现代语言学自考资料-分章节总结
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第一章绪论
1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. （普通语言学）
The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is
called phonetics. （语音学）
The study of how called phonology. sounds are put together and used in communication is （音系学）
The study of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）
The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences
is called syntax. （句法学）
The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）
The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）
The study of
socio-linguistics. language with reference to society is called （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called
psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）
The study of applications （as the recovery of speech ability） is
generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.
Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类
语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）
3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “ correct ” or not.
Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.
Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.
Langue and parole 语言和言语
The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from
parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 ' s.
He defines competence as the ideal user ' s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
4/ What is language?
语言的定义
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
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Sapir uses “ideas ” “emotions ” and “ desires ” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.
Chomsky' s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.
5/ Design features 语言的甄别性特征
Design features refer to the defining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.
Arbitrariness 语言的随意性
Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.
Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.
Productivity 语言的创造性
Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an
infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
Duality 语言的二重性
The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.
Displacement 语言的移位性
Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.
Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
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Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学
1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介
Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always
“ invented ” by its users to record speech
when the need arises.
For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.
The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language （语言的声
音媒介） . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.
2．What is phonetics? 什么是语音学？
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language ；
It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world 's languages.
语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
There are three branches of phonetics. They are:
Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speaker ' s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearer ' s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.
Acoustic phonetics （声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
3. Organs of speech
The pharyngeal cavity
The oral cavity 口腔
The nasal cavity 鼻腔 The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx （
喉 ） before it
reaches any of the cavities.
Lying across the glottis （ 声门 ） are the vocal cords （ 声带 ）. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “ voicing ” . The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.
The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.
4. Orthographic representation of speech sounds
- broad and narrow transcriptions
语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标
IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标 There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription w ith letter-symbols （ 字母 符 号） only, called broad
transcription （ 宽 式 音 标 ）. The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （ 变音符号 ）, called narrow transcription （ 窄式音标 ）.
实例： 对 pit/spit 中 p 音的比较：
pit 中的 p 是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作： [phit] spit 中的 p 是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作： [spit]
对 leaf/feel/build/health 中 l 音的比较：
Leaf 中 l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作： [li:f]
Feel 中 l 出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号 [~] Build 中 l 出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号
[~]
Health 中 l 出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音 [l] ，在窄式音标中加变音符号 [II] 咽腔 the throat the mouth the nose
5. Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类
a) Classification of English consonants 英语辅音的分类按发音方式分
Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Fricative 擦音：[f] [v] [s] [z] [W] [T] [s] [V] [h] Affricate 塞擦音：[tF][dV]
Liquid 流音：[l] [r]
Nasal 鼻音：[m] [n] [N]
Glide 滑音：[w] [j]
按发音部位分
Bilabial 双唇音：[p] [b] [m] [w] Labiodental 唇齿音：[f] [v]
Dental 齿音：[W] [T]
Alveolar 齿龈音：[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]
Palatal 硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]
Velar 软腭音：[k] [g] [N]
Glottal 声门音：[h]
B) Classification of English vowels 英语元音的分类按舌头在口中的位置分：
Front vowel 前元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] Central vowel 中元音：[[:] [[] [Q]
Back vowel 后元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R] [a:]
按口形的大小分：
Close vowel 闭元音：[i:] [i] [u:] [u] Semi-close vowel 半闭元音：[e] [[:] Open vowel 开元音：[A] [a]
Semi-open vowel 半开元音：[[] [R:] [Q] [R] [a:] 按唇形是否为圆分
Unrounded vowel 不圆唇元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] [[:] [[] [Q] [a:] rounded vowel 圆唇元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R]
按语音的长短分
Long vowel 长元音[i:] [[:][a:] [u:] [R:]
Short vowel 短元音[i] [e] [A] [a] [[] [Q] [u] [R]
在元音中还有一些(diphthong) 双元音，包括：[ei] [ai] [[u] [a u] [Ri ]
[i[] [e[] [u[]
6. Phonology 音系学
Phonology and phonetics
音系学和语音学
Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.