耶鲁公开课[1].心理学导论

我要用一个不同的演示I'll begin the class officially来正式开始这堂课的内容with a different sort of demonstration.我想给你们看一个在现实中进行的I want to just show you one of the

change-Blindness studies变化盲视实验that has been done in the real world.这些录像带没有公开发行And these videotapes are not available publicly.我们在网上找到了这些录像带We get them from the web然后用了一些java脚本来打开and see them as little java scripts.这是丹尼尔·西蒙斯So, this is one of the first studies done在康奈尔大学时所做的早期研究之一by Dan Simons when he was at cornell.他当时的导师是如今在我们系任教的And his adviser at the time was our Frank Keil,弗兰克·凯尔Who's now in our department.这就是他的研究So, here's the study.人们根本没有注意到And you don't notice it.变化盲视是实验科学家们Change blindness is one of the more striking phenomena和心理学家们所发现的discovered by laboratory scientists较为引人注意的现象之一and by psychologists.但是请大家But it's important to realize,抛开对大猩猩的惊奇to get away from the sort of surprise of the gorilla,以及人们很难看到闪过物体的and the fact that it's hard to see the flickering,这个事实the object that's flickering,理解这之中隐含的寓意是非常重要的and appreciate the big moral of this,因为我觉得这里的寓意because the big moral of this is actually, I think,实际上是非常惊人也是十分重要的striking and quite important.你觉得你正在感知着这个世界You think right now that you're perceiving the world.我在这里俯视你们I look down on you 觉得自己对每个人的位置都了如指掌and I think I have a whole sense of where everybody is.我无法看清坐在后面的每位同学I can't see everybody perfectly in back.因为你们离我太远有点模糊You're kind of far away and blurry但我还是能感知到周围的世界but there's a sense in which I have a world around me.同样如果我把眼睛闭上几秒钟Similarly, if I'm to close my eyes for a second,一切照旧everything just remains我大概能够记起一些原先的事物and I could sort of remember some of the things that are there.刚才的声音是我做的一个很好的声音定位That's really good sound localization by me.你们从下面往讲台上看So you're looking up觉得自己感知并记住了这个场景and you think you have a sense of the world both in perception and memory.而变化盲视实验则表明事实并非如此The change-blindness experiment suggested this isn't true.变化盲视实验表明The change-blindness experiment suggests that如果你盯着我看一小会if you look at me for a second而在这段时间里and during that second你所有的同学包括坐在你旁边的同学all of your classmates change positions,都换了座位including those next to you,你是很难注意到的you are extremely unlikely to notice.变化盲视实验表明The change-blindness experiment suggests如果你将目光从我身上挪到那边去that if you turn your eyes away from me towards there停留片刻然后再看回来for a second and turn back,即便我换了一身完全不同的衣服and I'm dressed entirely differently,你也不会注意到you wouldn't notice.除非你有意识地告诉自己The exceptions would be if you told yourself consciously,"记住这个人的衣着"remember what this guy is wearing;他穿的是这样那样的衣服"He's wearing this, that and the other."但如果你并不是有意识地去观察But if you don't do it consciously那你就不会注意到了you'll lose it,通常情况下这是没问题的and usually this is okay.通常来说没什么问题Usually, it's okay是因为你的记忆系统和视觉系统because your memory and your visual system会应用一个关于宇宙万物的基本事实exploits a basic fact about the universe,这个事实就是which is that多数事物在大部分的时间里是保持不变的most things stay the same most of the time.我转头的时候I don't have to explicitly remember并不需要明确地记住that you're over there你是在那里的when I turn my head for a second因为无论如何你还是会在那里because you'll be over there in any case.你不需要拥有关于世界的准确表征You don't need to hold precise representations of the world.所以只有在某些特定情况下And so you only notice it你才会注意到这些变化in certain clever circumstances.一种特定情况是心理学家们One sort of clever circumstance is when psychologists change reality在变化盲视实验中改变现实场景as in the change-blindness studies.另一种情况就是电影A second sort of circumstance is in movies.人们在制作那些含有切换画面的电影时So, one of the big surprises会惊奇地发现when people started making movies involving cuts想要连续地理解电影中的一切was it is extremely difficult是极其困

难的to get everything continuously right.你要非常努力才能注意到这一点And you need to work very hard to notice.电影里到处都是这种一致性错误So, there's all of these continuity errors that creep up into movies而你必须得像电影爱好者那样and you have to be a film buff把错误记录下来and writing it down才会注意到这种情况to even notice this.所以变化盲视在总体上所表达的寓意便是And the overall moral here then is你对现实的感知程度远比你想象中的that your perception of reality is a lot more sparse, a lot more limited,更加稀少也更加有限than you might think it is.这就是我们在上节课的最后所讲的内容So, this is where we were at the end of last class.我们讲了不同种类的记忆We were talking about the different sorts of memories.感觉记忆即你对当下的所见所闻Sensory memory, which is the sort of fraction of a second在瞬间的感觉残留of sensory residue of what you're hearing and what you're seeing,工作记忆短时记忆working memory, short-term memory,然后是长时记忆and then long-term memory.我们上节课讲了And we talked last class外界信息是如何进入感觉记忆about how things get into sensory memory,又是如何进入工作记忆的into working memory,以及注意在其中所起到的作用the role of attention.实际上对变化盲视的各种研究And in fact, the change-blindness studies are actually just studies正是在探查信息如何从感知进入意识of how something gets from your senses to your consciousness以及哪些信息能够进入意识哪些不能and what does and what doesn't.现在我想讲一下Now I want to move to the distinction工作记忆短时记忆between working memory, short-term memory,和长时记忆之间的区别and long-term memory.最明显的区别便是储存容量上的差异Now, the obvious distinction is actually just in fact--is storage differences.长时记忆简称"LTM" So, long-term memory or "LTM"拥有巨大的储存能力has a huge storage capacity.这种记忆很像你的电脑硬盘This is your memory like the hard drive of your computer.它是会伴随你一生的记忆This is the memory you walk around with.比如它存储着所有的英语单词It includes all the words in English, just for example,大约六到八万个单词to , words.它存储着你对所遇之人的印象It includes everybody you've ever met,各种的语言面孔故事位置languages, faces, stories, locations,童谣歌曲以及电视节目nursery rhymes, songs, TV programs.没有人知道它的存储容量有多大Nobody knows the storage.你能记住所有曾经发生在你身上的事情It is not true that you remember everything这个观点并不正确that has ever happened to you.没有任何理由能够使你相信There's no reason to believe这个观点是正确的that this is true.但与此同时At the same time though,你在大脑中的长时记忆里储存了海量信息you have a huge amount stored in your brain in long-term storage事实上没有人--and nobody actually记忆的储存容量肯定是有限的It has to be limited因为大脑是有限的because it's a finite, limited brain.但并没有人知道储存容量到底有多大But nobody knows how big it is.没人知道你的大脑能存储多少兆兆的字节Nobody knows how many terabytes you carry around in your brain但是容量确实很大and--but it's a lot.与之相比工作记忆Compare this to working memory,短时记忆的储存容量the short-term memory,实际上则非常有限which is actually very limited.此时此刻Your memory of what you could store你能够保持在意识之中的记忆on in--where you could hold in consciousness right now是十分有限的is quite limited.我们来做个练习不要把我说的写下来Here is an exercise. Do not write these things down.我想要你们记住我说的And I want you to remember them.我念一组数字I'm just gonna give you a few

numbers. , , , , , , , , , , .请把这些数字写下来Please write them down.你们可以把这当做一次智力测验View this as an IQ test如果这样想能让你们放松点的话if that would relax you.参与这个实验的你们有多少人How many of you who decided to participate in this experiment只写出了三个或者更少got three or less?很好很好Good. Good.四个呢五个六个Four, five, six,七个八个九个或者更多的seven, eight, nine or more?有将十一个数字全部写出的人吗Anybody get all eleven?这是个非常难的记忆任务This is a particularly difficult memory task.这些数字毫无意义The numbers are meaningless.我忘了告诉你们And I told--and I forgot to tell you要准备好你们的笔准备好写东西to get your pen and pencil ready,所以有些人就只是瞪着我在看So some of you just glared at me.但认知心理学家乔治·米勒认为But under normal

circumstances,这个实验表明the cognitive psychologist, George Miller said在通常情况下that this sort of suggested短时记忆的标准记忆容量that the standard memory storage of short-term memory 是七加减二is seven, plus or minus two.这也就是说大约是五到九And what that means is anywhere from five to nine roughly.我相信肯定有人记下了比这更多的数字Some of you, I bet, can beat that.有些人今天不在状态Some of you on a not-so-good day可能没记下那么多maybe won't make it that much."七加减二"Now "seven plus or minus two" is what you--;这就是你能在意识中保持的信息数量So, that's what you hold in consciousness.我告诉你You know, I can tell you , .你边走边说You walk around," ""oh, yeah, , ."你很轻松的就把它们保存在了意识之中You hold that in consciousness with no problem.但我一下对你说了十一个数字But I throw eleven numbers at you,你就记不住了you can't.一些数字就被漏掉了Some dribble out.你无法将这些数字保存在You can't hold that有意识的短时记忆之中in your conscious window in your short-term memory.现在

这就引出了个问题Now, this raises the question"七加减二"个什么"seven plus or minus two" what?答案便是And the answer seems to be被乔治·米勒称之为"组块"的东西what George Miller calls "chunks."组块是基本的记忆单位And a chunk is a basic memory unit,你可以将它看做是单一独立的实体Something you think of as a single, individual entity.假设你看到一串字母So, suppose you see the string of lettersl a m al, a, m, a,i s o ni, s, o, n如果你不知道If you don't know--如果你不能把它们组合成词If you can't form these into words要记住它们and you have to remember them,就要记住八个组块these are eight chunks.你必须把这些组块分别记住You have to just pick them up separately.另一方面如果你把它们组合成四个词On the other hand, if you break them up into four words那你只需要四个组块就能记住这些字母you could just remember it as four chunks.如果你把这串字母组成两个法语单词And if you break it up into two words in french,"la maison""la maison,"也就是"房子"的意思"the house,"这就只需要记住一个或两个组块了it could just be one or two.你的理解程度How much you know depends--会影响你记住的信息量affects how much you memorize影响你在记忆中存储的信息量how much you could store in memory因为你的理解程度会影响记忆的基本单位because it affects what counts as a basic unit of memory.这方面的例子有很多And there's all sorts of examples of this.如果我念If I tell you" ", , , , , ,

", , , , , ,"你们当中不懂二进制数的人Those of you who don't know binary numbers可能会把我刚才念的数字记成might have to remember that" " 类似这样as ", , , ," whatever I said.对于那些计算机科学家们Those of you who are computer scientists或是数学家们or mathematicians或是无论出于什么原因or, for whatever reason,懂的二进制数的人来说know binary numbers他们能够将这串数字转化成could convert it一个单独的二进制数into a single binary number.有人记得那个数字是多少吗Anybody know what the number is?可惜我也记不清了No, I cannot say it again.某个数字吧二十四Some number, ,或者不是二十四反正就某个数字吧or not --to some number,二十四然后你记住二十四就可以了, and then you remember "."这就简单多了It's easier.假设你看见一个棋盘Suppose you see a chessboard一个已经摆好的棋盘And the chessboard is set up and你不会下国际象棋you don't know how to play chess.那么要记住棋盘就非常困难了It is murderously hard to remember that.有人做过相关的实验They've done the experiments.他们把不会下国际象棋的人带到实验室They've taken people in a lab who don't know how to play chess.摆好准备好一个棋局然后说They set up a chessboard and then they say,"好了请观察这个棋盘五分钟""Okay. Look at this for five minutes."然后他们把棋盘拿走Then they take it away,要求把它重新摆好set it up again,这简直太难了And it's murderously hard."那个边上有个马等等""There is a horse-y thing on the side there and everything."但是如果棋子是按照对棋手来说But if these chess pieces are set up in some way存在逻辑关系的某种方式进行摆放that's logical for a chess player,那么国际象棋大师便可在很短的时间内then a chess master could look at it记住棋盘摆放的位置and remember it in a glance,"这是斐波纳契防守阵" 或别的什么"Oh. It's the Fibonacci Defense" or something like that,之后便能迅速地将棋盘重新摆好And then immediately recover it.同样橄榄球教练会接受Similarly, football coaches have been tested对橄榄球示意图的记忆测试on their

memories of football diagrams.他们拥有对橄榄球示意图的照片式记忆And they have a photographic memory for football diagrams因为这些示意图对于他们来说是有意义的because it corresponds to things that make sense.建筑师也会拥有照片式记忆Architects could have a photographic memory,对布图规划的完美记忆a perfect memory for floor plans因为布图规划对他们来说是有意义的because it makes sense to them.他们能够理解其中含义They understand it.事物在记忆中的存储方式And so the way you store things in memory,很大程度上取决于你对该事物的理解程度and this is a theme we're going to return to等我们讲到长时记忆时when we get to

long-term memory,我们还会回头来讲这个问题depends in a large extent on how much you understand it.这种不同会在专业知识的效果上表现出来And this shows up in expertise effects.这些是目前所讲到的关于短时记忆的内容Now, this is what's happening so far in short-term memory,短时记忆的容量how much you hold in there.问题是你又如何让它进入长时记忆呢The question is how do you get it into long-term memory?长时记忆是你主要的储存系统So, you have long-term memory, your major storage system.信息是如何从意识进入长时记忆的呢How does information get from your consciousness to long-term storage?有这么一种方法Well, there's one thing--there's one way有时候还算有用但效果一般which sort of works sometimes but not very well.这种方法叫做"保持性复述"And it's called "maintenance rehearsal."假设我让你记住一些数字Suppose I said you have to remember this number,一串数字this string of numbers.如果你能在二十分钟内将它们记下来And if you remember it in twenty minutes就能得到一千美元you will get one thousand dollars.这串数字是我小时候的电话号码And the string is my phone number when I was a kid.也包括区号and include the area code --.现在如果你把这些告诉一个四岁小孩Now, if you tell that to a four-year-old, well,四岁的孩子会说"我会记住的"the four-year-old will say, "I'll remember it."然后你问他们"我刚才说了什么"And then you ask them, "what did I just say?""我不知道""well, I don't know."如果你把电话号码告诉成年人If you tell it to an--如果你经常需要用电话because you know something那你就会知道这是什么if a lot depended on it,也就会知道该做些什么you would know to do something.你会对自己说What you would do is you'd say to yourself," "--, --, "- --"你会在头脑中不断地重复You'd rehearse it in your head over and over again.问题是只有不断重复你才能记住这些The problem is you could hold it as long as you can do that.这和我们在电影中看到的情节很像It's like these movies.你可以经常看到这种情节You see this all the time,比如在《小时》的一集中like an episode of :"杰克给反恐局打电话"jack, call CTU告诉他们号特工被困在..."and tell them agent is trapped in a--"我记不住这情节And I can't even remember this但记住这一情节的方法是but the way to remember it将你刚刚听到的内容is you hold you've just got to repeat it在你的脑袋里不断重复over and over again in your head.但这种复述通常不能将信息转入长时记忆But this will not typically get things into long-term memory.要让信息进入长时记忆To get things into long-term memory,光复述是不够的rehearsal is usually not enough.你还需要做些其他的事情You need to do other things.通常你需要将信息结构化并进行组织Typically, what you need is structure and organization.经典的"加工深度"实验And one way to demonstrate this从一个方面证明了这个观点was in a classic "depth of processing" experiment该实验非常清晰地表明which nicely illustrates the fact你对信息组织越充分that the more you structure something,对信息理解的越深刻the deeper you think about it,信息进入长时记忆的效果就越好the better it gets entrenched in the long-term memory.在该实验中研究者们要求被试So, in this study what they did was they asked people他们告诉被试they told people屏幕上将会闪现一些单词that there's going to be words flashed on a screen.所有被试看到的都是相同的一串的单词And all of the subjects saw the same strings of words.总共四十八个单词There were forty-eight words.被试们并未被告知去记住这些单词They were not told to memorize the words.三分之一的被试被告知One third of the subjects was told,"请注意将要出现的单词中"Look. Some of these words有些用的是大写字母are going to come out in capital letters,有些并没用大写字母some of them not capital letters.分别对大写字母和非大写字母进行按键"Press a button for capitals, non-capitals."就这样

Sure.另一组被试被告知The other group was told,"这些单词中"Some of these words有些将与'train'同韵will rhyme with 'train',其他则不是others won't.如果与'train'同韵请按键"Press a button if it rhymes in 'train'."第三组被试被告知The third group was told,"出现的单词能否填入这句话中"Does it fit into the sentence'女孩将__放到桌子上''The girl placed the blank on the table?'若能填入请按这个键Press a button if it does.若不能请按那个键"Press a button if it doesn't."然后突然问被试Then they were asked as a surprise,"你们看到的单词是什么""what words did you see?"实验结果大致是这样的And the findings looked like this.当被试被要求关注单词的外形时When they were asked to focus on just what the word looked like,他们对单词的记忆效果非常差memory was very poor,当关注声音时稍好关注意义时最好the sound better, the meaning better.如果你想记住些东西If you want to remember something,最好的方法就是为信息赋予含义the best way to remember it is to give it meaning,让其拥有意义to give it sense.通过一项非常古老的技术可以证明此观点This is illustrated through a very ancient technique,这种记忆方法就是通过记忆术which is that the way to remember things that are otherwise arbitrary通过生动图像歌曲或是诗歌is to give them some organization through memory tricks,将杂乱的信息组织起来through vivid imagery or songs or poetry.这样的例子有很多And there's a lot of examples of this.你们知道如何记住海马体这个术语吗Do you know how to remember that the hippocampus,大脑中有个部位叫海马体there's a part of the brain called the hippocampus.这是史上最烂的记忆术了This is the worst memory trick ever但却能保证你二十年忘不掉but it will stick with you for twenty years.海马体与空间记忆有关The hippocampus is involved in spatial memory.它与认路有关It's involved in finding your way around.你这么想Think to yourself,"我是通过海马体在校园里认路的""The way I find my way around campus is through the hippocampus."你会想"这太傻了"And you think, "well, that's stupid,"但你

永远不会都忘记But you'll never forget now海马体是控制空间记忆that the hippocampus is in charge of spatial memory.你上完这门课就只能记住这个了It's going to be all you retain from this course.关于如何记住人名的记忆类书籍Memory books on how to remember people's names通常会在你想要记住诗歌或者表演图像时usually try to exploit this sort of thing采用这些方法when you try to get poetry or dramatic images.因此记忆类书籍里总是会有些经典例子So, the memory books always typically involve somebody比如你遇到某个留着钉子头的人like you meet somebody with very spiky hair他说"我是菲什先生" [鱼先生]and they say "My name is Mr. Fish"之后你就牢牢记住了and then you remember--因为你会觉得他的头发像是钉了一条大鱼you think of their of a big fish impaled on their hair.以后每当你看到他就会想起他的名字And then whenever you see them you remember their name.只有名字是"菲什"这种时It only really works该方法才会起作用for names like "fish"但其实是你在试图创造生动的形象But the idea is you try to generate vivid imagery.当你需要记住十个字母时When stuck with a situation where you have to remember ten letters,将它们变成一首歌好了turn it into a song where--或是一首色情诗or a dirty poem用这些字母来作为开头where each of the letters is the first words of it.当你需要记住一些看似完全随机的东西时When having to remember something that seems totally arbitrary,试着去想一个可乐的淫秽的try to figure out a grand and obscene image又容易想起的场景that will come to mind easily.这就是如何And this is how--这是使信息进入记忆的一种方法these are one way to get things into memory.但从深层来讲记忆事物的方法At a deep level though, the way to get things into memory,这种方法在这门课和其他事情上同样适用and this applies to this course no less than anything else,就是去理解信息is by understanding the--understanding it.我给大家读一段材料I'm going to read you something我希望你们能够尽可能地记住我念的内容and I want you to try your best to remember what I tell you.这不是一串数字These are not going to be strings of numbers.而是一些句子This's going to be a series of sentences"报纸比杂志好"A newspaper is better than a magazine.海岸比街道好的A seashore is a better place than the street.起初奔跑比走路好At first it is better to run than to walk.你可能需要尝试几次You may have to try several times.这需要一些技巧但很容易学会It takes some skill but it's easy to learn.就连小孩也会喜欢上Even young children can enjoy it.

一旦成功并发症的可能性会是最小Once successful, complications are minimal.鸟儿很少靠得太近Birds seldom get too close.然而雨水浸透地非常快Rain, however, soaks in very fast.太多的人做相同的事情会产生很多问题Too many people doing the same things can also cause problems.一个人需要很多房间One needs lots of room.如果没有并发症就会非常安静If there are no complications, it can be very peaceful.最后岩石可以当做锚来用Finally, a rock will serve as an anchor.但如果事态无法得到控制If things break loose from it, however,你就不会再有机会了"You will not have a second chance."这就是我刚才念的And here is what I said.要记住这些是极其困难的This is murderously hard to remember.现在试试看Now try it.理解内容的含义将其放入特定情境中Knowing what this is about, being able to put a context to it能够促进记忆也有助于回忆helps the memory and helps it come to mind.好了这就是Okay. So, this is about how to get memory--信息如何进入记忆了how to get information into your memory.那你又是如何提取信息呢How do you get information out?比如说这是考试周So, you know, it's exam period.你把知识大概都记到脑子里了You got the stuff presumably into your head.你必须把知识拿出来You have to get it out.你需要将知识提取出来You have to retrieve it.比如有个诉讼案件There is a court case.你必须得明白You have to figure out--你必须重新讲述你所目睹的犯罪过程You have to recount the crime that you witnessed.你看到某人想知道他或她的名字You see somebody and you want to know his or her name.你听到过你只是需要把它提取出来And you heard it; you just have to get it out.那么你是如何将信息提取出来的Well, how do you do that?这依赖于"提取线索"Well, there's "retrieval cues."提取线索是有意义的Retrieval cues make sense.提取线索就是Retrieval cues are just things那些与你所要记住的内容有关的事物that have been associated with what you what you're trying to remember.如果我要记住去更换窗户If I have to remember to replace the windows,当我走进我的客厅看到窗户破了when I walk in to my living room and see that a window is cracked,这提醒我去换窗户that will remind me to replace the windows.如果我约了你去吃午饭但我忘了If I had a lunch date with you and forgot about it,当我看到你when I see you,"想起来了我们本该一起吃午饭的""Oh, yeah. We were supposed to get together to have lunch."提取线索能让我们回忆起某些事物Retrieval cues bring things back但实际要比这稍微复杂一些but it's a little bit more complicated than that.编码和提取之间有着更一般的联系There's a more general relationship between encoding and retrieval叫做"相容性原则"called the "compatibility principle."相容性原则是指And what this means is你对已学内容中信息的记忆you're much better to remember something in the context会比较好一些in which you have learned it.这也叫做"情境依赖记忆"And this is also known as "context-dependent memory"或"状态依赖记忆"and "state-dependent memory."相容性原

则是由心理学史上It's illustrated by one of the strangest experiments最奇怪的实验之一证明的in the history of psychology研究者们让被试上了一艘船where they had people on a boat然后让被试用水下呼吸器进行潜水and then they had them scuba dive underwater.被试们被要求在船上And they taught them things或戴着呼吸器在水下either on the boat or underwater学习实验材料with things that they held up.随后他们对被试进行测试And then they tested them later.结果表明And it turns out如果测试情境与学习情境相同that you'll remember it better你回忆的效果会更好if you're tested on it in the context in which you learned it.这也许是因为提取线索帮助你回忆起东西And it might be because then the retrieval cues help bring it back.但原因并不止如此But it's more general than that.如果你需要回忆你在这节课学到的知识If you have to remember something you learned in this class,如果你试着去想学习时所在的教室you will do better回忆的效果会更好if you try to think about the room in which you learned it in.如果你在这间教室参加期末考试You will do better on your final exam就会比在其他教室参加期末考试if you were to take it in this room考得更好than if you were to take it in another room因为这间教室就成了提取线索Because being in this room will bring back the cues.提取线索不仅只是环境It's not just the environment.那些在醉酒状态下学习的人People who learn things when they're stoned当其处于不影响其他心理活动的remember them better keeping stoned微醉状态时at a sort of a low-level会回忆起更多that doesn't disrupt

other mental activities,他们在醉酒状态下比在清醒状态下remember them better when they're sort of stoned again回忆的效果更好than if they're non-stoned.类似地如果你在学习时喝酒Similarly--so, if you study while you drink那你在期末考试之前也该喝一点you should tipple a little bit before coming in to the final exam.这结果很像是俗语It's sort of like the"发生在维加斯的事情就留在维加斯吧""what happens in vegas stays in vegas" sort of result.所以同样的它甚至适用于心境And so, similarly, it even applies to moods因为如果你在抑郁的时候学到些东西in that if you learn something when depressed那么相比你高兴的时候you have a slightly better recovery of it你在相同抑郁状态下when you're in that same mood of depression会回忆起更多的内容than when you're elated.也就是说And the idea is记忆的提取在某种程度上来说that part of what memory

is--part of what recovering memory就是回到学习知识的原始情境中is getting back your original context in which you learned it."精细复述"和提取"Elaborative rehearsal" and retrieval将不同的事物联系起来involves the connections between different things.精细复述是说Elaborative rehearsal is 你对信息思考的越多就越容易记住that the more you think about something the easier it is to remember.如果你需要记住些信息If you have to think about--if you have to remember something,试着将信息与尽可能多的事物联系在一起try to connect it to as many things as possible.想象一幅画用它来开个玩笑Think of an image. Make a joke out of it.想象你将如何向他人解释这些信息Imagine how you would explain it to somebody else.想象一下如果不是如此又会是什么样Imagine how the world--what the world would be like if it wasn't so.这种对信息的思考And the idea is that this sort of thinking about it在你的记忆中makes connections in your memory建立起所学信息与其他记忆之间的联系from that thing you have to learn, to other memories.从而使之更易回想And so it makes it easier to recover."精细复述"与一项研究发现有关"Elaborative retrieval" refers to a finding当人们想要回忆起某些信息时that when you want to get something back out of memory倾向于过早放弃people tend to give up too soon.结果是人们记住的东西很多It turns out that there's a lot of stuff that's in your memory但却需要努力才能取出but it needs work to extract;需要各种不同的搜索策略it needs various sort of searching strategies.一项实验要求比你们年长很多的被试One study asked people who were considerably older than you去回忆他们的高中同学to remember their high school classmates.最初人们表现的很糟糕And in the first pass people were terrible.或许他们能想起几个一直联系的朋友Maybe they had a couple of friends they kept in touch with.否则的话非常糟糕Otherwise, pretty bad.这是个很好的实验And this is a good experiment因为你可以利用高中年鉴because you could use high school yearbooks来判断被试们是否正确to judge whether or not they get it right.但接下来你要做的就是询问被试But then what you do is you tell the person,"听着再想想你的老师是谁"Look. Keep trying. Were you--what sort of--who was your teacher?你加入了什么社团What sort of clubs did you belong to?你参加了什么运动What sort of sports you did you participate in?你怎么上学How did you get to school?你从学校获得了什么How did you get from school?午餐时间你做些什么What did you do during lunch?课间你会做些什么" 你不停的发问What did you do during break?" and you keep ask"你有没有"Do you know--have any friends名字以字母B C D开头的朋友"whose letter-- whose last name began with B, with C, with D..."你不断地发问And you keep pushing and pushing and pushing.过一会儿他们就会记起来了And over the span of time things come back.再次强调这不是说你从来都不曾遗忘Again, it's not true that you never forget.遗忘的确是会发生的There is honest to god forgetting但有时你以为自己忘了but sometimes you think you forget其实是因为你并没有努力地去回忆and it's because you haven't looked long enough.寻找正确答案是有生理概念的There's a real physical notion of searching for the right answer.我们已经讨论过提取We've talked about retrieval.每次我上课Oh. Every class I've given都会有人在课堂上或通过邮件问我somebody asks either in class or by e-mail 记忆幻觉是怎么回事what about deja vu?记忆幻觉是一种感觉And deja vu is a feeling你感到事情曾经发生过that an event has happened before.比如你听我讲课然后你说So, you're looking at me and I'm lecturing and you say,"我以前听过这个"I've heard this before.我以前就知道这个I

know this before.你看到某人然后说You see somebody and say,"我曾经遇到过这种情况""I've been in this situation before."这不是通灵能力的证据This is not evidence for psychic powers,许多人却认为这就是证据which many people say it is,但并没有人知道为什么会出现这种情况But nobody really knows why this exists.我们知道这是个线索We know, and this is a clue,前额叶受损会使这种情况加剧it's worse with frontal lobe damage.如果你大脑的这部分受损If you get damage to this part of the brain,你会经历更多的记忆幻觉You get a lot more deja vu experiences.我询问过一些记忆方面的专家I asked some experts in memory,包括我们的系主任马西娅·约翰逊including Marcia Johnson who is chair of our department,对记忆幻觉的最佳解释究竟是什么what the best explanation for deja vu is.她给我的答案这是个庞大的理论And the answer she gave, the--say one big theory,是这样的goes like this.记忆幻觉是指感到曾经历过某事的感觉Deja Vu is a feeling that it's happened before.答案便是确实曾经发生过The answer is it has happened before.事情在半秒前发生过It's happened half a second ago.所以事实是有时人脑会大规模的And so what happens is sometimes there is a glitch,出现小差错或是混乱a disturbance in the force.我不知道I don't know.出现了小差错而你正在说话There's a glitch and you are talking然后你遇到了什么事情and then something happens to you你将这件事放进你的记忆之中and you put it in your memory.但这就像是你并没有But it's as if将关于事件发生的时间和日期you don't put the stamp on it贴在对此事的记忆中of what time and what date.因此你和我说话然后把这事存入记忆So, you're talking to me and then you store it in memory但你并未将其在记忆中存为正在发生事情But you don't store it in memory as happening right now.半秒钟之后你对我说Then half a second goes by and you're talking to me and you say,"这场景我特别熟悉""This is strangely familiar."这是关于幻觉记忆的理论之一And that's one theory of what goes on in Deja Vu.好了目前为止Okay. So far,我们讲到的都是些好事记忆there's the sort of good news, remembering.但接下来要讲的可是些不好的But then there's bad news.那就是遗忘Forgetting.不要看你们的笔记有多少人能记得How many people can remember, without looking down at your notes,至少两个我在之前念过的数

字at least two of the numbers I gave you earlier?有多少人能记得至少四个How many people can remember at least four?很厉害Oh, impressive.如果我一小时之后再问你们If I asked you in an hour,你们记得的数字就会减少the number would go down.这是在一个相似的实验中获得的统计数据These are sort of statistics in a similar experiment.这幅图表说明人们是会遗忘的And this graph illustrates that people forget.随着时间的流逝遗忘就会发生Over time, you'll forget.为什么你会遗忘呢Why do you forget?为什么会有遗忘这个过程存在呢Why is there forgetting at all?关于这个有许多不同的解释Well, there's different explanations for this.一种解释是大脑是一个生理客体One explanation is your brain's a physical thing,它在生理上是一团肉它也会变质It's a physical piece of meat, and it kind of goes bad.任何生理客体都会衰老Physical things decay.因此

在你大脑中形成的记忆痕迹And so, the memory traces that are laid onto your brain就会随着时间的流逝而衰退will just decay over time.第二种解释是干扰A second answer is interference.还记得那些数字吗So remenber those numbers?我再给你们念一些Here's a few more. , , , .记住的信息越多Well, the more information that comes in,这一点与你试图回忆信息相似that's similar to the stuff you're trying to remember,会阻碍原先信息的提取it blocks your recovery of original information.所以你的记忆能力So your ability to remember something就会因为学习更多与之相关的信息而减弱can be impaired by learning more things which are related to it因为它们在记忆中会发生混淆because they get confused in memory.最后一种解释也许是最有意思的解释Finally, and maybe this is most interesting,即提取线索有所变化there are changes in retrieval cues.时间越久世界变化越大So, the more time goes by the more the world changes.如果你的记忆在一定程度上And if your memory is to some extent依赖于提取线索dependent on cues bringing it back to life,那么提取线索的变化then the change in retrieval cues会使对某些事情的回忆变得更加困难can make it more difficult to recall certain things.这也导致了对童年遗忘症案例的This leads to a puzzle where there's considerable scientific debate大量科学争论over the case of childhood amnesia.童年遗

忘症并不是指And the case of childhood amnesia is--doesn't refer to儿童因脑部受损而产生遗忘when a child gets brain damage and gets amnesia.它指的是What it refers to is人们很难回想起年幼时的记忆people have a difficult time recovering very early memories.我想让大家花点时间I want people to just take a second试着回想一下你最早的记忆是什么and try to think back on what your first memory is那时你们大概有多大and roughly how old you were.有多少人认为自己在五岁或更大年龄之前How many people don't think you have a first memory是没有记忆的until you were about five years old or older?好的Okay.有多少人认为自己在大概四岁或更小How many people think you have the first memory便有了第一次记忆of around age four or younger?有多少人认为自己的第一次记忆How many people think you have the first memory发生在三岁左右或更小of around age three or younger?两岁或更小呢Two or younger?多少人认为你的第一次记忆How many of you think you have the first memory是发生在一岁或者更小的时候when you were about one years old or younger?我可没问上辈子And I'm not asking about past lives去年就有这么一位说上辈子的that happened last year.你有第一次记忆时大概是多少岁How old is your--roughly your first memory do you think?多大How old?一到二岁之间Between one and two.一岁到二岁之间吗Between one and two?谁认为自己能比他厉害Anybody think they could beat that?同一个人吗Same guy?那位一岁Yeah? One.还有谁Anybody else?关于这一点文献也没有确切的说明The literature is unclear on this因为对第一次记忆的回忆是否正确because it's very difficult to test people's recollections很难得到检测of their first memories.如果我去询问人们的第一次记忆If I'm to ask people about their first memories,他们通常会说"哦是的they'll often say, "Oh, yeah.我记得我在一个房间里I remember I was in this room有一张婴儿床我在上面咿咿呀呀and there was a crib and I'm going ga ga, goo goo或是我坐在马桶上and I was on the potty.我在走路我真可爱我记得啊"I was walking. I was so cute. I remember it."很难判断这是不是真的It's very difficult to tell正如我们将要详细讨论的and, as we'll discuss in some detail,我并不是说人们说谎there are a lot of reasons to distrust people但我们的确有很多理由when they, not that they're lying,去怀疑人们记忆的准确性but to distrust the accuracy of people's memories.我们也从We also know from studies about trauma那些对一两岁时遭受严重创伤的人们where people have terrible experiences所进行的研究中有所收获when they're one or two.通常受到的创伤在长大之后就不记得了Typically, this trauma is not remembered later on.人们只有在被告知的情况下People know of trauma才会知道有创伤这回事because they're told about it但通常他们无法准确地回忆起创伤这事but they don't typically remember it with any accuracy.即使是稍大的儿童Even children-- older children也无法回忆起当年发生的事情don't remember back beyond that age.没有人知道为什么会发生童年遗忘症Nobody knows why childhood amnesia occurs.没有人知道为什么回想三岁之前的记忆Nobody knows why it's very difficult to recover memories会非常困难before about the age of three.一种理论认为这是由于提取线索One theory is that the retrieval cues发生了巨大改变而导致的change radically.我有一位临床心理学家朋友I had a friend of mine who's a clinical psychologist 他提出一种新形式的疗法and he suggested a new form of therapy房间里摆放巨型桌椅where they make these giant tables and chairs然后把你带进去and then they bring you in to the office你站在那些巨型桌椅之间and you're standing there with these giant tables and chairs你所有的婴幼儿记忆and all these memories of being a baby就如潮水一般想起来了would come flooding back.后来他退出了这个领域真的And he dropped out of the field and really,不过这是个很酷的想法but it's such a cool idea.也有人将此归因于语言Some people think language is to blame.婴幼儿最初并未掌握口语或手语So a child, a baby, starts out with no spoken or signed language.儿童直到一两岁甚至三岁才学会语言Language comes to be learned at around one, two, and three,很可能是由于语言的学习and it might be that the learning of a language重新格式化了你的记忆reformats your memory.一旦记忆被重新格式化And once the memory is reformatted就再也不能回到之前没有语言的状态了It can't go back to the previous state prior to language in the end.还可能是神经系统成熟造成的It could be neural maturation.可能是大脑的记忆区域It could be that those memory parts of

the brains在大概两三岁时才生长出来grow around age two or three that just weren't there prior to that.但并没有人真正知道原因And nobody really knows.关于人类的早期记忆为何会发生变化It's a fascinating research area一直是一个令人着迷的研究领域why about memory changes early on.另一个提取失败的原因便是脑损伤Another case of memory failure is brain damage.脑损伤也分很多种And brain damage comes in a couple of flavors.有逆行性遗忘There is retrograde amnesia;"逆行"即"过去""retro" for past.逆行性遗忘是指失去对过去的部分记忆Retrograde amnesia is when you lose some memory of the past.这可能由于头部创伤而导致This could be in a case where you get some sort of head trauma你会失去全部的情景记忆and you lose memory of your entire episodic memory.但通常如果你经历了某种But typically, if you have any sort of serious accident使你丧失意识的严重事故that involves you losing consciousness你会失去脑部被撞前的一小段记忆you'll have a blackout of some period prior to that, say,blow to the head.原因是当你正在经历某些事情时And the reason for this is as you're having these experiences now这些经历需要被记录到你的大脑中they need to kind of get consolidated into your brain.大脑需要进行重新建构Your brain needs to rewire并将其与你现在的经历同步起来and catch up to the experiences you're having.脑部遭受突然撞击会导致你失去意识A sudden blow to the head will knock you unconscious然后发生在撞击之前瞬间的记忆and then the memories that have happened immediately prior就无法在大脑中保存下来will not get consolidated于是就永远丢失了and they'll be lost forever.另一种遗忘则是顺行性遗忘Another sort of memory is anterograde amnesia科尔萨科夫综合征and this was the case of就是这种情况[遗忘-虚构综合征]this happens in Korsakoff's syndrome.有一位叫做H.M.的非常有名的患者It happens to a very famous patient known as H.M.现在居住在康涅狄格州的哈特福德who actually lives in Hartford, Connecticut.上节课展示的电影《克莱夫·威尔林》And it happened to Clive Wearing,也出现了这种情况the film you saw last class.这种遗忘症的表现为And this sort of amnesia is a sort of amnesia你失去了形成新记忆的能力where you lose the ability to form new memories.你永远都活在现在And so you live in a perpetual present,无法形成新的记忆unable to accumulate new memories.但是实际情况要比这更复杂一些But it's actually a little bit more complicated than that.实际上What happens is--对这些病人的研究得出了令人激动的发现and this was an exciting discovery about these patients使得我们对正常人的记忆有了新的理解that lead to some real insights about normal memory实际上这些是病例中的脑损伤What happens is-- and this is the brain damage in these cases,颞叶和海马体the temporal lobe and the hippocampus,它们对空间记忆非常有用very useful for spatial memory you'll know.从无法形成新记忆的患者身上One discovery made about people得到的一个发现是who couldn't form new memories他们能够形成新的记忆is that they could form new memories,但仅仅局限于某些类型but of certain types.比如说So for example,这个任务要求被试看着镜子this is a task here involving filling in a star然后填放小星星While looking in to a mirror.如果我要求你来做And if I asked you to do it你会觉得非常困难you'd find it pretty difficult.这本身是件很难的事It's just kind of difficult to do.你会变得笨手笨脚You'd be clumsy at it.你带来一位无法形成新记忆的遗忘症患者You bring in an amnesic who can't form new memories然后你对他说and you say,"我想你来试着玩个新游戏"Hey. I want you to try something new.来试试这个填星星的游戏吧"I want you to try this star game."他会说"好吧He'd say, "Okay.尽管我从来没玩过但我会试试"I've never seen it before but I'll do it."他试了一下做得很糟Tries it. Does very badly.然后你反复带他进来You bring him in and over and over again每一次在开始的时候他都会说Each time he does it he starts off by saying,"我从来没玩过但是我会试一下""I've never seen this before. I'll--I'm sure I'll give it a try"但他会做得越来越好But he gets better and better at it.这被称为内隐记忆And this is known as implicit memory.也就说在这些病例中The claim is that in these sorts of cases患者失去了形成能够被自己意识到的you lose the abilities to form explicit conscious memories能够被自己所理解的外显记忆的能力that you're aware of, that you understand.但某种记忆仍然会保持下来But some sorts of memories persist患者能够形成这种记忆and you are able to form them.有几部剧情电影很好地表明了这个现象This has

actually been illustrated in a couple of dramatic movies,其中有一部One of them剧情很烂的电影[初恋五十次]a very bad dramatic movie德鲁·巴里摩尔失去了形成新记忆的能力where Drew Barrymore loses the ability to form new memories然后不知怎么的就和亚当·桑德勒相爱了and somehow falls in love with Adam Sandler.千万别看Definitely don't watch that.但有一部很好的电影叫《记忆碎片》But a very good movie called "Memento,"这部电影讲述了一个人失去了which is about a character形成新记忆的能力who loses his ability to form new memories但一直在追踪杀害他妻子的凶手while trying to track down his wife's killer.《记忆碎片》这部电影之所以令人着迷"Memento" is a movie which is fascinating是因为它是倒叙的because it's told backwards.但整部电影却又有另一个正序的故事But throughout "memento" there's another story told forwards.我喜欢这个电影And I like this story是因为它戏剧性地展示了because it very dramatically illustrates在严重记忆损伤的病例中what does, and what is and is not impaired什么是并未受损的in cases of severe memory damage.现在我就给你们看几个在《记忆碎片》中So, I'm going to show you a couple of clips展示这种区别的片段that illustrate the disassociation from "Memento."看过电影的同学都知道Those of you who have seen the movie know萨米的结局很悲惨that this ends up quite tragically for Sammy.我强烈推荐这部电影I highly recommend the movie.我们现在已经讲了两种不同的遗忘形式We've dealt right now with two sorts of failures of memory.一种是日常情况下的遗忘One is everyday failure of memory when you forget.我原先念的那些数字How many of you remember three or more of the numbers有多少人能记得三个或更多I originally presented?是吗

说说看Yeah? Go ahead. , , .对吗Is that right?对的Yeah.好吧Fine.很好All right.我一个月后再问你I'm going to ask you again in a month.人们总会忘记一些事情Well, people are supposed to forget你也确实会忘掉一些事情and some things will you will forget.这是正常的遗忘That's normal forgetting.第二种情况是脑损伤导致的遗忘A second case is forgetting due to brain damage.脑损伤导的致遗忘是很奇特且少见的Forgetting due to brain damage is exotic and unusual但是它很有意思but it's interesting因为它阐明了更为一般的主题in that it illustrates some more general themes 即心理如何运作about how the mind works.大家记住我们这门课的一个主题便是Remember one theme of this course is讨论那些极端的案例we're going to look at exotic cases如克莱夫·威尔林的例子like the case of Clive Wearing,不仅仅是因为它们本身很有趣not just because they're interesting in their own right更重要的是观察极端的例子能让我们了解but sometimes by looking at the extremes we could learn something没有损伤的正常大脑是如何运作的about how normal people's normal,intact minds and brains work.遗忘的第三种情况更加有趣The third case of forgetting is more interesting, and it actually...这里我想做个小试验Well, I want to do a little trial here.我想让你们听一下What I want to do is I want to,三个孩子对同一个事件的描述you to listen to three children describe an event that happened.我希望你们自己猜一猜I want you to come to some--your own guess.想象你是个法官或是儿童照管员Imagine you were a judge, you were a childcare worker,你希望知道我希望你们能自己猜一下You wanted to see I want you to be--come to your own guess about你们相信谁以及到底发生了什么Who you believe and what you think happened.你听完了三个孩子的描述You've heard three children.你们相信谁谁相信Who do you believe? Who believes,一共三个孩子一二三there's three of them, one, two, three.谁相信第一个Who believes the first one?谁相信第二个Who believes the second one?谁相信第三个Who believes the third one?基本上三等分Sort of an even split.两千三百个专家在看了这个短片之后Twenty-three hundred experts were shown these films被问到究竟发生了什么and asked about the different actions,到底那个人有没有撕书whether or not the person ripped the book,弄坏小熊把书到处扔messed up the bear, tossed the book in the air and,如你所见as you could see,大多数人认为他的确这么干了the majority thought that he did.这是史蒂夫·切奇的研究This is work done by Steve Ceci他还大方地把影片借给我来辅助教学who was gracious enough to lend me the film to use for teaching purposes.实际上第二个小女孩说的是真的It turns out the second girl was right.没有任何事发生Absolutely nothing happened.老师说The teacher said,"等下会有一个叫萨姆·斯通

的人进来""there is somebody named Sam Stone who's going to come in."然后一个人进来说 a guy walks in and says,"你好" 然后转了一圈就离开了"hi," walks around and leaves.第一和第三个孩

子的记忆是被灌输进去的The first and third children had their memories implanted,并不是通过科幻小说里所描述的那种方式not through any sort of science fiction means.他们的记忆是这样被灌输的They had their memories implanted--其实他们的记忆是这么被灌输的Well, they had their memories implanted like this.有些孩子仅仅是问了些问题而已Some of the children would just ask questions.顺带说下主试自己不知道发生了什么The interviewer, by the way, was herself unaware of what happened所以主试是完全不知情的So the interviewer was a perfectly naive interviewer.研究发现如果只是访问这孩子And it turns out if you just interview children问他们书是否有被撕之类的问题and you ask them questions about whether the book was ripped,"你看到他了吗他是不是真的撕了""Did you see him? Did he really do it?"他们什么都没说They don't say anything.他们什么都没看到所以也说不出什么They didn't see anything and they won't say anything.主试向其他儿童讲述了萨姆·斯通Other children were told about Sam Stone.他们给孩子们留下了一个They were told a stereotype萨姆·斯通的刻板印象about Sam Stone主试说他笨手笨脚经常撕碎东西that he's very clumsy and he tends to rip things经常被绊倒打坏东西泼洒东西and he trips and he breaks things and he spills things.实际上第三个孩子提到了这点And in fact, the third child mentioned that in passing.他说"他总是这样子的"He said, "he always does that."这些对萨姆·斯通的认识Just knowing this about Sam Stone提升了认为他撕了书的tends to raise the proportion of kids孩子的比例who say, for instance, that he ripped the book.一部分孩子受到了暗示Other children were given suggestions.他们被问到一些具有暗示性的问题They were given suggestive questioning.是一些引导性的问题比如They were a series of leading questions like,"萨姆·斯通进来了过吗"Oh. Sam Stone came in?他在那里的时候撕书了吗"Did he rip a book while he was there?"更多的孩子同时接受了两种灌输And still more children got both.你们看到的孩子就来自这一组And in fact, the children you saw were from this group.他们既听说萨姆·斯通是个笨手笨脚的人They heard Sam Stone being described as a clumsy fellow又被问了一系列的暗示性问题And they were given a series of suggestive questionings.在这种情况下他们在几个月内In this condition they were given several suggestive questionings被反复问了一系列的暗示性问题over the period of several months.这些孩子比如第一个和第三个孩子These children, like the first child and the third child,并没有在撒谎are not lying.他们的确相信They honestly believe萨姆·斯通进来后干了那些事情that sam stone came in and did these things.他们相信这是发生过的Also they believe it他们确信自己的记忆and they're so convincing in their belief使得包括警官儿童看护员that experts, including police officers and child caseworkers法官律师在内的人and judges and lawyers,都觉得这些儿童的话是十分可信的find these children to be extremely believable.我想他们之所以觉得这些孩子十分可信And I think they probably find them to be extremely believable是因为孩子们确实没有撒谎because the children are not lying.他们真的相信他们看到了那些事They really believe they saw what they saw.但这些记忆是被灌输进去的But these memories were implanted.切奇和其他许多研究者And Ceci, and many other investigators,都在研究记忆是如何通过暗示study how memories can be implanted in people's minds和引导性问题被灌输进大脑的through suggestion and through leading questions.对成人灌输虚假记忆方面It turns out that the same sort of experiments,已经有了大量成功的and the same sort of research has been done相似实验研究with considerable success in implanting false memories in adults.有些富有戏剧化的案例There are dramatic cases of people人们记得可怕的罪行于是认罪remembering terrible crimes and confessing to them可实际上他们并没有做过when actually, they didn't commit them.这并不是因为他们在撒谎And this is not because they are lying.甚至都不是因为他们在某种程度上It's not even because they're, in some obvious sense,精神错乱分裂或是幻觉deranged or schizophrenic or delusional.而是因为他们说服了自己Rather, they have persuaded themselves,或是更多地被别人说服了or more often been persuaded by others,从而相信自己确实犯过罪that these things have

actually happened.心理学家们已在实验室里Psychologists have studied in the laboratory对个体如何变成这样how one could do this,个体如何向他人灌输记忆进行了研究how one can implant memories in other people.有些事情是很标准的And some things are sort of standard.假设我告诉你一个故事Suppose I was to tell you a story比如我去看牙医的过程about a trip I took to the dentist or a visit I took to或是我在餐厅吃饭的过程or a time when I ate out at a restaurant and我省略了其中的某些细节I'm to omit certain details.比如我省略了我吃完之后付账这个细节like I omit the fact that I paid the bill in a restaurant,假如我说我吃完饭就直接回家了Let's say I finished the meal and then I went home.但是你仍然会把空白的部分补上Still, you will tend to fill in the blanks.你会在空白的部分填上一些你知道的东西You'll tend to fill in the blanks with things you know.所以你有可能在过后回忆时说So, you might remember this later saying,"他告诉我他吃完饭然后付账离开了""Okay. He told me he finished eating, paid the bill and left,"因为付账是你在餐馆里必须要做的事because paying the bill is what you do in a restaurant.这都是理所当然的This is benign enough.你会自行填补空白You fill in the blanks.你还可能把记忆与他人的臆想掺杂You also can integrate suppositions made by others.最能体现这点的便是目击证人的证词And the clearest case of this is eyewitness testimony.这方面最好的研究And the best research on this是由伊丽莎白·洛夫特斯进行的has been done by Elizabeth Loftus她做了一系列实验who has done a series of studies,在教材中也有所讨论some discussed in the textbook,这些实验说明了记忆是如何被引导性问题showing how people's memories can be swayed所改变的by leading questions.这些改变可能非常微妙And it can be extremely subtle.在一个实验中In one experiment,给被试呈现车祸的场景the person was just asked in the course of a series of questions然后询问被试一系列问题shown a scene where there's a car accident问题是"你看到前灯破碎了吗"and asked either, "did you see a broken headlight?"或者"你看到破碎的前灯了吗"or "did you see the broken headlight?""破碎的前灯"这一说法The "the" presupposes意味着前灯确实破碎了that there was a broken headlight实际上研究者后面所问的and in fact, the people told--asked,"你看到破碎的前灯了吗""did you see the broken headlight?" later on更可能被记住are more likely to remember one.这个说法制造了一副场景进入了记忆It creates an image and they fill it in.在另一个实验中In another study,她放了几个电影片段后问she would show film segments and then ask,"你们看到那些上了校车的孩子们吗""did you see the children getting on the school bus?"片段里根本没有校车now, there was no school bus但听过该问题的人在之后被问到but people who hear that question later on when asked,"你在电影里看到校车了吗""Did you see a school bus in the film?"更可能回答说看到了are more likely to say yes.另一个实验里In another study,她播放几个电影片段she would show people film segments并询被试and ask them要么"两车相撞时车速有多少" either, "how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?"要么"两车猛撞时车速有多快"or "how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?一周后a week later她把这些人带回实验室并问他们she'd bring people back in to the laboratory and ask,"你看到车窗破碎了吗""did you see any broken glass?"听到"猛撞"的人比听到"相撞"的人Those who hear a smash tend to see the broken glass更倾向于说他们看到了车窗破碎more than those who hear a hit因为问题改变了他们的记忆because the question has changed their memory,让这些情节的记忆更加深刻making it more of a dramatic event.催眠是最为明显的例子Hypnosis is the clearest case它通过引导性问题或试探性问题where there's a sort of reconstructive effort led by,来重建记忆led as a result of leading and probing questions.有些人很容易被催眠Some of you are readily hypnotizable人也确实是能被催眠的and you can be hypnotized.我们在催眠状态下对过去事情的回忆And what we would learn about a past event from hypnotizing 并不一定不准确you will not necessarily then be inaccurate.催眠只是让人更加乐意配合What hypnotizing does is it makes people very willing to cooperate.不幸的是事实上并不存在记忆装置Unfortunately, it isn't as if there is a memory storage你可以像电影中那样there where you could just go through and look在装置里浏览搜索as in the movies问被催眠的人"车牌是多少"where you just say, "what's the license plate?" the person's hypnotized接着记忆闪回and then the flashback

comes in然后便能找出车牌号码and then they zoom in on the license plate.记忆不是这样运作的Memory doesn't work that way.在催眠状态下What happens is--what somebody will do in a hypnotizable state人们会非常渴望取悦催眠师is they'll be very eager to please the hypnotist.所以他们会编造一些记忆And so they'll make stuff up.催眠状态下的人只是在按照提示编造记忆And people under hypnosis just make stuff up.编的很开心And they do very enthusiastically也编的很认真and very believably make stuff up.催眠回归讲的就是这个This is particularly the case with hypnotic regression比如让你回忆六岁的生日派对when we ask you to go back to your sixth birthday party,for instance.作为一个发展心理学家最棒的就是And what's great as a developmental psychologist is如果你被催眠了if I ask you to go back to your fourth birthday party我要你回忆四岁的生日派对and you're hypnotizable你会表现的跟个四岁小孩一样you'll be oh, just like a four-year-old只是你并不会像个真正的四岁小孩except you won't be like a real four-year-old.你所表现出来的样子What you'll be like is an adult's notion of实际是成人眼中四岁儿童的样子what a four-year-old is supposed to be.实际上这是催眠回顾中的一个极端案例In fact, this has happened in the extreme case with hypnotic regression在案例中人们声称说出了where people claim to speak languages来自古埃之类的各种语言like from ancient egypt.语言学家们喜欢这些研究And linguists love these studies因为你所说的because you don't of course you don't really sound并不像是古埃及语like you're speaking a language from ancient Egypt.你听上去像是一个北美人What you sound is like a North American相信自己在说古埃及语who believes he's speaking a language from ancient egypt他们就这样so they're...可以说催眠只是让你and so what it makes you is释放出了作为演员的你hypnotism brings out the actor in you.让你想为发生的事情找个有说服力的解释It makes you want to give a persuasive account of what happened.因此催眠只是通常在目击者证词中And so hypnotism is just an extreme form of所发生的事情的一个极端形式what normally happens in eyewitness testimony.压抑记忆我们单独讲一堂课Repressed memories. We could devote a class.也可以用一学期来学习We could devote a semester to the very heated debate在美国引发激烈争论的压抑记忆in the united states mostly about repressed memories.很多成年人声称他们经历过There are many adults who have claimed造成精神创伤的性虐待to have experienced traumatic sexual abuse.从记忆的角度来看有些案例很普通In some cases, this is unexceptional from a memory point of view.人们知道他们身上发生了什么People know this happened to them.他们一直都知道发生了什么事They've always known it happens to them于是向别人讲述了所发生的事情and then they tell people about it.但有些案例中But there's a subset of cases人们并不记得在某个时间发生了什么where people have had no memory up to a point of what happened to them.他们就去找心理学家或精神病医生Then they go to a psychologist or a psychiatrist,医生通常是通过催眠的方式向他们提问they undergo questioning, often using hypnotic techniques,然后他们想起了经历过的and then they recover a memory造成精神创伤的性虐待of past traumatic sexual abuse.这个问题存在着很大的争议And what this is--what makes this so debatable,关于这个问题是有些争论and there is a debate about this.我不想为任何一方说话I don't want to try to preclude it one way or another.争议的焦点在于有些心理学家相信What makes this debatable is some psychologists believe that,至少某些情况下这些记忆是真实的in at least some cases, these memories are real这些记忆被应对机制and they have been repressed所压抑下去through a Freudian mechanism这些经历太过糟糕that they're too terrible无法进入意识to bring to consciousness,而心理治疗则使这些记忆得以恢复and the therapy brings them out into real life.但大多数心理学家们认为But most psychologists believe这些记忆并不可信that these memories cannot be trusted,它们只是在治疗师的引导下编造出来的that these memories are created through the actions of the therapist.因此治疗师的诚信问题就引发了And so, there's actually considerable psychological and legal battles心理学以及法律上的很多争议over the veracity of the therapists比如声称被性虐待的女士where women who have claimed to have sexual be sexually abused,是否是根据错误记忆for instance, have pressed criminal charges against their fathers才向自己的父亲提出了诉讼on the basis of false memories.同

样地被指控性虐待的人Similarly, people who have been accused of sexual abuse会向精神病医生提出控诉have pressed criminal charges against psychiatrists指控他们给自己的儿女claiming that these psychiatrists have implanted the memories灌输了这样的记忆into their sons and daughters.记忆是否会被压抑尚无定论It is controversial whether memories are ever repressed.但我们至少可以肯定在某些情况下What isn't controversial is that, for at least some cases,你可以为人们灌输虚假记忆you can implant false memories in people,这并不是因为你穷凶极恶not because you're a sinister or evil person而是因为你确实相信有些事情发生了but because you really believed something happened.你跟别人谈论这些事情And you talked to them about it之后你便形成了这些记忆and then you caused these memories to come into being.最后的例子就是闪光灯记忆A final case is flashbulb memories.之前我也问过I asked this early in the semester.今天再问一遍I'll ask it again.你们有多少人记得How many of you remember年月日你在哪里where you were on september , ?有没有人不记得当天Is there anybody who doesn't remember你在哪的吗where they were on september , ?这很有趣It would be interesting.这是个重大的社会关联事件It was a socially relevant event,但这也是闪光灯记忆的问题所在but here's the problem with these flashbulb memories.闪光灯记忆就是那些非常生动的记忆Flashbulb memories are the idea that these memories being so vivid,我们很多人都能生动且确切地记住and they are vivid for many of us exactly我们站在哪里发生了什么事情where we stood, what happened.事实上这些记忆并不能太过相信Well, they can't really be trusted.下面说下原因And here is why not.因为这些事情如此重大Because they are such important events,我敢说你们中的许多人之前I bet many of you have actually都听到过这个问题heard the question before,"月日那天在哪里""Where were you on september th?"也和别人聊过这个问题and talked about it.在这些谈话中故事发生了变化What happens in these conversations is stories change.我知道月日当天我在哪里I have my--I knew where I was on september th.我妻子也知道她在哪里My wife knew where she was.但我听她讲述她的经历的时间But I spent as much time listening to her talk about it和我讲述自己的时间差不多as I spent time me talking about it.或许现在我所记住的And now maybe my memory is actually其实是她的经历而并不是我的经历of her experience and not mine.对于这些情况It's not--for all of these cases,你不能说the temptation you have to resist is saying,"对我知道记忆可以被改变"Yes. I know memories can be swayed.我知道记忆可能会扭曲之类的I know they could be distorted and everything但我真的很确定事情就是那样的"but, you see, I really am sure that happened."你不能这么去说You have to resist that temptation因为我们已经看过了很多例子because there are so many cases we know,包括我们刚看过的那几个女孩的录像including the tape of the girls that we just saw,她们完全确信事情是发生了的where people are entirely sure things happened.但我们知道那些事根本没发生And we know full well that they didn't exist.确信并不能保证记忆不是虚假的Being sure is no guarantee that a memory isn't false,重建的或是被灌输的reconstructed or even implanted.因此记忆主要讲到了三部分的内容So, this part of memory has three main morals.记忆有很多种类There are many types of memories.我讲了短时记忆和长时记忆I talked about

short-term memory, long-term memory.讲了内隐记忆和外显记忆I talked about implicit memory and explicit memory.这些都是独立的记忆These are sort of separable sort of memories.你可能在失去一种记忆的同时You could break one恢复另一种记忆while having the other one impaired.可以将大脑系统分为对长相的记忆Arguably, there are brain systems dedicated to memory for faces,对日常客体的记忆以及对空间地点的记忆memory for everyday objects, memory for spatial locations.记忆的关键是组织和理解The key to remembering is organization and understanding.某门课程的导论课Introduction to "x" courses,包括心理学导论课程including introduction to psychology courses,是耶鲁最难的课程之一are among the hardest courses at Yale.原因就是有太多不同的材料And the reason why is there is just a lot of material that is diverse而你需要分别掌握每个方面的内容and you have to command each aspect separately.在耶鲁最简单的课程是高等研讨会The easiest courses at Yale tend to be highfalutin seminars因为你已经有了足够的背景知识where you kind of

have enough of a background理解和掌握了相关知识that everything is can be clear and understandable.对某个事物的理解越多The more you understand something,记忆起来就越容易the easier you'll remember it.最后某些记忆是不可信的And finally, you can't trust some of your memories.你们本周的阅读要求Your reading response for this week你们需要正确使用你们的能力别乱用is you have to use your powers for good and not for evil,不过如果你能成功灌输记忆though if you manage to succeed at this我会很佩服你的I will be very impressed.但你需要描述But you have to describe,根据课程材料和阅读based on the lecture materials and the readings,如何灌输虚假记忆how to implant a false memory.还有几分钟关于记忆谁还有问题We have a few minutes. Any questions on memory.好的Yes.请安静Uh huh. Hey. Please.这个问题是The example is,"知道如何弹钢琴属于哪种记忆""What sort of memory is it when you know how to play the piano?"问得好And it's a very good question.这是长时记忆It is long-term memory因为你知道如何弹一首协奏曲或是歌曲because you might know how to do a concerto or a song你将这项技巧存储在你的脑子里and then you have it stored in your head伴随一生and you carry it around with you.过了一年两年你都还会记得You'll remember it a year from now, two years from now.这是长时记忆It is long-term memory但同时也是内隐记忆的一个的好例子but it is also an excellent example of implicit memory因为你知道如何去弹because you know how to do it但你却是在没有注意的情况下but you could do it unconsciously无意识弹奏的without attending to it.你意识不到但简而言之It's not sensory but it's as if, put it crudely,就好像你的手指知道怎么弹that your fingers know而不是你的大脑and not your mind.还可以再问一个问题We have time for one more question.好的Yes.这是关于照片式记忆的问题The question is about photographic memory.关于照片式记忆有很多说法There are a lot of claims about photographic memory.我认为这种记忆并没有被充分证实My understanding is they do not tend to be substantiated.有时照片式记忆Sometimes photographic memory,我们在之前的课上讲孤独症时提到过and this came up when we talked about autism a few classes ago,与天才般的技能有关is linked with savant-like skills.在某方面遭受严重损伤的人People who have severe impairments in some ways可能会拥有其他的照片式记忆may have photographic memories in others.我认为在某种程度上来说I am not convinced that photographic memory in the sense你看到某个东西照下它的照片that you see something, you take a picture of it,存在记忆之中you hold it in memory,这种照片式记忆并不存在really exists.我想可能有一两个案研究I think there may be one or two case studies表明了这种记忆的存在that suggest it might be real但我认为还是值得商榷的but I think it's controversial.好了周三我们会请客座讲师Okay. We have a guest lecturer on wednesday.彼得·萨洛维院长会为我们讲述爱情Dean Peter Salovey will talk to us about love.