医学英语 课文翻译
译文Unit 1肺和肾的结构一、肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统，流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织，因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉，接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉，然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉，并在心脏最小静脉的作用下，在正常情况下，以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸，向下连接下段气道（直径大约2毫米）的动脉，它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始，动脉成肌肉化发展，直至其达到30微米，此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用，所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空，送入广泛分布的毛细血管网，进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄，它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合，出肺进入左心房。
二、肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙，与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克，长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域（组成）。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚，深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门，称为肾**。
每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂，通过输尿管排入膀胱。
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支，这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉，为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质，变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时，（这些血管）又进一步细分。
细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉，所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
组织学上，肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位，“肾单位”有两个主要成分：过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网（肾小球）和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
这个小管包含几个明显的解剖和功能成分。
Unit 2 细胞与老化衰老是一种正常的生理过程，伴有肌体内平衡适应性反应的进行性改变。
研究老年人健康问题和保健的特殊分支称作老年医学。
衰老的明显特征众所周知：头发花白和脱落，牙齿脱落，皮肤起皱，肌肉减少，脂肪积存增加。
衰老的生理征兆是肌体对环境压力反应的功能和能力逐渐减退.。
如同保持不断地体内平衡应对温度、饮食和氧供反应变慢一样，机体代谢也减慢了。
衰老的这些迹象与机体中细胞数的净减少及存余细胞的功能缺失有关。
衰老的另一个表现是组织的细胞外成分也随年龄的变化而变化。
负责肌腱力量的胶原纤维的数量增加，而质量却随着衰老降低。
动脉壁胶原质中的变化造成动脉壁伸展性缺失，如同动脉壁上的积聚物造成动脉粥样硬化（即动脉壁脂肪物质堆积）一样。
弹性蛋白是另一种细胞外成分，主要负责血管和皮肤的弹性。
随着年龄的变化，它的变粗，变碎并需要获得更大的钙亲和力，这些可能也是造成动脉粥样硬化的原因。
葡萄糖在机体中是最丰富的糖类，它在衰老的过程中也可能起作用。
根据一个假设，任意给细胞内外的蛋白质增加葡萄糖，结果会在相邻蛋白质分子间形成不可逆交联。
当人衰老时，会形成更多的交联，这可能导致正在衰老的组织变得僵化，丧失弹性。
虽然正常情况下，每分钟会有好几百万的新细胞产生，但人体有几种细胞：心脏细胞，骨骼肌纤维细胞，神经细胞是无法替代的。
实验显示，许多种类的细胞分裂能力有限。
在机体外生长的细胞仅仅分裂几次就停止了。
细胞分裂数与捐献者的年龄有关，与这些细胞获取的不同物种的正常寿命有关。
这些发现为这种假说提供了有力证据，即细胞有丝分裂的终止是正常的，有基因决定的。
根据这个观点，衰老基因是出生时就存在的基因蓝图的一部分，它取决于生命攸关的减慢或停止过程出现的特定时间。
衰老的另一个理论即自由基理论。
自由基是含有未配对电子的带电荷分子。
这是一种不稳定的高反应性分子，容易损害蛋白质。
自由基的影响有：皮肤起皱，关节僵直，动脉硬化。
自由基也可以损害ＤＮＡ。
造成自由基的因素有：空气污染，放射线以及我们摄取的某些食物。
饮食中的其他物质如维生素Ｅ，维生素Ｃ，β－胡萝卜素以及硒都是抗氧化剂，可以抑制自由基形成。
最近的两个研究支持了衰老的自由基理论。
孕育健康长寿的果蝇株产生超正常量的酶：过氧歧化酶。
它可以中和自由基。
同样，把产生过氧歧化酶的基因注射进果蝇胚胎会延长其平均寿命。
然而，关于衰老的理论，有些是在细胞水平上解释其过程，有的则强调整个生物体内运作的调节机制，比如免疫系统产生各种抗异物侵扰的抗体，可是会对细胞本身发起攻击。
这种自身免疫应答可能是细胞表面变化造成，引起抗体附加并标记出破坏细胞。
当细胞表面变化增加，自身免疫应答加强，产生众所周知的衰老。
Unit 3 生物化学和人类发展生物化学是在细胞和分子水平上运用化学研究生物过程的学科。
在20世纪初左右，当科学家将化学，生理学和生物学结合起来应用于生命系统的化学研究时，生物化学作为一门独特的科目出现了。
从某种意义上来说，生物化学不仅是一门生命科学，他也是一门化学科学。
生物化学使用化学、物理学、分子生物学和免疫学研究在生物物质中发现的复杂分子的结构与行为，研究那些分子相互作用构成细胞、组织和整个生物体的方式。
生物学涉及从基因移植到巨分子结构和功能的广阔的细胞功能范围。
生物化学已经成为理解所有生物学进程的基础，他解释了很多人类动植物疾病的病因。
我们对生化的理解已经并且会继续对人类的许多方面产生更大的影响首先生化具有内在的美丽，迷人的知识结构。
我们现在已经了解了生化的本质和他最基础的进程的细节知识比如：单分子DNA如何复制生成其本身两个完全相同的副本，DNA分子中基础序列如何确定编码蛋白质中氨基酸的序列。
我们以详细的机械术语描述这些（生物）进程的能力为其他生物科学研究奠定了坚实的化学基础。
再者，我们把基础生命过程理解为化学结构和反应，比如遗传信息的传输，这种意识具有重要的哲学含义。
（此处省略最后三句）第二，生化对医学和其他领域产生了重大的影响导致镰状细胞贫血、囊性纤维化、血友病和许多其他遗传疾病的分子病变在生物化学的水平上得以阐述。
一些导致癌症发生的分子事）物得以识别。
了解基本的缺陷为发现有效的治疗方法开启了大门。
生物化学使得合理设计新药成为可能，包括病毒（如HIV病毒）复制所需的酶的特殊抑制剂。
生物工程制造的细菌或其他生物可以用来作为制造有价值蛋白质的工厂，如胰岛素和血细胞发育的诱导剂。
生物化学非常有助于临床诊断。
例如血液中某种酶类水平的提高反映了这个病人最近是否犯了心绞痛DNA probes DNA探针在遗传疾病，传染性疾病以及癌症的精确诊断中越来越起作用。
农业也应生物化学的发展受益匪浅，产生了更加有效的、对环境无害的除草剂、杀虫剂。
基因工程植物更能抵抗虫害。
所有这些努力因基因组测序的进展而加速发展。
生物化学的进展正在使研究者们研究一些生物和医学上最令人激动得问题。
受精卵如何会产生与肌肉、大脑和肝脏细胞不同的细胞？感官是如何工作的？大脑疾病如老年痴呆症和精神分裂症的分子基础是什么？免疫系统如何区分自我和非自我？长期记忆和短期记忆的分子机制是什么？对于这些问题的答案，过去曾经似乎很遥远，现在已经得到初步解答，并且可能在不久的将来得到更加全面的解答。
Unit 4 有关病理学的介绍病理学是研究疾病的科学。
在临床实践和医学教学中，病理学的含义更为广泛：病理学由一系列（a large body of) 的知识、观点和研究方法构成，(essential for )它们对理解现代医学及医学实践至关重要。
病理学不等同于疾病组织的形态学，把两者等同起来是一种过时的看法。
病理学包括对疾病功能及结构的认识和理解，包含从分子水平到对个体的影响。
随着新科学方法的应用，人们更深入地了解疾病（iloluminates：说明，阐述），病理学所涵盖的内容也会不断地改变、更新和拓展。
病理学的最终目的(the ultimate goal of pathology )在于确定疾病的原因(the identification of the causes of …)，从而达到防治疾病的基本目标。
病理学的范围病理学是医学科学和实践的基础。
没有病理学，医学实践也将成为神话和民间传说。
临床病理学和实验病理学人们对人类疾病的科学认识来自于对病人的观察，也来自用类推法对动物和细胞培养的实验性研究。
而最大的贡献则来自于对病体组织和体液的深入研究。
――临床病理学临床医学对病人的疾病基于纵向方法，即病史，检查、问诊和治疗。
而临床病理学更关注疾病本身的截断（抽样）分析（a cross-sectional analysis)，深层次研究发病原因和机制，以及疾病对人体各个器官和系统的影响。
这两方面相辅相成、不可分割。
不理解病理学，临床医学无从开展；而没有了临床意义，病理学也就失去了存在价值。
――实验病理学实验病理学观察诸如疾病动物模型或细胞培养等实验系统的操作效果。
幸运的是，细胞培养技术在进步，所以在医学研究和实验病理学中，人们对实验动物的使用减少了。
然而，通过细胞培养复制完整人体中普遍存在的生理环境仍然是一种极其困难的。
――病理学的分支病理学是一门拥有许多分支的庞大学科。
在实践中，病理学包含以下几大分支：组织病理学：通过对组织的检查研究和诊断疾病。
细胞病理学：通过对单个细胞的检查研究和诊断疾病。
血液病学：对血液中细胞成分和可凝结成分的异常进行研究。
微生物学：对传染性疾病及相关生物体进行研究。
免疫学：对机体特殊防御机制进行研究。
化学病理学：从组织和体液的化学变化中研究和诊断疾病。
遗传学：对异常染色体和基因进行研究。
毒理学：对已知或疑似毒物的作用进行研究。
法医病理学：病理学在法律中的应用，比如对可疑情况下的死亡进行调查。
由于这些分支都拥有各自的专业人士队伍，对病理学进行划分的专业意义大于它的教育意义。
病理学的教学必须着眼于整体，因为在这些常规分类中机体和疾病是没有区分的。
因此，该书采用多学科方法阐述病理学。
专科（器官）病理学部分概述各器官的正常结构与功能，描述各临床症状和体征的病理学基础，强调了各疾病的临床意义。
普通病理学和专科（器官）病理学病理学教学内容分为两部分：普通病理学：研究和阐明主要疾病过程的机制和特点，如先天性疾病和后天性疾病、炎症、肿瘤和恶化等。
专科（器官）病理学：描述影响各器官或器官系统的各种疾病，如阑尾炎、肺癌和动脉粥样化等。
――普通病理学普通病理学（总论）研究和阐明存在于各主要疾病的共同病因、发病机制和特点。
本书第二部分包含这些内容，举例说明各种疾病。
在学习专科（器官）病理学之前，理解普通病理学的各原理至关重要。
医学英语课文翻译杨庆华
医学英语课文翻译杨庆华It's 8: 30 AM, time to begin patient rounds. Today we'll make patient rounds with the pulmonary team. In room 1107, we find 65yr. old Mr. Smith who was admitted yesterday afternoon. The pulmonary team includes the attending physician, senior pulmonary fellow, junior resident, and 3 medical students. The admitting junior resident who admitted the patient the previous day begins the case presentation. Mr. Smith presents with a sore throat, productive cough and shortness of breath; he's been febrile for 5 days; his illness failed to respond to IV Annkacin given during his hospitalization at a small local hospital so he was transferred to our hospital with the diagnosis of pneumonia. His family brought his medical records including a Chest X- ray and lab reports performed in the local hospital, but the junior resident left them in his on-call sleeping room. One of the medical students quickly retrieves the nursing chart from the nursing station. Review of the vitals is noteworthy for a progressive increasing pulse and respiratory rate during the night. The junior resident now briefly reexamines thepatient, lung auscultation, and then the pharynx. After completing the physical exam, he notes the patient has "crackles" in the right lung base and purulent pharyngeal exudate. No results of yesterday's Chest X-ray, CBC, and ABG were provided. An ABG or pulse oximetry forgotten. Further examination notes bilateral diffuse crackles, BP 90/60,pulse 120, resp.32/min. He orders a stat ABG and Chest X- ray and while waiting we request the nurse check the patient's O2 saturation using pulse oximetry and discover the O2 saturation is only 80%. Urgent arrangements are made to transfer the patient to ICU.翻译：查房准备早晨8点30分，开始查房。
大学医学英语课文翻译 课文翻译
第一单元疾病的介绍1 人体是一个艺术的杰作。
我们对身体的功能了解越深，就越赏识它。
即使在生病时，身体在故障修复和补偿方面表现也相当出色。
身体内不断发生变化，然而，一个称之为内环境稳态的平稳状态能大抵保持平衡。
机体内环境稳态如果出现某种严重紊乱，就能诱发各种各样的反应，显现疾病的体征和症状。
比如，由于运动员对氧气的需求增加，他们体内的红细胞计数就会异常升高。
这是一个使更多血红蛋白循环的自然补偿机制，但它却是红细胞增多症的一个症状，这在下文中会有涉及。
2 当一个器官需要做更多工作时，它往往会增大，肥大。
心脏会因为血压高地一直不降而增大，因为它必须不间断地克服巨大的阻力把血液输送到全身。
当瓣膜存在缺陷时，心肌同样也会肥大，因为那些要么太宽，要么太窄的瓣膜需要额外的抽吸作用。
如果一个肾衰竭了，另一个肾就会增大以满足身体的需要，并弥补那个有缺陷的肾。
当流向这两个肾的血液不足时，它们会通过分泌荷尔蒙（激素）使血压升高。
然而，如果某个器官或身体的某个部位没有得到使用，它就会萎缩，或者，也就是说，体积变小或功能下降。
3 血液在维持内环境稳态上发挥着一些作用。
当组织受到创伤，损伤，或者感染时，血流就会积聚在受损区域。
这一点极其重要，因为血液携带的细胞可专门清除有害物质和细胞碎片。
血液中的其他细胞则产生抗体，以抵抗致病微生物的入侵。
4 疾病是某个身体部位，生理系统，或整个机体的不健康状态，其中结构或功能会发生紊乱。
疾病经常始于细胞水平。
一个异常的基因不管是因遗传所得，还是因环境因素引起突变或变异，都能启动疾病程序。
比如，当基因信息遭到侵袭（常被病毒侵袭）时，癌症的发生会伴随着细胞的疯长。
新的研究技术正使得某些疾病与异常基因的研究结果联系起来成为可能。
疾病可以是一种结构性的异常，比如，先天性心脏缺陷，也可以是没有器质性改变的功能性病变。
疾病可能是一种结构性的异常，比如，先天性心脏缺陷，也可能是没有器质性变化的功能性病变，比如，高血压或精神创伤。
医学英语综合教程课文和翻译
医学英语综合教程课文和翻译Unit2. Cells and AgingAging is a normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic adaptive responses; the specialized branch of medicine that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly person is called geriatrics.衰老是一种正常的生理过程，伴有机体内环境稳定适应性应答的进行性改变。
研究老年人的健康问题和保健的一门特殊医学分支被称作老年病学The obvious characteristics of aging are well known; graying andloss of hair, loss of teeth, wrinkling of skin, decreased muscle mass, and increased fat deposits. The physiological signs of aging are gradual deterioration in function and capacity to maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis) in response to changes in temperature, diet, and oxygen supply. These sings of aging are related to a net decrease in the number of cells in the body and to the dysfunctioning of the cells that remain.衰老的明显特征众所周知：头发花白和脱落，牙齿脱落，皮肤起皱，肌肉减少，脂肪积存增加。
医学英语课文翻译
医学英语课文翻译Unit One器官系统众所周知，细胞是人体的基本单位，大量的细胞构成某种类型的组织，各类组织再共同形成不同的器官。
特定种类的器官进一步组合形成系统，即器官系统。
一般而言，人体拥有十大器官系统，它们分别是循环系统、呼吸系统、消化系统、泌尿系统、神经系统、内分泌系统、生殖系统、免疫系统、骨骼系统和肌肉系统。
有些器官系统对我们而言非常熟悉，并能感觉到它们的活动，例如呼吸系统。
无论白天还是夜间，我们都在呼吸。
另一方面，有些器官系统对我们来说相对陌生，例如内分泌系统，我们无法感知内分泌腺在机体内的活动。
人体构架人类为什么会长成现在模样？我们为何能够直立而不是像动物那样爬行？是什么让人类得以转动头颅，手脚和身体的其他部位？答案就是骨架，即人体的构架。
骨架是指我们身体中所有骨头的集合。
有了骨架，我们的血液和组织才能够形成现在的形状，有了它，我们全身的肌肉编排才会有序，才能协调我们身体的运动。
此外，人体构架将重要脏器包覆起来以保护其免受外界伤害。
骨架由骨、软骨、腱和韧带等几个重要元素组成的，骨是骨架的重要组成部分。
新生儿一般拥有350多块骨头，但当他长大后，部分骨骼相互连接二最终减少为206块。
我们身体大部分的运动都是由胳臂和腿来完成的，因此胳膊和腿上的骨也最多，而且其中多数为长骨。
股骨位于大腿内部，是人体内最长的骨头。
脊柱由26块骨组成，担负着支撑躯干结构并容纳重要神经的责任。
胸腔由胸骨和肋骨包裹而成，容纳了心脏、肺等重要生命器官。
最后，我们的头部也有20多块骨，其中头盖骨遮盖着大脑，其他骨头则构成脸部。
Unit Two保持健康的决定因素每个人都希望自己一辈子保持健康。
然而，没有人能实现这个目标，我们每个人都可能由于各种原因染上这种或那种疾病。
有时候我们自己都不知道是怎么得病的。
世界卫生组织指出，个人健康状况是由多种因素决定的，其中包括个人特质或生物学特质、个人的行为或生活方式、自然环境以及社会、经济环境。
医学英语课文翻译
Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
根据医学历史权威的看法，这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的，这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。
无论如何，不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的（希波克拉底宣言），这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。
作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分，希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。
然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。
当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时，这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令，在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。
正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神，使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来，尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的著作。
希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论著和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。
到17世纪后期，专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。
被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。
医学英语课文翻译
Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统，流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织，因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉，接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉，然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉，并在心脏最小静脉的作用下，在正常情况下，以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸，向下连接下段气道（直径大约2毫米）的动脉，它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始，动脉成肌肉化发展，直至其达到30微米，此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用，所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空，送入广泛分布的毛细血管网，进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄，它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合，出肺进入左心房。
肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙，与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克，长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域（组成）。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚，深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门，称为肾**。
每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂，通过输尿管排入膀胱。
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支，这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉，为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质，变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时，（这些血管）又进一步细分。
细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉，所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
组织学上，肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位，“肾单位”有两个主要成分：过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网（肾小球）和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
医学英语课文翻译
Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
根据医学历史权威的看法，这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的，这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。
无论如何，不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的（希波克拉底宣言），这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。
作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分，希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。
然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。
当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时，这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令，在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。
正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神，使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来，尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的著作。
希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论著和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。
到17世纪后期，专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。
被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。
医学英语综合教程课文和翻译
Unit2。
Cells and AgingAging is a normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic adaptive responses； the specialized branch of medicine that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly person is called geriatrics。
衰老是一种正常的生理过程,伴有机体内环境稳定适应性应答的进行性改变。
研究老年人的健康问题和保健的一门特殊医学分支被称作老年病学The obvious characteristics of aging are well known； graying and loss of hair， loss ofteeth， wrinkling of skin, decreased muscle mass， and increased fat deposits。
The physiological signs of aging are gradual deterioration in function and capacity to maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis） in response to changes in temperature, diet，and oxygen supply。
These sings of aging are related to a net decrease in the number of cells in the body and to the dysfunctioning of the cells that remain。
医学英语教程课文翻译Unit1
Unit 1Reading A The Human complex— A Never –failing Source of Wonderment(人类的复杂性——一个永远不会失去惊叹的话题)“ In my view, ” wrote Thomas Jefferson in 1814 , “no knowledge can be more satisfactory to a man that of his own frame, its parts, their functions and action s. ” Distinguished thinkers before and since Jefferson have held this belief, but curiously, it is not one that the average person wholeheartedly shares.Man’s attitude toward his own body—his single most precious possession—is decidedly ambivalent. At one and the same time he is fascinated by it and fearful of it, partly in echo of ancient taboos, partly in the conviction that the body is too complicated to understand.( “在我看来，”托马斯杰佛逊于1814年写道：“对人来说，没有什么知识会比了解自身的架构、部件、功能和作用更能使他满足。
”包括杰佛逊在内的杰出思想家均持有这个观点，但有趣的是，这个观点并不为普罗大众所由衷地接受。
人们对自己的身体，这个对他自身来说最为宝贵的财富，态度其实是充满矛盾的。
医学学术英语(医学)课文翻译以及课后问题答案
Unit11、Some factors that may lead to the complaint:·Neuron overload·Patients* high expectations·Mistrust and misunderstanding between the patient and the doctor2、Mrs. Osorio’s condition:·A 56-year-old woman·Somewhat overweight·Reasonably well-controlled diabetes and hypertension·Cholesterol on the high side without any medications for it·Not enough exercises she should take·Her bones a little thin on her last DEXA scan3、Good things:·Blood tests done·Glucose a little better·Her blood pressure a little better but not so great Bad things:·Cholesterol not so great·Her weight a little up·Her bones a little thin on her last DEXA scan 44、The situation:·The author was in a moderate state of panic: juggling so many thoughts about Mrs. Osorio’s conditions and trying to resolve them all before the clock ran down.·Mrs. Osorio made a trivial request, not so important as compared to her conditions.·Mrs. Osorio seemed to care only about her “innocent —and completely justified —request”：the form signed by her doctor.·The doctor tried to or at least pretended to pay attention to the patient while completing documentation.5、Similarities:·In computer multitasking, a microprocessor actually performs only one task ata time. Like microprocessors, we human beings carft actually concentrate ontwo thoughts at the same exact time. Multitasking is just an illusion both in computers and human beings.Differences:·The concept of multitasking originated in computer science.·At best, human beings can juggle only a handful of thoughts in a multitasking manner, but computers can do much better.·The more thoughts human beings juggle, the less human beings are able to attune fully to any given thought, but computers can do much better.6、·7 medical issues to consider·5 separate thoughts, at least, for each issue·7 x 5 = 35 thoughts·10 patients that afternoon·35 x 10 = 350 thoughts·5 residents under the authors supervision·4 patients seen by each resident·10 thoughts, at least, generated from each patient·5 x 4 x 10 = anther 200 thoughts·350 + 200 = 550 thoughts to be handled in total·If the doctor does a good job juggling 98% of the time, that still leaves about10 thoughts that might get lost in the process.7、Possible solutions:·Computer-generated reminders·Case managers·Ancillary services·The simplest solution: timeUnit21、The author implies:• Peoples inadequate consciousness about the consequence of neglecting the re- emerging infectious diseases·Unjustifiability of peoples complacency about the prevention and control of the infectious diseases·Unfinished war against infectious diseases2、Victory declarations:·Surgeon General William Stewart's hyperbolic statement of closing “the book on infectious disease”.·A string of impressive victories incurred by antibiotics and vaccines·The thought that the war against infectious diseases was almost overWhat followed ever since:·Appearance of new diseases such as AIDS and Ebola·Comeback of the old afflictions:» Diphtheria in the former Soviet Union» TB in urban centers like New York City» Rising Group A streptococcal conditions like scarlet fever·The fear of a powerful new flu strain sweeping the world3、Elaborate on the joined battle:·WHO established a new division devoted to worldwide surveillance and control of emerging disease in October 1995.·CDC launched a prevention strategy in 1994.·Congress raised fund from $6.7 million in 1995 to $26 million in 1997.4、The borders are meaningless to pathogenic microbes, which can travel from one country to another remote country in a very short time.5、TB:·Prisons and homeless shelters as ideal places for TB spread·Emerging of drug-resistant strain or even multi-drug-resistant strain·A ride on the HIV w^on by attacking the immunocompromisedGroup A strep:·A change in virulence·Mutation in the exterior of the bacteriumFlu:Constant changes in its coat (surface antigens) and resultant changes in its level of virulence6、Examples:·Experiment in England is seeing the waning immunity because of no vaccination.·Du e to poor vaccination efforts, the diphtheria situation in the former Soviet Union is serious. '• The vaccination rates are dropping in some American cities, and it will lead to more diphtheria and whooping cough.7、The four areas of focus:·The need for surveillance·Updated science capable of dealing with discoveries in the field ·Appropriate prevention and control·Strong public health infrastructure8、The infectious diseases such as TB, flu, diphtheria and scarlet fever will never really go away, and the war against them will never end.Unit31、Terry's life before·She loved practicing Tae Kwon Do·She loved the surge of adrenaline that came with the controlled combat of tournaments.·She competed nationally, even won bronze medal in the trials for the Pan American Games.·She attended medical school, practiced as an internal medicine resident, and became an academic general internist.·She got married and got a son and a daughter.2、The symptoms of MS and autoimmune disease:·Loss of stamina and strength·Problems with balance·Bouts of horrific facial pain·Dips in visual acuity3、Terry did the following before she self-experimented:·She started injections.·She adopted many pharmacotherapies.·She began her own study of literature:» She read articles on websites such as PubMed.» She searched for articles testing new MS drugs in animal models.»She turned to articles concerning neurodegeneration of all types —dementia，Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Lou Gehrig's disease.»She relearned basic sciences such as cellular physiology, biochemistry, and neurophysiology.4、Approaches Terry mainly used:·Self-experimentation with various nutrients to slow neurodegeneration based on literature reports on animal models·Self-experimentation with neuromuscular electrical stimulation which is not an approved treatment for MS·Online search to identify the sources of micronutrients and having a new diet ·Reduction of food allergies and toxic load5、Cases mentioned in the text:·Increased mercury stores in the brains of people with dental fillings·High levels of the herbicide atrazine in private wells in Iowa·The strong association between pesticide exposure and neurodegeneration ·The association of single nucleotide polymorphisms involving metabolism of sulfur and/or B vitamins·Inefficient clearing of toxins6、With 70% to 90% of the risk for diabetes, heart disease, cancer, andautoimmunity being due to environmental factors other than the genes, we can take many health problems and the health care crisis under our control, for example, optimizing our nutrition and reducing our toxic load.Unit41、Two concepts:·Complementary medicine refers to the use of conventional therapies together with alternative treatments such as using acupuncture in addition to usual care to help lessen pain. Complementary and alternative medicine is shortened as CAM.·Alternative medicine refers to healing treatments that are not part of conventional therapies —like acupuncture, massage therapy, or herbal medicine. They are called so because people used to consider practices like these outside the mainstream.2·TCM does not require advanced, complicated, and in most cases, expensive facilities.·TCM employs needles, cups, coins, to mention but a few.·Most procedures and operations of TCM are noninvasive.·The substances used as medicine are raw herbs or abstracts from them, and they are indeed all natural, from nature.·TCM has been practiced as long as the Chinese history, so the efficiency i s proven and ensured.·Ongoing research around the world on acupuncture, herbs, massage and Tai Chi have shed light on some of the theories and practices of TCM3、It may be used as an adjunct treatment, an alternative, or part of a comprehensive management program for a number of conditions: post-operative and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting, post-operative dental pain, addiction, stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and asthma.4、A well-justified NO:·More intense research to uncover additional areas for the use of acupuncture ·Higher adoption of acupuncture as a common therapeutic modality not only in treatment but also in prevention of disease and promotion of wellness ·Exploration and perfection of innovative methods of acupuncture point stimulation with technological advancement·Improved understanding of neuroscience and other aspects of human physiology and function by basic research on acupuncture·Greater interest by stakeholders·An increasing number of physician acupuncturists5、·Appropriate uses of herbs depend on proper guidance:» Proper TCM diagnosis of the zheng of the patient» Correct selection of the corresponding therapeutic strategies and principles that guide the choice of herbs and herbal formulas·Digression from either of the above guidence will lead to misuses of herbs, and will result in complications in patient6、·Randomized controlled trialsAdvantages:»Elimination of the potential bias in the allocation of participants to the intervention group or control group» Tendency to produce comparable groups» Guaranteed validity of statistical tests of significanceLimitations:» Difficulty in generalizing the results obtained from the selected sampling to the population as a whole» A poor choice for research where temporal factors are anissue»Extremely heavy resources, requiring very large samplegroups• Quasi-experimentsAdvantages:» Control group comparisons possible» Reduced threats to external validity as natural environments do notsuffer the same problems of artificiality as compared to awell-controlled laboratory setting.» Generalizations of the findings to be made about population since quasiexperiments are natural experimentsLimitations：» Potential for non-equivalent groups as quasi-experimental designsdo not use random sampling in constructing experimental and controlgroups.» Potential for low internal validity as a result of not using random sampling methods to construct the experimental and control groups• Cohort studiesAdvantages:»Clear indication of the temporal sequence between exposure andoutcome» Particular use for evaluating the effects of rare or unusual exposure» Ability to examine multiple outcomes of a single risk factorLimitations:» Larger, longer, and more expensive» Prone to certain types of bias» Not practical for rare outcomes• Case-control studiesAdvantages:»The only feasible method in the case of rare diseases and those with long periods between exposure and outcome»Time and cost effective with relatively fewer subjects as compared to other observational methodsLimitations：» Unable to provide the same level of evidence as randomized controlled trials as it is observational in nature» Difficult to establish the timeline of exposure to disease outcome• “N=1” trialsAdvantages» Easy to manage» InexpensiveLimitations：» Findings difficult to be generalized to the whole population» Weakest evidence due to the number of the subject7、• Synthesis of evidence is completely dependent on:» The completeness of the literature search (unavailable for foreign studies) » The accuracy of evaluation·There are situations in which no answer can be found for the questions of interest in RCTs and database analyses.·There's the requirement of using less stringent information rather than “hard data”8、·Assessment of the intrinsic value of traditional medicine in society·Research and education·Political, economic, and social factorsUnit51、·Dis-ease refers to the imbalance arising from：» Continuous stress» Pain» Hardships·Disease is a health crisis ascribable to various dis-eases.·Prompting elimination of dis-eases can alleviate some diseases.2、·Wellness is a state involving every aspect of our being: body, mind and spirit.·Manifestations of a healthy person:» Energy and vitality» A certain zip in gait» A warm feeling of peace of heart seen through behavior3、·Constant messages, positive and negative，are sent to our mind about the health of our body.·Physical symptoms are suppressed by people who go through life on automatic pilot.·Being well equals to being disease- or illness-free in the minds of them. ·They confused wellness with an absence of symptoms.4、·People's minds are infected by spin:» Half-truth» Fearful fictions» Blatant deceit: some as a form of self-deceit·Spin is a result of unconscious living.·The kind of falseness is pandemic.5·Our body intelligence is suppressed or dormant from a lack of use.·There are tremendous amount of stress on a daily basis.·Our bodies are easily ignored for years because of a lack of recreation time. ·Limiting, self-defeating and even self-destructive behaviors undermine our wellbeing and keep them from achieving our full potential.6·We grow more reluctant to take risks.·We lose the ability to feel and acknowledge our deepest feelings and the courage to speak our truth.·We continue to deny and repress our feelings to protect ourselves. ·Fear, denial and disconnection from our bodies and feelings become an unconscious, self-protective habit, a kind of default response to life.7·A multi-faceted process:» Looking for roots of and resolutions for the issues in different dimensions » Building our wellness toolbox slowly» Picturing our whole state of being·Attention to the little stuff:» Examining our lives honestly and setting clear intentions to change» Striving to maintain a balance of our mind, body and spirit» Taking small steps in the way to perceive and resolve conflict8·Try to awaken and evolve in order to live more consciously.·Get in touch with our genuine feelings and emotions.·Come to terms with the toxic emotionsUnit61、In the past, most people died at home. But now, more and more people arecared in hospitals and nursing homes at their end of life, which of course brings a new set of questions to consider.2、·Sixty-four years old with a history of congestive heart failure·Deciding to do everything medically possible to extend his life·Availability of around-the-clock medical services and a full range of treatment choices, tests, and other medical care·Relaxed visiting hours, and personal items from home3、Availability of around-the-clock medical resources, including doctors, nurses,and facility.4、·Taking on a job which is big physically, emotionally, and financially·Hiring a home nurse for additional help·Arranging for services (such as visiting nurses) and special equipment (like a hospital bed or bedside commode)5、·Health insurance·Planning by a professional, such as a hospital discharge plaimer or a social worker·Help from local governmental agencies·Doctor's supervision at home6、·Traditionally, it is only about symptom care.·Recently, it is a comprehensive approach to improving the quality of life for people who are living with potentially fatal diseases.7、·Stopping treatment specifically aimed at curing an illness equals discontinuing all treatment.·Choosing a hospice is a permanent decision.Unit71、·A dying patient·Decision whether to withdraw life-support machines and medication and start comfort measures·The family's refusal to make any decision or withdraw any treatments2、·The doctor as exclusive decision-maker·The patient as participant with little say in the final choice3、·Respect for the patient, especially the patient s autonomy·Patient-centered care·The patient as decision-maker based on the information provided by the doctor4、·Patients are forced to make decisions they never want to.·Patients, at least a large majority of them, prefer their doctors to make final decisions.·Shifting responsibility of decision-making to patients will bring about more stress to patients and their families, especially when the best option for the patient is uncertain.5、Doctors are very much cautious about committing some kind of ethicaltransgression.6、·Shouldering responsibility together with the patient may be better than having the patient make decisions on their own.·Balancing between paternalism and respect for patients autonomy constitutes a large part of medical practice.Unit81、·Research:An activity to test hypothesis, to permit conclusions to be drawn, and thereby to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge·Practice:Interventions solely to enhance the well-being of an individual patient or client and that have a reasonable expectation of success·Blurred distinction:»Cooccurrence of research and practice like in research designed to evaluate a therapy» Notable departures from standard practice being called “experimental”with the terms “experimenta l”and “research” carelessly defined2、·Autonomy：Individuals treated as autonomous agents .·Protection:Persons with diminished autonomy entitled to protection·A case in point:Prisoners involved in research3·“Do no harm” as the primary principle·Maximization of possible benefits and minimization of possible harms . ·Balance between benefits and potential risks involved in every step of seeding the benefits4、·“Do no harm” as a fundamental principle of medical ethics·Extension of it to the realm of research by Claude Bernard·Benefits and risks as a set “duet” in both medical practice and research5、·Unreasonable denial of entitled benefit and unduly imposed burden：Enrolment of patients in new drug trial: Who should be enrolled and who should not?·Equal treatment of equals:Determining factors of equality: age, sex, severity of the condition, financial status, social status6、·Definition:The opportunity to choose what shall or shall not happen to them ·Application:» A process rather than signing a written form» Adequate information as the premise» A well-informed decision as the expected result7、·Requirements for consent as entailed by the principle of respect for persons ·Risk/benefit assessment as entailed by the principle of beneficence·More requirements of fairness as entailed by the principle of justice: » At the individual level: fairness» At the social level: distinction between classesUnit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。