialisms are pronounced letter by letter.11. Acronymy: The process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.12. Words From Proper NameIt refers to the coinage of common words from proper names. They come from all sources, from names of scientists, politicians and statesmen, trademarks, names of places, literature, TV films, movies, book titles etc.13. Analogy: A new word or a new phrase is coined by an analogy between a newly created one and an existing corresponding one.Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis1. Word MeaningGenerally speaking, a word is the combination of word-formation and its meaning. …Form‟ refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. …Meaning‟ is what the form stands for. Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between form and referent.2. Semantic TriangleConcept is the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a person‟s mind.Reference is the relationship between language and the world. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.3. Motivation of MeaningMotivation refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning, which is divided into 4 types. They are phonetic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation.(1) Phonetic Motivation (or Onomatopoeic motivation) explains the words whose sounds suggest their meaning, because these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noise.(2) Morphological motivation (or grammatical motivation) concerns the words whose morphological structures suggest the meaning, such as, the meaning of a derived wordor a compound is based on the meaning of the word-building.(3) Semantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word, i.e. the figurative sense of a word suggested by the literal sense.(4) Etymological motivation explains the words whose meanings are closely associated with their origins, i.e. the meanings of the words suggested by their sources.(5) Motivation by Analogy: Words are created in imitation of other words4. Types of Meaning(1) Grammatical & Lexical MeaningGrammatical meaning indicates all the inflectional forms of words, such as singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and so on. Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word.(2) Conceptual & Associative MeaningConceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Associative meaning is a supplement to the conceptual meaning, which is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc.(3) Connotative Meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.(4)Stylistic Meaning: Apart from conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles.(5) Affective Meaning expresses the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be conveyed simply by the choice of the right words.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative and pejorative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.5. Word Meaning and ContextWord meaning depends upon context. The context determines which meaning out of all the possible meanings is to be attached to the word. Generally speaking, when used literally, words have their original meaning; when used figuratively, words have symbolic meaning.6. Components of word meaningAll lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic features or semantic components which may be universal. This semantic theory is called Componential Analysis (CA), such as:horse, cat, machine, chair [+/-animate]water, gas, stone, tree [+/-count]sit, cry, read, give [+/-transitive]road, house, thought, philosophy [+/-concrete]Chapter 6 Sense Relations1. Sense RelationsWords are arbitrary symbols and are independent identities so far as spelling and pronunciation are concerned. Sense relations means all words are related in one way or another. In light of sense relations, words can be classified semantically.2. Types of Sense Relations(1)Polysemy(2) Hyponymy---semantic inclusion(3) Synonymy---semantic similarity(4) Antonymy---semantic opposition(5) Homonymy3. PolysemyWhen a word is first coined, it is always the case that it has only one meaning (monosemic). But in the course of development, the same symbol may be used to express new meanings. The result is polysemy, which shows the economy and efficiency of human languages.4. Meanings of Polysemy(1) A word has two or more meanings in which one is the basic, original meaning (Primary meaning), and the others are derived from the basic meaning (Secondary meaning).(2) It is possible that a word is endowed with different word classes, such as noun, adj., verb.5. Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronic approach is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one word. Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in one historical period of time.6. Concatenation is a process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually from its primary meaning by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the meaning that is finally developed and the primary meaning.7. Radiation is a process in which the primary meaning stands in the center, and the derived meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. All the derived meanings can be traced back to the primary meaning.8. Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the general lexical item (superordinate) and the specific lexical items (subordinate). (TB:p137)9. Function of HyponymyThe hyponyms (or specific words) can make our speech and writing more vivid and expressive, while using too much general terms can result in vagueness and triteness. In reading comprehension, cohesion by hyponymy is an important key.10. Synonymy is a relationship of …sameness of meaning‟ that may hold between two words. And synonym refers to a word that means the same as another.11. Discrimination of Synonyms(1) Difference in denotation(2) Difference in connotation(3) Difference in collocation(4) Difference in distribution12. Antonymy is a relationship of …meaning opposition‟ that may hold between two words. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.13. Types of Antonyms(1) Contraries: Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremesCharacteristics of Contraries1) The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.2) They can be modified by very and have comparative and superlative forms.3) The cover term is often used in daily life.(2)Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.(3)Converses: This third type consists of relational opposites, which indicate a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other.(4) Semantic Incompatible is a relationship of …meaning opposition‟ that may hold among several words.14. Function of AntonymyAntonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, and many great writers are fond of using antonyms to serve their stylistic purposes.15. Homonymy is the relation between two words that are spelled or pronounced in the same way but differ in meaning. Homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for stylistic purposes.16. Semantic Field refers to the phenomenon that vocabulary is an integrated system interrelated in sense and can be divided semantically into related sets or fields. Most languages share same semantic fields, such as time, space, age, kinship, food, color, emotion…17. Application of Semantic Field(1) A very large number of lexemes can be grouped together into fields and subfields in a fairly clear-cut way.(2) It has proved helpful to present learners with sets of related lexemes, rather than with a series of randomly chosen items.(3) Psychology has also shown that young children learn much of their vocabulary by bringing lexemes together in this way.Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning1. Types of Change(1) Extension of Meaning (2) Narrowing of Meaning(3) Elevation of Meaning (4) Degradation of Meaning(5) Transference of Meaning (6) Euphemism2. Extension of MeaningIt is also called generalization. It‟s a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.3. Narrowing of MeaningIt is the opposite of widening, is a process by which a word or wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.4. Elevation of MeaningElevation is the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.5. Degradation of MeaningA process whereby words of good origin fall into ill manner or non-affective words come to used in pejorative sense.6. Transference of MeaningWords which were used to refer to one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.7. Euphemism is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation, such as death, toilet etc.8. Causes of Change(1)Extra-linguistic Factors1) Historical reason 2) Social reason 3) Psychological reason(2) Linguistic Factors: The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system, which occurs mainly in two ways: Ellipsis, Analogy Chapter 8 Meaning and Context1. ContextIn a narrow sense, it consists of the lexical items that come immediately before and after any word in an act of communication. In a broad sense, it refers to the whole passage, whole book, entire social or cultural setting.2. Types of Context(1) Linguistic Context refers to words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or whole books in which a word appears.1) Lexical context refers to the items combined with a given polysemous word.2) Grammatical context: In some cases, the meaning of a polysemous word may be determined by the grammatical structure (not specific words) in which it occurs. (2) Extra-linguistic Context refers to a particular time, space, or culture in which a word appears.1) Situational context: the actual situation in which communication occurs.2) Cultural context: the social and cultural background.3. The Role of Context(1) Elimination of ambiguity: condition whereby any linguistic form has two or more interpretations.1) Lexical ambiguity: caused by polysemy. 2) Structural ambiguity3) Implied meaning 4) Meaning of the omitted parts(2) Indication of referents(3) Providing clues for inference of meaning: In many cases, when a new word appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints, which might help the readers to grasp the concept or comprehend the idea.。
《英语词汇学》复习资料
《英语词汇学》复习资料《英语词汇学》复习资料1Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The 1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated intothe English language.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can bedealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal-”in “maltreat”is a 4 prefix, while “inter-”in “interstate”is a 5prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English languageof 6 endings, and a language of 7 endings.6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggesttheir meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, andthe later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into twocategories: appreciative or12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.14 is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or aword plus a part of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-culturalgroups, and outsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same 16 meaning，but differ in 17meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into itsminimal components which are also known as semantic features..14.Radiation and 19 are the two coinages which the development of wordmeaning follows from monosemy to polysemy.15.20 deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specificword is included in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true”and F for “false”.1.Homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a wordof the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.2.Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, sothey have strong productivity.3.“Can-opener” used as slang to mean “all-purpose key”.4.Native words are neutral in style.5.The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, theFar East, and India.6.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary,particularly in earlier times.7.The smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is morpheme.8.Stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.9.Base is what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.10.Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the Englishvocabulary.11.“Fore-”in “forehead”and “fore-”in “foreknowledge”belong to two kinds ofprefix.12.Word-building and word-formation are relative synonyms.13.The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergonea process of extension of meaning.14.Parent—child and husband—wife are two pairs of converses.15.Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?3.List the four sources of synonyms.4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning? Ⅳ. Answer the following questions according to the requirement.Classify the three pairs of antonyms according to types of antonyms you have learned and describe the characteristics of each type of them.interviewer/interviewee; male/female; old /young成考复习资料答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical10. lexical11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19.concatenation 20. hyponymyII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true” and F for “false”.1-5 TTTFT 6-10 TFFFT 11-15 TFFTFIII.Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?1)All national character 2) stability 3) productivity 4) polysemy5) collocability2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?1)Prefixes primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, i.e. prefixes do notgenerally change the word-class of the base but only modify its meaning.2)Suffixes have only a small semantic role and their primary function is to changethe grammatical function of the base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slight modification of meaning.3)So prefixes are categorized on a semantic basis while suffixes are divided on agrammatical basis.3.1)Borrowing; (2) dialects and regional English (3) figurative and euphemisticuse of words (4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?1)Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms thecore of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptualmeaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generallyhas the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speechcommunity. (3%)2)Associative meaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it isopen-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors asculture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc…（3%）Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.1)Interviewer& interviewee are converses; male & female arecomplementaries; old & young are contraries.2)Complementaries truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are soopposite to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit nopossibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other orvice versa. Complementaries are nongradable, and they cannot be used incomparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very”toqualify them.3)Contraries are gradable antonyms. The existence of one is in relation to theother. We can say: A man is rich or very rich and also we can say a man isrich than the other. Contraries are characteristic of semantic polarity. Theseantonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and canaccommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other.4)Converses consist of relational opposites. The pairs of words indicatereciprocal social relationships that one of them cannot be used withoutsuggesting the other. It also includes reverse terms, which compriseadjectives and adverbs signifying a quality or verbs and nouns signifying anact or state that reverse or undo the quality, action or state of the other.成考复习资料复习资料2I. 单选题1. In the sentence “I like to see a movie.”, there are ________ functional words.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 52. Conversion is amethod________________________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3. The following words have derivational affixes EXCEPT ________________.A. subseaB. prewarC. postwarD. desks4. Which of the following statements is false?A. Conversion refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.B. Words mainly involved in conversion are nouns, verbs and adverbs.C. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectiveswhen converted to nouns.D. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.5. _________ is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core ofword-meaning.A. Grammatical meaningB. Denotative meaningC. Associative meaningD. Connotative meaning6. The words what have emotive content in themselves are said to contain __ meaning.A. collocativeB. affectiveC. stylisticD. denotative7. __________ explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.A. Etymological motivationB. Onomatopoetic motivationC. Morphological motivationD. Semantic motivation8. The following words have inflectional affixes EXCEPT __________.A. worksB. workerC. workingD. worked9. “Smog”is formed by combining “smoke”and “fog”. So it is an example ofA. clippingB. compounding成考复习资料C. blendingD. back-formation10. The word “smog”is created by blending, with the structure of __________.A. head + tailB. head + headC. head + wordD. word + tail11. The most important mode of vocabulary development in present-day English is the creation of new words by means of ________________.A. translation-loansB. emantic loansC. word formationD. borrowings12. Which of the following belongs to a semantic field?A. steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nagB. pony, mustang, mule, stud, mareC. policeman, constable, bobby, copD. domicile, residence, abode, home13. Words which are used to show the attitude of approval are ________________.A. appreciativeB. pejorativeC. conntativeD. collocative14. General features of English contains the following except _________.A. simplicityB. receptivityC. adaptabilityD. imprssiveness15. The most productive means of word-formation in modern English are the following except .A. compoundingB. affixationC. acronymD. conversionII判断题1. The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, theFar East, and India. （）2. The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergone aprocess of extension of meaning. （）3. The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the Norman Conquestwhich brought many Latin words into the English language. （）4. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, sothey have strong productivity. （）5. Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, andstylistic coloring. （）6. Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the Englishvocabulary. （）7. The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarked term.（）8. Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity. （）9. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary,particularly in earlier times. （）10. “Radiation” shows that the derived meanings of a polysemantic word are not成考复习资料directly related to the primary meaning. （）III简答题1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.答案I． 1-5 AADDB 6-10 BDBCA 11-15 CBADCⅡ. 1-5 TFFTF 6-10 TFFTFⅢ. 1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning? Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speech community. Associativemeaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc…2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are words identical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear(a kind of fruit)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig) Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of an animal)复习资料3I．Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The __1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are wellassimilated intothe English language.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can bedealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal” in “maltreat” is a 4 prefix, while “inter-” in “ interstate” i s a 5_prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle Englishlanguage of___6__ endings, and a language of __7__ endings.成考复习资料6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggesttheir meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, andthe later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or__12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.___14__ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or aword plus a part of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-culturalgroups, and outsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same _16_ meaning, but differ in _17_meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into itsminimal components which are also known as semantic features.14.Radiation and ___19___ are the two coinages which the development of wordmeaning follows from monosemy to polysemy.15.__20____deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a morespecific word is included in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F on the answer sheet:1.Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in sound and spelling, anddialects.2.“Radiation”shows that the derived meanin gs of a polysemantic word are notdirectly related to the primary meaning.3.Borrowing is a very important source of synonyms.4. A word which has a synonym naturally has an antonym.5.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.6.Motivation explains the connection between the linguistic form and its meaning.7.Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech,tense meaning, andstylistic coloring.8.The origins of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms frompolysemants.9.The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarkedterm.10.If the words differ in range and intensity of meaning, the words are not identicalin denotation.11.The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the NormanConquest which brought many Latin words into the English language./doc/3e8624236.html,ponential analysis is to break down. the conceptual sense of a word into its minimal distinctive components.13.Celtic language made great contributions to the expansion of the Englishvocabulary.14.Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more.15.Shortening includes clipping and blending.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.2. How would you explain the difference between backformation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1. What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?成考复习资料答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical 10. lexical 11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending 15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19. concatenation 20. hyponymy Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F in the brackets:1．F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6. T 7.F 8.T 9.F 10.T11.F 12. F 13. F 14. T 15. TⅢ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.un+bear+able:(1)‘bear’ is a free morpheme, and ‘un’, ‘able’are bound morphemes. inter+nation+al: ‘nation’ is a free morpheme, and ‘inter, al’ are bound morphemes.ex+prison+er: ‘prison’ is a free morpheme, and ‘ex, er’ are bound morphemes.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.1)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.2)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.3)Backformation is therefore the method of creating words by removing thesupposed suffixes, so called because many of the removed endings are not suffixes but inseparable parts of the word.4)For example, it is a common practice to add –er, -or to verb bases to formagential nouns.5)Reasonably, people make verbs by dropping the ending such as –or in editor, -arin beggar and –er in butler.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.1)Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by theconceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.2)Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate fordifferent styles.3)Affective meaning expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing inquestion.4)Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account ofthe meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.(1)Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are wordsidentical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear (a kind of fruit)(2)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound andmeaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig)(3)Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling andmeaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of animal)Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?1)Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with reference to spellingand pronunciation, as both have the same orthographical form but different meanings. This creates the problem of differentiation.2)The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the factthat the former refers to different lexemes which have thesame form and the latter the one and same lexeme which has several distinguishable meanings.3)One important criterion by which to differentiate them is ‘etymology’, i.e.,homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word of the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.4)The second principal consideration is ‘semantic relatedness’. The severalmeanings of a single polysemous lexeme are related and can be traced back to成考复习资料one central meaning. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.5)In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headwordwhereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.。
英语词汇学复习提纲
英语词汇学复习提纲英语词汇学复习提纲Chapter 1 Terms1. word2. vocabulary3. common words4. literary words5. colloquial words6. slang words7. technical words Questions1. What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock?2. How are English words classified?3. What are the differences between function words and content words?4. What are the main reasons for the rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary? Important statements 1. The histiory of the English langague begins with the conquest and settlement of what is now England by the Angles, Saxons and the Jutes from about 450 AD.2. The Transitional period from Old English to Modern English is known as Middle English, which is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.3. In the early stages of Modern English the Renaissance brought great changes to the English vocabulary.4. The heavy borrowing made the English vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous. Chapter 2 Terms1. morpheme2. Allomorphe3. free morpheme4. bound morpheme5. root6. affix7. hybrid Questions1. How are English morphemes classified?2. How are Englihs words classified on the morphemic level? Important Statements1. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes.2. The allomorphs of a morpheme do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound.3. Morphemes are important in the word-building process because the two most central and productive word-formation processes, compounding and affixation, are related to morphemes. Chapter 3 Terms1. partial conversion2. complete conversion Questions1. What are the three major processes of word-formation?2. Whyare the criteria of a compound relative? Important Statements1. There are varioius ways of forming words, but by and large, the various processes can be classified on the basis of frequency of usage, into major or minor processes.2. Any rule of word formation is of limited productivity in the sense that not all words which result from the applicationn of the rule are acceptable; they are freely acceptable only when they have gained an institutional currency in the language.3. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base. They do not genearlly alter the word-class of the base.4. Suffixes usually change the word-class of the base. Chapter 4 Terms1. blending2. back-formation3. clipp ing4. neoclassical formation Questions1. What are the differences between initialisms and acronyms? Important Statements1. On the whole, clipped words are used in less formal situations than their full-length equivalents.2. Most of the blends are related to daily life.3. The majority of backformed words are verbs.4. Reduplicatives are characterized by being rhymed or alliterated.5. The majority of neoclassical formations are scientific and technical.6. Genuine coinage is rare.7. Some new words are coined by analogy. Chapter 5 Terms1. motivation2. denotative meaning3. connotative meaning4. stylistic meaning5. affective meaning Questions1. What is the relationship between word form and its senses?2. What are the main types of word meaning? Important Statements1. The test of a genuinely onomatopeic word is its intelligibility to a foreigner who has no knowledge of the language in question.2. Denotative meaning is the central factor in linguistic communication.3. Lexical meaning is dominant in content words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in funciton words. Chapter 6 Terms1. radiation2. concatination3. prima ry meanin4. central meaning5. perfect homonyms6.homophones7. homographs Important Statements1. One-meaning words are very rare. They are very often scientific terms.2. It may be said that polysemy is the rule and monosemy is the exception.3. In some cases, the primary meaning and the central meaning coincide.4. Polysemic words and homonymous words are not only good candidates for humor, they can also produce other effects such as irony or heightened dramatic power. Chapter 7Terms1. complete synonyms2. relative synonyms3. hyponymy4. marked member5. unmarked member Questions1. In what respects do synonymous words differ? Important Statements1. An agreement in denotation is the most important criterion of synonymy.2. Two words aretotally synonymous only if they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings.3. It is important to note that two forces militate against complete synonymy: vagueness of word meaning,and connotative, stylistic and affective meanings that cluster around words.4. In most cases the native word is more spontaneous, more informal and unpretentious, whereas the foreign word is learned, abstract or even abstruse.5. In the double scale pattern of synonyms the native term usually sounds warmer and more homely than its foreign counterpart.6. In the triple scale pattern of synonyms the difference in tone between the English and the French words is often slight; the Latin word is generally more bookish.7. Synnonyms are useful for avoiding repetition and for achieving precision in meaning and variety in style.8. Lexical antonymy is often stronger than syntactic negation.9. This semantic category obviously overlaps with hyponymy: both are involved with forming relaionships between words in the same general area ofmeaning. For parctical purposes, in the case of hyponymy, one should pay attention to the question of which specific term to use, while in the case of semantic field, one’s attention should be turned toward the highly probable collocations the words of each semantic field have in common. Chapter 8 Terms1. linguistic context2. ambiguity Questions1. What are the different types of context?2. What are the functions of context in determination of word meaning? 3. What are the different types of ambiguity? Important Statements1. When we say that the context determines the sense we mean not that it imposes a sense but that it selects one that is already there.2. Words rarely can be equated on a one-to-one basis between two languages. Chapter 9 Terms1. historical cause of changes in word meaning2. social cause of changes in word meaning3. linguistic cause of changes in word meaning4. psychological cause of changes in word meaning5. metaphor6. metonymy Questions1. What are the mian causes of changes in word meaning?2. What are the tendencies in semantic change? Important Statements1. Usually a literal meaning of a word remains along with a new metaphorical one.2. Broading speaking, change of meaning refers tothe alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the additionnn of new meaning to established words. Chapter 10Terms Idiom Question What points should we attention to if we want to use idioms appropriately? Chapter 11 Questions1. What are three stages in the growth of American English?2. What are the characteristics of American English? Chapter 12Terms1. prescriptive dictionaries 2. descriptive。
词汇学复习重点.doc
词汇学复习重点1.jargon------ J argon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.2.translation loans ---- Translation loans are words and expressions formed fromthe existi ng material in the En glish Ian guage but modeled on the patter ns take n from another Ianguage.3.Renaissance --- It is a European movement of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics.4.Allomorph------ one of the variants of the same morpheme5.inflectional affix ----- an affix that in dicates grammatical relation ships6.acronyms ---- the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters ofnames of social and poli廿cal organiza廿ons special noun phrases and technical terms7.back-formation ------ the method of crea廿ng words by removing the supposed suffixes8.polygsemy ----- Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses atthe same 廿me.9.morpheme ----- It is a minimal meaningful unit of a Ianguage, or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.10.grammaticalmeaning -------- that part of the meaning of the word indicatesgramma 廿cal con cept or re la 廿on ships such as part of speech of words, sin gular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their in flee 廿onal forms.11.homonym ---- Homonyms are words different in meaning but either identicalboth in sound and spelling or iden廿cal only in sound or spelling.12.reference ----- what a linguistic form refers to in the real word. It is therelaUonship between Ianguage and the world13.semanticfield ------- Semant:ic field is concerned with the vocabulary of a Ianguageas a system of interrelated lexical networks.14.motivation --- the cormection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.15.conceptualmeaning ------- t he mea ning give n in the die 廿on ary and forms the coreof word-mea ning.16.amelioration -------- or eleva廿on, a process by which words rise from humble begirrnings to posi廿ons of im porta nee.17.transfer----- a process whereby words which were used to designate one thinghave changed to mean something else.1・ Discuss the major characteristics of Basic word stock with examples・Basic word stock contains the following characteristics:All national character: Words of the basic word stock denote the most comm on things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the Ianguage.Stability: As they denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged. Stability, however, is only relative.Productivity: Words of the basic word stock are most root words or mono syllabic words; They can form new words with other roots and affixesPolysemy: Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semant:ic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.Collocability: Many words of the basic word stock have strong collocability.2. What are the major modes of modern vocabulary expansion and give your examples ・The major modes are crea廿on, semant:ic change and borrowing.Creation refers to the forma廿on of new words by using existing materials, namely roots, affixes, and other elements. Semantic change means an old form, which takes on a new meaning to meet the new ,such as mouse and web. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new words.Creation:词根词缀构成新词semantic change: the word an gel is an example. The word is the n ame of a spiritual being, now, it has a new meaning used to refer to a radar echo caused by something not visually discernible.Borrowing: From French Ianguage, English has taken such words as: auteur, black humor, limoFrom German Ianguage, English has taken such words as: humoresqueFrom Chinese Ianguage, English has taken such words as: Kung fu, wok3・ What are the inflectional affixes frequently used in English? Discuss the meaning each ofthem indicates.-(e)s— plural number-(e)s— third- person singular present tense-(e)d— past tense -ing— progressive aspect-er— compara廿ve degree-est— superla廿ve degree-'s— possessive case4. How compounds differ from free phrases? Give examples to dwell on this point・phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first eleme nt and the sec on dary stress, if any, on the sec ond whereas the opposite is true of free phrases, e.g. “a ' gree n room” is a compo un d, while “agree n ' room” is a free phrase.semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Forexample, “agree n hand” is a n “in experie need pers on”.Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example verb, a noun or an adjec廿ve. “Bad-mouth” used as a verb can take the third person singular-s.5・Both back-formation and back-clipping are ways of making words by removing the endings of words ・ Explain their differences ・Back-forma廿on is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixed. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, "loafer" may be assumed to derive from the verb "loaf" on the an a logy of known derivatives, such as "swimmer" from "swim" or "driver" from "drive". By removing the supposed suffixes -er from "loafer： a verb "loaf" is coined. Back-clipping is different. The dele廿on occurs at the end of word. Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class.6・ What is the relationship between concept and meaning?Meaning and concept are closely cormected but not iden廿cal. They are both related directly to ref ere nts and are notions of the words but belong to differe nt categories. Concept, which is beyond Ianguage, is the result of human cognitJon, reflec廿ng the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Ianguage and so on whereas meaning belongs to Ianguage, so is restricted to Ianguage use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are Ianguages in the world . Even in the same Ianguage, the same concept can be expressed in different words.7. What is the relationship between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning?Gramma廿cal meanings refer to that part of the meaning of the world which indicates gramma 廿cal con cept or rela 廿on ships such as part of speech of words, sin gular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their in flee 廿onal forms. Gramma 廿cal meaning of a word becomes im porta nt only when it is used in actual con text. Differe nt lexical items, which have differe nt lexical meanin gs, may have the same gramma廿cal meaning, on the other hand, the same word may have different gramma廿cal meanings. Lexical meaning and gramma廿cal meaning make up the word meaning. It is known that gramma廿cal meaning surfaces only in use .But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words withi n or without con text as it is related to the notion that a word conveys.8・What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants? How to differentiate them?The differenee between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that homonyms refer to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distJn guishable meanin gs. One im porta nt criterion is to see their etymology. Homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and cormected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In die廿onaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headwork while homonyms are listed as separate en tries.9・ Discuss some of the characteristics of antonyms・1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition2) a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semant:ic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respec廿vely.4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.10. What are the causes of semantic changes? Illustrate your point.・There are many causes of sema ntic cha nge. The main causes in elude extra-li nguis tic factors and linguis廿c factors. In extra-linguis廿c factors. There are historical reasons, class reasons, and psychological reasons. In linguis廿c factors, there are shortening of phrases, in flux of borrowi ngs and an a logy.。
词汇学复习材料2
词汇学复习材料2I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words,primarily through the use of _________construct.A. soundB. formC. morphemeD. root2. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They includenouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.A. functionalB. notionalC. emptyD. formal3.The prefixes in the words of ir resistible, non classical and a political are called_______.A.reversative prefixesB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locativeprefixes4.Utopia ,odyssey and Babbit are words from ________.of books B. names of places C. names of people D. tradenames5.The prefixes in words new-Nazi, autobiography and pan-European are ________.prefixes B. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes6.The suffixes in words clockwise, homewards are ______.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixes7.The suffixes in words height en, symbol ize are ________.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixes8. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting9.Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to ______.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some naturallanguages10.From the ______ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth anddevelopment of the semantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional11._______ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center andthe secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection12. One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their ______.A. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage13. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is _______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy14. Composition and compounding in lexicology are words of _______.A.absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contraryantonyms15.As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly ______, they are oftenemployed in a conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms16 Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.A. functionalB. notionalC. emptyD. formal17. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.A. contentB. notionalC. emptyD. new18.The five Roamance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian,Romanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called _______.A. SanskritB. LatinC. CelticD. Anglo-Saxon19. The prefixed contained in un wrap, de-compose and dis allow are _________.A. reversative prefixedB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes20. ________ are contained in words trans-world, intra-party and fore head.A.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeB. Prefixes of time and orderC. Locative prefixesD. Prefixes of degree or size21．The suffixes in words height en, symbol ize are ________.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixes22.A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting23.Functional words possess strong _____ whereas content words have both meanings, andlexical meaning in particular.A. arbitrary meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. grammatical meaning24.From the ______ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth anddevelopment of the semantic structure of one and sameword .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional25._______ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center andthe secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection26. _________ is the semantic process in which the meaning ofa word moves gradually awayfrom its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenationimportant criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their ______.A. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage28. The antonyms: male and female are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms29. In Shakespearean line ‘rats and mice and such small dee r’, deer obv iously designates‘_____’ in general.A. a doeB.. animalC. a deerlike animalD. buck30 By hook and by crook is an example of ________.31. A word is ______of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A. a smallest formB. a minimal free formC. a constituent formD. a part32. “Nature” in the word “denaturalization” is not_______________.A. free rootB. free morphemesC. wordD. bound root33. Word formation excludes ________________.A. affixation and compoundingB. conversion and shorteningC. chipping, acronymy and blendingD. repetition and alliteration34. For the word “political”, its negative form is “_____________”.A. apoliticalB. ilpoliticalC. inpoliticalD. impolitical35. Radiation and concatenation are different stages of the development leading to polysemy.Generally, radiation __________________ concatenation.A. is behindB. precedesC. is withD. makes up for36. The relationship between the sound and meaning of a word is _____________.A. logicalB. arbitrary, conventionalC. certainD. objective37. The chief function of prefixation is to ______________ .A. change meanings of the stemsB. change the word-class of the stemC. change grammatical functionD. all the above38. The grammatical meanings of a word refer to that part of the meaning of the word whichindicates grammatical concept or relationship such as ____________.A. part of speech of wordsB. singular and plural meaning of nounsC. tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional formsD. all the above39. In the idiom “earn one’s bread”, ___________ is used.A. synecdocheB. personificationC. metonymyD. simile40. Homographs are words identical only in _____________ but different in two other aspects.A. soundB. meaningC. spellingD. senseII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions1.. English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the ______ structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantics, relations, _____development, formation and ______./doc/1613334212.html,nguage study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and_______.3.Now people generally refer to the language spoken by Anglo-Saxons as _______.4.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. In other words thehistory of the word explains the meaning of the word.5. __________ is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. According to suffixation theory, “villager”is called denominal noun and “employer”is called __________ noun.7. Lexical meaning and ___________ meaning make up the word meaning.8. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly ___________.9. Narrowing of meaning is the opposite of ___________ meaning.10. Linguistic context includes lexical context and __________.11. As far as sentence types are concerned, they embrace declarative, interrogative,________and exclamative sentences.12. One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their ____, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.13. Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning ofa more specific word is included in that of another more general word. The general wordsare called the _____terms and the more specific words are called _____.14. In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their ______15. _________ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plusa part of another word . Words formed in this way are called blends or _____words. III. State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.1. Functional words include adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns.2. “Nature” in the word “denaturalization” is a free root.3. Radiation and concatenation are different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally,radiation makes up for concatenation.4. Back-formation is one of the three major processes of word formation in English5. The total number of functional words is very limited in English.6. The meaning of a word, especially that of a polysemous word, is often determined by the context in which it appears.7. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.8. All transitive verbs can be used in passive sentences.9. Descriptive words can be used for evaluation in some contexts.10. Words from different classes can form a semantic field.11. The basic word stock of a language is changing rapidly all the time.12. A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language.13. Inflectional affixes have only grammatical meanings.14. There is no intrinsic connection between sound symbols and the sense of all English words.15. Homophones are words identical in spelling but different in meaning.16. Root, stem and base refer to the same thing.17. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are loan words.18. “Impossible” expresses a stronger negation than “not possible”.19. Acronymy and derivation are all processes of shortening words or word groups.20. The three major processes of word-formation are compounding, blending and conversion.21. A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language.22. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.23. Under no circumstances can sound and meaning be logically related.24. Prepositions, conjunctions, numerals and articles allbelong to functional words.25. Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words.26. Content words are numerous and more frequently used than functional words on average.27. The basic word stock enjoys the same features as native words.28. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary.29. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000.30. A word can be defined in different ways from different points of view.the word “persuader” means “dagger”(匕首）, it is regarded as an argot word.of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words.33. The word “prisoners” has two morphemes.34. A word is the minimal meaningful unit of a language.35. The morphemes which are realized by only one morph are called allomorphs.IV. Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of synonyms(complete or partial synonyms); 2) origins of homonyms(acronymy, borrowing, homograph, homophone or change in sound and spelling) ; 3) processes of word-meaning development(radiation or concatenation).A. acronymyB. homographC. complete synonymsD. partial synonymsE. borrowingF. homophoneG. change in sound and meaningH. radiation I. concatenation( ) 2. word building/word formation ( )3. candidate ( )4. bow/bau/ and bow /beu/ ( )5. NOW ( )6. dear/ deer ( )from ear ( ) 8. fair from feria ( )9. bank /bank ( ) 10. change / alter/vary ( )V．Define the following terms .1. word2. bound morphemes3. prefixation4. hyponymy5. polysemy6. antonymy7. hyponymy8. free morpheme9. affixation 10.. root11．Affixes 12. Acronymy 13. Conversion 14. back-formation 15. semantic field VI．Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.1. What are the stylistic features of idioms2.. What are the main types of blendings3.. What are the main characteristics of the basic word-stock Illustrate your points with examples.4． What are the main types of compounds5. What are the three main sources of new words6. Classify the following words and point out the types of words according to notion.earth, cloud, run, walk, on, of, upon, be, frequently , the, five, but, a, never.7 . Write the following words into a tree-like graph:vegetable, meat, pork, beef, turnip, carrot, bread, food, cake, cornflakes, cereal.。
词汇学复习题(完整版)
(最终完整版)I. Define the Following Terms.1. MorphemeMorpheme(语素):the minimal meaningful unit(the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words)2. allomorphAllomorph(语素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning. One of the variants that realize a morpheme3. bound morphemeBound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.4. free morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.5. AffixAffix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.6. inflectional affixInflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes): affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional7. derivational affixDerivational affixes(派生词缀) A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffixa prefix or suffix added to a root or stem to form another word, as un- in unread, -ness inlikeness8. rootA root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentity.9. stemA stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word withinflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.10. ReferenceReference is the conventional or arbitrary relationship between language and the world.Part of the word meaning is the reference.11. Motivation(理据)：Motivation refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.Most words are non-motivated.12. Conceptual meaning(概念意义):also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) Conceptual meaning is often described as dictionary meaning or literal meaning of a word. It is the core of the meaning of a word. 13. grammatical meaning（语法意义）:indicate the grammatical concept(become important only in actual context) Grammatical meaning refers to that part of meaning which indicates grammatical relationships or functions, such as tense meaning, singular meaning, etc14. associative meaningAssociative meaning(关联意义): According to the semantic analysis of Geoffrey Leech, the associative meaning of an expression has to do with individual mental understandings of the speaker.15. Hyponymy(上下义关系)Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal16. stylistic meaningLanguage use can be formal, neutral and casual in style. The stylistic features of words, which make words appropriate for appropriate situations, constitute stylistic meanings of words.17. affective meaningAffective meaning refers to that part of meaning which conveys emotions and attitudes ofa language user. Sometimes affective meanings are brought out only in context.18. collective meaningCollective meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.19. SlangSlang is the "language of a highly colloquial type, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words used in some social sense."20. homophone同音异义词A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs inmeaning21. Which of the following is NOT a rhetorical feature of idioms? DA．Phonetic manipulation. B．Lexical manipulation.C．Figures of speech. D．Phrasal verbs.22.The sentence “I like Mary better than you.” is ambiguous due to ____C__.A．extra-linguistic context B．lexical contextC．grammatical context D．homonymy23.Which of the following is NOT one of the obvious characteristics of the basic wordstock? CA．．Creativity. B．Stability.C．Duality. D．All national character.24. Synonyms can be classified into two major groups, that is:（A ）A. absolute and relativeB. absolute and completeC. relative and nearplete and identical25. In the early period of Middle English, English, _D________ existed side by side.A. Celtic and DanishB. Danish and FrenchC. Latin and CelticD. French and Latin26. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single （ C ）morpheme.A. formalB. concreteC. freeD. Bound27. Which of the following is NOT an acronym?（ B ）A. TOEFLB.ODYSSEYC. BASICD. CCTV28. Which of the following is NOT one of the main sources of new words? BA．The rapid development of modern science and technology.B．Geographical and political changes.C．The influence of other cultures and languages.D．Social and economic changes.29. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions. Which of the following is NOTan example of neologisms? BA．SARS. B．Can-opener.C．Futurology. D．Freak out.30. The written form of English is a(an)____C_______representation of the spoken form.A. selectiveB. adequateC. imperfectD. naturalMatch the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) meaning of prefixes; 2) type of word formations; 3)types of meaning changes and 4) types of idioms.A B（J）31．Ultr- A. backformation（A）32．burgle B. initialism（H）33．pop C. transfer of sensation（C）34．clear-sounding D. before（B）35．VOA E. brim (water’s edge —the top edge of a cup) （D）36．fore- F. mistress（F）37．degradation G. succeed（I）38．kick the bucket H. clipping（E）39．extension I. die（G）40．make it J. extreme41. What is lexical taxonomy词汇分类结构? Illustrate your points with examples.Lexical taxonomy is a classified structure formed by different level of types of lexicon. The relation between different types of lexicons is taxonomy. In the taxonomy relations, the lexicon contains a narrow type is taxonyms, while the lexicon contains a wide type on a superior level is superordinate. The lexicons in the same level are co-taxonyms, the relation between which is called co-taxonymy.Taxonomy denotes a relation of belonging: X is a kind/type/token of Y. In this case, X represents the taxonyms, Y represents superodinated.For examples: horse is a kind of animal;Carrot is a kind of vegetable;Chair is a kind of furniture;Hammer and saws are kind of tools;Usually, the types in taxonomy relations are wider than the breeds: animal>horse,vegetable>carrot, etc.42. What is amelioration of meaning? What is degradation of meaning? Illustrateyour points with examples.（1）Elevation or amelioration of meaning词义的升华: the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance.[eg：knight (old)servant (el)rank below baronet从男爵]（2）Elevation of Meaning ( or amelioration) (词义的升格)It refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.e.g. marshal: a servant who looks after mares/keeper of horseminister: servantnice: ignorant, foolish（3）Degradation of Meaning ( or degeneration) (词义的降格)It is a process whereby non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.it is much more common for word meanings to change in denotation from neutral to pejorative than it is for them to go the other way．e.g.sad: calm, serious -------- sorryfulcunning: knowing a skillful-------- gossip , crafty.wench: girl, young woman-------- a loose woman , prostituteboor : peasant -------- ill-mannered personfond: foolish43.What is transferred epithet转移修饰词? Illustrate it with examples.An epithet is an adjective (or phrase containing an adjective) or adverb which modifies (describes) a noun. For instance, in "dreamless sleep", dreamless is the epithet.In a transferred epithet (also known as hypallage; literally "echange") the adjective or adverb is transferred from the noun it logically belongs with, to another one which fits it grammatically but not logically. So in "dreamless night" , dreamless is a transferred epithet. The exact meaning of the sentence is "night when I (or whoever) slept without dreaming," since a night can't actually dream anyway.We use transferred epithets all the time. Another example could be "I had a terrible day." "Terrible" is a transferred epithet, because it wasn't the day that was terrible, only the things that happened to me on that day. A more poetic example would be "a long and weary road" - long can apply logically to the road, but not weary –so weary is a transferred epithet44.What is synaesthesia? Illustrate it with examples.Synaesthesia is a joining together of sensations that are normally experienced separately.Synesthesia can occur between nearly any two senses or perceptual modes, and at least one synesthete experienced synesthesia that linked all five senses. Given thelarge number of forms of synesthesia, researchers have adopted a convention of indicating the type of synesthesia by using the following notation x → y, where x is the "inducer" or trigger experience, and y is the "concurrent" or additional experience. For example, perceiving letters and numbers (collectively called graphemes) as colored would be indicated as grapheme → color synesthesia (e.g., A is likely to be red). In spatial-sequence, or number form synesthesia, numbers, months of the year, and/or days of the week elicit precise locations in space (for example, 1980 may be "farther away" than 1990), or may have a (three-dimensional) view of a year as a map (clockwise or counterclockwise)V. State the glocalization of English languageGlocalisation (or glocalization) is a compound word of globalization and localization. By definition, the term “glocal” refers to the individual, group, division, unit, organisation, and community which is willing and able to “think globally and act locally.”Glocalization A combination of the words “globalization” and “local,” w hich suggests the unique local and situated forms and effects of widespread and even global processes. For example: the words “chipmunk”, ”moose”come from India language; the word “brandy” and “landscape” come from Holland; the words “cargo”, “contraband” come from Spanish; the words “acme”, “acrobat” and “catastrophe” come from Greek.V.State the features of English idioms with examples.1.Idiomaticity(习用性): The idiom is widely used by English-American countries, and it has a wide social base and strong vitality.Such as: rain cats and dogs, cut off one’s nose to spite one’s face, play one’s cards close to one’s chest, etc.Some of them have platitudes, some have already lost the original cultural context. But they are still widely used owing to its certain meaning in people’s lives.2. Syntactic frozenness(定型性): The syntactic frozenness of the idiom is also called the Syntactic fixedness(固定性). Like Chinese idiom, The form of a idiom is fixed, it can’t be syntactically changed or replaced.Only a small part of the idioms can be replaced by other words, but these changes are fixed, too. For example: in the idiom “draw one’s teeth”, the word “teeth” can be changed by “fangs”.Most of them can’t be changed, or the meaning will be way different. For example: the idiom “stare one in the face” is different from the idiom “look one in the face”.3.Semantic utility(整体性)：The idiom has the characteristic that it has to be used as a whole semantic unit. Although the idioms have various forms such as sentence, phrase and single word, every part of them is tight related and inseparable. In another word, we cannot judge a idiom’s meaning word by word. Example：: be/feel under the weather(感觉不舒服)、beat generation（迷惘的一代）、on the carpet(受罚，受训)The semantic utility is an important feature to tell the idioms from free phrases.4.Semantic opacity(不透明性)：The other obvious feature of idioms is semantic opacity, which means the idiom can’t be understand literally. According to the degrees of opacity,the idioms can be classified into four types: ①transparent（透明）；eg. Long time no see.②semi-idiom(半成语)，eg. A fat salary. ③semi-transparent, eg. a watched pot never boils.心急水南开④opaque(不透明)，eg. kick the bucket, 死去、断气Like the feature of Semantic utility, Semantic opacity is also a symbol of the idiom.。
英语词汇学教程(复习大纲).doc
Chapter4 Word Formation in English掌握主要构词法Derivation/Affixation 派生法 / 词缀法Conversion 转化法Compounding/Composition 复合法Compounding 复合法P61Denefinition of Compounding 定义a word-forming process of joining two or more old words to form a new unitCharacteristics of Compounds 特点（features）1.Orthographic Criterion 写法上a.Solid 固定式：Butterfly Laymanb.Hyphenated 连字符模式：Never-endingc.Open开放式：prime time黄金时间rape tape繁文缚节2.Phonogically （发音上），there is always a single primary stress in English words, so that compounds are often recognized by stress pattern （重音）and lack of juncture （连音），if a word is a compound, its stress would be on the first part of the compound. "Greenhouse3.Syntactically（句法方面）,compounds are single lexical units and have specific features. Some compounds seem to use ungrammatical or at least unusual word order in English.4.Semantically（语义上），compounds tend to have special meanings. The meanings of the words interrelate in such way that the new meaning may be different from the meaning of the words in isolation （单独分离，隔绝孤立）.Conversion 转化法P67Denefinition of Conversion定义（注意掌握哪些词是经转化而来的）A change in word class without the addition of an affix is known as conversion.主要是n. v. adj.之间的转化，词型没变，但词性改变，也称为Zero derivation零派生法（没有词缀的派生法）掌握表格重音的变化P68Blending拼缀法（注意掌握类型）P68Denefinition of Blending 定义Blending refers to the process of combining parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part.6 common types of Blending 6 种类型1.The first type of blends is a full word followed by a splinter （某一个词的部分）a.The whole of the first word and the end of the second word.（完整的词加上后面的词的一部分）b.Blends can also begin with a splinter, followed by a full word.一个词的前半部分加上另外一个词eg. a. fact + action = faction（写实小说,派系之争）hack + broadcaster二huckster （叫卖的小贩）b. medical + care = medicare（医疗保险）technology + nerd （呆子）=technonerd 电脑迷2.The second type of blends consists of two splinters.a.In some cases, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another word.词首+词尾b.In other cases, both splinters are the beginnings of words.词首+词首eg. a. network + citizen^ netizen 网络公民information + commercial^ informercial 电视直销节目b. teleprinter+exchange = telex 电传打字机 situation+comedy = sitcom 情境喜居U3.The third type of blends consists of complete overlap （重叠部分），in which a part of the blend belongs to both words. eg. sex-sexploitation- sexploitation 色情利用,性泛滥 pal（伙伴）* alimony = palimony 同居生活费,分居赡养费4.The fourth type of blends involves the embedding （插入，嵌入）of one word in another.eg. entrepreneur（企业家,主办人）+porn= entreporne" chuckle（咯咯笑）+snort（鼻息声）=chortle（得意地笑）More examples of blending are shown in the following P69 掌握并判断Shortenings 缩短法P 70Clipping截短法（注意掌握类型,定义）Denefinition of Clipping 定义It is the process by which a word of usually three or more syllables is shortened without a change in meaning or function. 只是把词截短，但是词性和词义不变eg. omnibus - bus taximeter cabriole- taxiTypes of Clipping 类型1 .Front/Fore clipping: the clipping happens at the beginning of the word.截掉前面aeroplane-plane telephone-phone2.Back/Hind clipping: the deletion may occour at the end of the word才巴后截掉deliccitessen（熟食店）・deli laboratory-lab3.Front and Back clipping: clipping may affect both ends of the source with the middle part retained. 中 I'可保留，头尾去掉lnfluenza（流行性感冒）-flu detective （侦探）-tec4.Midclipping: the shortening affects the middle of the source form 中间去掉procurator 代理人）-proctor department 部门）一dept assistant一asst fossilization（化石作用）一fossilationpound/Phrase clipping: clipping may extend to phrases and word groupspopular music - pop permanent wave（烫々-perm public house（客栈）-pub narcotics agent - narc（缉毒开!j曾 final examinations - finals taximeter（车费指示器）cab（出租车,驾驶室）-taxi co-operative store - co-op 合作商店6.Phonetic clipping: it refers to the clipping of the unaccented（石发重音物 letter or syllable in a word.3E重读的或者音节截掉Three types: phonetic fore clipping, phonetic midclipping, and phonetic hind clipping.eg.because - cause cannot - can \ afraid - 'fraid over-o'erInitalisms首字母缩略法（注意掌握两种类型,区别）Denefinition of Initialisms 定义Initialisms are the results of putting together the initial letters（首字母），or occasionally the first two letters（开头的两个字母）,of the other orthographic（拼写正确的）words in a phrase and using them as words.Types of initialisms 类型1.Alphabetisms按字母排序缩短后按字母来读When initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters in them, they are called alphabetisms.2.Acronyms首字母缩拼词按单词发音When they are pronounced like individual words, they are acronyms.eg. UN （United Nations） FBI （Federal Bureau of Investigation） ID （identification）IOC （International Olympic Committee） TOEFL（Test of English as a Foreign Language）OPEC （Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries） APEC （Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation）There are even items with two spellings and two readings, alphabetisms may be mixed with acronyms and the two systems of pronounciation are combined. VP （from Vice-President） is pronounced like veep.Backformation逆构法P73 （达到能够辨认出单词是由这种方式形成的程度）Denefinition of Initialisms 定义Backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.返回去，人误以为是从哪个词派生出来的original word一new word:air-conditioner（空调）一 air-condition（装空调,空调调荀beggar（乞丐）一 beg donation- donatespring-clecming（大扫除）-spring-clean（V.）editor（编辑）一edit emotion - emote （Vi.激动地表达情感）destnicti （m（破坏）- destruct（n.v. a.破坏的）inspector（巡视员,监察员）-inspect peddler（小贩）- peddle（叫卖）sky-diving（空中跳伞）- sky-dive swindled骗子）一 swindle laser（激光）一 lose burglar（窃贼）一 burgle（偷切Chapter 5 Sense Relations 语义关系Word Meaning 语义Seven Types of Meaning 7 种语义P211.Conceptual Meaning = denotative/cognitie meaning 概念意义Conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.从字典中可以找得到的，核心的，稳定的意义。
《英语词汇学》复习资料.docx
《英语词汇学》复习资料.docx大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。
第一早1.Word ----- A word is a minimal free form of a Ianguage that has a given soundand meaning and syntactic function.2.There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E> g. “woman” means ' Frau" in German, ' Femme" in French and ' Funv ' in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound /rait/ can mean right, rite and write, though denoting different things, yet have the same sound?3.The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.(At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns)a)? the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the lamguage?b)? Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc)? Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d)? Borrowing of foreign language4.Vocabulary ------- V ocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum totalof all the words of a language? It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given subject and all thewords possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history?The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words?5.Classification of Words—by use frequency, by notion, by origin1)? Basic word stock - the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character (most important) - natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction, size, domain, statenumerals, pronouns, prep. , conj.2.stability - they donate the commonest thing necessary to life, they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative, some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow?e. g. arrow, bow, chariot, knight - pastelectricity, machine, car, plane ------------ now3.productivity - they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, they can form new words with other roots and affixes?e. g. foot - football, footage, footpath, footer4.polysemy - often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e. g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5.collocability - quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial saying and otherse. g. heart - a change of heart, a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary -------1.terminology - technical termsphotoscanning，hepatitis, indigestion, penici11 in，algebra, trigonometry, calculus2.jargon 一specialized vocabulary in ceria in professions?Bottom line, ballpark figures, bargaining chips, hold him back, hold him in, parano id3.slang ----- substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread, grass and pot, beaver, smoky, bear, catch, holler, Roger, X-rays,Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage?4.argot - words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener, dip, persuadercant, jargon , argot are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population.5.dialectal words - only by speakers of the dialectbeauty, chook, cocky, station, auld, build, coo, hame, lough, bog6? archaisms - words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems,legal document and religious writing or speech.7.neologism - newly created words with new meaning e. g. microelectronics, futurology, AIDS, internet, E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e. g. mouse, monitor2)? Content word (notional word) - denote clear notions.Functional word (empty word, form word) - do not have notions of their own, express the relation between notions, words and sentences?a.Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a smal1 number.b.Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable?c.Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3)? Native words - are words brought to Britain in the 15 contury by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words, 50, 000-60, 000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world? More are1.neutral in style (not stylistical specific )2. 2.frequent in use (in academic fields and scienee French, Latin or Greek are used) (usage 70-90%)Borrowed words (loan words, borrowing) - words taken over from foreign language- 80% According to the degree of assimilation and mariner of borrowing, we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens - words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language-e?g? port from portus (L) shift, change, shirt, porkcup from cuppa (L)2?Aliens - retained their original pronunciation and spellinge. g. decor(F) blitzkreeg(G) emir, intermez, rowtow, bazaar, rajar, status quo3.t ranslation loans - formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1)? Word translated according to the meaninge. g. mother tough from lingua maternal (L)black humor from humor noirlong time no see, surplus value, master piece2)? Words translated according to the sounde. g. kulak from kyrak (Russ)1ama from lama (Tib)ketchuptea4.Seniantic loans - their meaning are borrowed from another languagee? g? stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old importinent, sassy, cheeky第二章Indo-European language family (Europe, the Near East, India) Bal to - Slavic Indo-Iranidn Italic GermanicPrussian Persian Portuguese NorwegianLithuanian Hindi Spanish IcelandiePolish Italian DanishBulgarian Rounianian SwedishSlovenian French EnglishRussian GermanAlbanian Armenian Celtic HellenicIrish GreekBretonScottish2.History (时间,历史事件，特征)1)Old English (450-1150) totally 50, 000-60, 000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts, thelanguage was Celtic-The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions?The Germanic tribes called angles, Saxons and Jutes and their language, Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic? Now people refer to Ang1o-Saxon as old English?At the end of 6th contury, the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on theEnglish vocabulary.The common practice was to create now words by combining two native words?In the 9th century, many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Seandinavian are in modern English, our daily 1ife and speech?特点：highly inflected languagecomplex endings or vowel changes (full ending)2)Middle English (1150-1500) English, Latin, FrenchUntil 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic- But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century, English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English? 75% of them are t订 1 in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English?特点：fewer inflectionsleveled ending3)Modern English (1500-up to now) early modern English (1500-1700)late modern English (1700-up to now)The Renaissanee, Latin and Greek were recognized as thelanguages of the Western world" s great literary heritage.The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization, British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe, thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world?After World War II, many new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions, and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation?in modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic lamguage to the present analytic language?science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words, words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i. e? old words fallingout if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3.Three main sources new words1.The rapid development of modern science and technology2.Social, economic and political changes3.The influence of other cultures and languages4.Three modes of vocabulary development1.Creation - the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. (This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.)2.Somantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3.Borrowing 一to take in words from other languages?(particularly in earl ier time)4? (Reviving archaic or obsolete)French 30%, Latin 8%, Japanese Italian 7%, Spanish 6%, German Greek 5%, Russian Yiddish 4%第三章1.Morpheme ------ A morpheme is the smallest mean in gful unit of a language. (The smallest functional unit in the composition of words?)2.Morph ---- A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spokenminimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words - morphemes are realized by single morphs.4?Allomorph Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E. g. the morpheme of plurality (-s) has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context, e. g?in cats/s/, in bags/z/, in matches/iz/<5.Free morphemes or Free root -------- T he morphemes have complete meaning and vanbe used as free grammatical units in sentences, e. g. cat, walk. They are identical with root words, morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free-6.Bound Morphemes ------- The morphemes cannot occur as separate words? They arebound to other morphemes to form words, e. g> recollection (re+collect+ion) collect - free morpheme remand - ion are boundmorphemes? (inelude bound root and affix) Bound morphemes are found in derived words-7.Bound root ------ A bound root is that part of the word that carries thefundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -diet- for example： it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(二before) we obta in the verb predict mean i ng "tell beforeha nd” □ Contradict “ speak against" 。
(完整word版)英文专业词汇学考试复习资料
Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1、The Definition of a WordLexicology focuses on the study of meanings and origins of words.According to semanticists（语义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.A word is a minimal（最小的）free form of a language that has a given sound, meaningand syntactic function（句法功能）.2、 VocabularyAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.3、 Sound and MeaningThe relationship between sound and meaning is no logic4、 Sound and FormThere was more agreement between sound and form in Old English than in Modern English.With the development of the language, more and more differences arose between sound and form.（1）、What is the relationship between sound and meaning? Give examples to illustrate it.The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional. In differentlanguages, the same concept can be shown by different sounds. “Woman”, for example,becomes “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “fu nv” in Chinese. On the otherhand, the same sound [mi:t] is used to mean “meet, meat, mete”, denoting differentthings.（2）、What are the four major reasons for the differences between sound and form?The first reason (he internal reason) is that there are more phonemes （音素）than lettersin English. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly thanspelling over the years. The third reasons that some of the differences more created bythe early scribes. The fourth reason is the borrowing.（3）、How are words classified in the course book?Words can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fallinto: the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency; content words andfunctional words by notion; native words and borrowed words by origin; simple words,compounds and derived words by morphology.（4）、What is the difference between denizens and aliens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated（完全同化）into the English language. But aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1、The Indo-European Language FamilyThe prehistoric Indo-European parent language, thought to be a highly inflected （内部曲折语）language.The first peoples who inhabited the land were Celts.The second language known in English was Latin of the Roman Legions.（1）、Old English（450-1150）In the 9th century England was invaded by Norwegian and Danish Vikings.（2）、Middle English（1150-1500）The French influence on English vocabulary was one of the significant points of theMiddle English period.The most important fact of the Middle English period was the steady erosion of theinflectional systems of Old English.（3）、Modern English（1500-present）In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancientGreek and Roman classics.It is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French.3、 Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyIn earlier stages of English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian were the four major contributors.The simultaneous existence of French, Latin and English lasted for a century.4、 Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change（旧词新义）and borrowing.Creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.5、简答What are the characteristics of Old English?Old English also known as the Anglo-Saxon, has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian. Old English was a highly inflected language.It was a synthetic language（综合性语言）.（Modern English is an analytic language）Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words1、 MorphemesThe minimal meaningful units in English are known as morphemes（词素）.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4、 Allomorphs（词素变体）An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.6、A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentity.7、简答（1）、What is the difference between free morphemes and bound morphemes?Free morphemes which have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as freegrammatical units in sentences are independent of other morphemes, but boundmorphemes which cannot occur as separate. Words are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.（2）、What is the difference between derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes?Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words, but inflectional morphemes areemployed used to indicate the syntactic （句法）relationship between words and functionas grammatical markers.Chapter 4 Word FormatioThe most productive ways of creating new words are affixation, compounding, and conversion. 1、Affixationderivatives.2、Compounding（复合法）Example: workfare(work+welfare)In adjective-plus-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.Verb compounds are created either though conversion or through back-formation.3、Conversion（转类法）The conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs is the most productive.The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress.Nouns fully converted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns.4、 Blending（拼缀法）The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns5、Back-formation（逆身法）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.6、简答（1）、What is the main difference between prefixes and suffixes?Unlike prefixes which primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, suffixeshave only a small semantic role, their primary function being to changes thegrammatical function of a base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slightmodification of meaning.（2）、What are the three main features of compounds?The three main features of compounds are phonological features, semantic features and grammatical features. The word stress of a compound usually occurs on the first element.Each compound should express a single idea just as one word. A compound tends to playa single grammatical role in a sentence.（3）、What is back-formation? What are the characteristics of back-formation?Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Words created through back-formation are verbs. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not successfully gained currency.（4）、What is acronymy? What is the difference between initialisms and acrnyms?Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms. Initialisms are pronounced letter by letter, but acronyms are pronounced as normal words7、论述题1、“Medicare” and “sitcom” are blends. “Medicare” is formed by combining the head of “medical’and the word “care”, and “sitcom” is formed by combining the head of “situation” and that of “comdey’.2、”Memo” and “flu” are clipped words. “Memo” is formed by clipping the lack of“memorandum” and “flu” is formed clipping the front and lack of “influenza”.3、”TB” and “NATO” are new words created through acronymy. “TB” from “tuberculosis” is aninitialism, while “NATO” from “the North Atlantic Treaty Organization” is an acronym.Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis（成份分析法）1、ReferenceWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquiredreference.2、Concept（概念）Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical.Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.3、SenseUnlike reference, sense denotes the relationships inside the language.4、Motivation（理据）（1）、What is reference? What are the characteristics of reference?Reference is the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Although reference isa kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite.（2）、What is conceptual meaning? What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning?Conceptual meaning known as cognitive, denotative, or designative is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as The same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same speech community. (language).（3）、What is the difference between conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Conceptual meaning known as cognitive, denotative, or designative is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. But Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning because it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc. .（4）、What is collocative meaning? What are the characteristics of collocative meaning?Collocative meaning is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. It is again noticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with connotative and affective meaning because in a sense both connotative and affective meanings are revealed by virtue of collocations or contextuality.Chapter 6 Sense Relations（语义关系）The first meaning of a word is called primary meaning. Later meanings are called derived meaningsThe meaning of a more specific word is include in that of another more general word.简答What is the difference between radiation and concatenation（连锁型）?Unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains.Chapter 7 Changes in Word MeaningThe vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in the sign-shapes and sign contents.（1）、What is semantic transfer? What are the four main types of transfer?Some words which were used to designate/indicate one thing but later changed to meansomething else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. The four main typesof transfer are the associated transfer, the transfer between abstract and concretemeanings, the transfer between subjective and objective meanings and the synesthesim.（2）、What are the two factors causing changes in meanings? How are they classified?The two major factors that cause changes in meaning are the extra-linguistic factors andthe linguistic factors. The extra-linguistic factors include the historic reason, the classreason and the psychological reason. The linguistic factors include shortening,borrowing and analogy.（类比）Chapter 8 Meaning and Context（语境）1、 Types of ContextWithout context, there is no way to determine the meaning that the speaker intends to convey.When we talk about context, we usually think of linguistic context, hardly aware of theAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy, homonymy and grammatical structure. When a word with multiple meanings is employed in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.3、简答（1）、what is the difference between linguistic context and extra-linguistic context?Linguistic refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears and it is known as linguistic context or co-text may extend to embrace a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. But extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context refers to the participants, time, place, and even the whole cultural background（2）、What is the difference between lexical context and grammatical context?Lexical context refers to the words that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words. But grammaticalcontext refers to the structure which may influence the meaning of a polysemant.4、论述题Read the sentence carefully. If you find anything inappropriate, explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.a.He is a hard businessman.John ran the egg and spoon race.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by polysemy.2、The word “hard” in this sentence can be understood as “hardworking” or “difficult”.The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader todecide what exactly the speaker means.3、The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little. There would be nomisunderstanding of the original sentence if it is expanded as “He is a hardbusinessman to deal with ”, or “He is a hard businessman and he is often praised by hisemployer”.（participated or organized John ran the egg and spoon race and got second place. orJohn ran the egg and spoon race and gain a larger number of money.）b.They saw her duck.The ball was attractive.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by homonymy.2、The word “ball” in this sentence can be understood as a noun, which refer to “roundobject to play in a game” or a “dancing party”. The context fails to narrow down themeaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means.3、The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little. It is clear if it isexpanded as “The ball was attractive with nice music and a lot of peoples ”, or “Theball made of leather of different colors was attractive”.（kind of poultry or verb meaning ”lower one’s head or body quickly, dodge”They saw her duck or swimming in the river or They saw her duck her body.）c、The fish is ready to eat.I like Mary better than Jean.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by inadequate grammaticalstructure..2、The sentence has two different interpretations. It may mean “the fish is cooked orserved, so ready for people to eat or a “the fish is ready to eat things”. The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means.3、The sentence can be improved as “How nice the fish smell! The fish is ready to eat.” or“The fish is ready to eat things.（I like Mary better than I like Jean or I like Mary better than Jean likes MaryI like Mary better than Jean does. or I like Mary better than I do Jean.）Chapter 9 English IdiomsStylistically, idioms are generally felt to be informal and some are colloquialisms（口语体）and slang.（1）、What are the characteristics of English idioms?The two main characteristics of English idioms are semantic unity and structural stability.Idioms each consist of at least two or more constituents, but each is a semantic unity. The structure of an idiom is to a large extend invariable.（2）、What are the rhetorical features of English idioms?The rhetorical features of English idioms include the phonetic manipulation, the lexicalmanipulation and the semantic manipulation. The phonetic manipulation includesalliteration and rhyme（叠韵）. The lexical manipulation includes reiteration, repletionand juxtaposition. The semantic manipulation includes (Figures of speech) Simile,Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Euphemism.Chapter 10 English DictionariesThe main body of a dictionary is its definitions of words.3、Dictionaries（1）、Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English-English-Chinese（LDCE《朗文高级当代英语词典英汉双解》）Features: Clear Grammar Codes, Usage Notes, Language Notes, New words（2）、Collins COBUILD English Dictionary（CCED《柯林斯COBUILD英语词典》）Features: Definition, Extra Column, Frequency Marker, Pragmatics（词语用法说明）4、British or AmericanAmerican dictionaries contain more encyclopaedic information in the main body than British one whereas British dictionaries, especially learner’s dictionaries, embrace more grammatical information.5、简答What is a dictionary? What is the relationship between a dictionary and lexicology?A dictionary is a book which presents in alphabetical order the words of English,with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. It is closely related to lexicology because both deal with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary units.。
（完整word版）英语词汇学复习大纲整理
（完整word版）英语词汇学复习大纲整理1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念1.1 the definition of a word（alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.）1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters thatmake up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.1.3 sound and form ：1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇nonbasic vocabulary非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇by notion 按概念分：content words and functional words实义词和功能词by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性stability 稳定性productivity 多产性polysemy 一词多义collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词archaism 古语词neologism 新词neutral in style 文体上中性frequent in use 使用频繁native words本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obviouscharacteristics明显的特点(Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation betweennotions, words, etc.)2D e v e l o p m e n tIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.2.1 Indo-European印欧语Eastern set：东部诸语族Western set：西部诸语族Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语Armenian 亚美尼亚语Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语Celtic 凯尔特语Italic 意大利语Hellenic 希腊语—Greek Germanic 日耳曼语Persian 波斯语Bengali 孟加拉国语Hindi 印地语Romany 普吉赛语Prussian 普鲁士语Lithuanian 立陶宛语Polish 波兰语Czech 捷克语Bulgarian 保加利亚语Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语Russian 俄语Norwegian 挪威语Icelandic 冰岛语Danish 丹麦语Swedish 瑞典语German 德语Dutch 荷兰语Flemish 佛兰德语Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语French 法语Italian 意大利语Roumanian 罗马尼亚语Scottish 苏格兰语Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 布里多尼语Scandinavian languages 斯堪的纳维亚语Latin 拉丁语言2.2 Historical review历史概述2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇Highly inflected 高度曲折complex endings 复杂的结尾vowel changes 元音变化French words 法语词汇leveled endings 水平结尾Early Modern English (1500-1700)早期现代英语Late Modern English (1700-up to the present)晚期现代英语Borrow 借词new words 新词no endings 无结尾（from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。