管理经济学 第4讲 竞争与市场势力
管理经济学的主要内容
管理经济学的主要内容
管理经济学是一门研究企业与经济活动的科学，其主要内容包括以下方面：
1.市场需求与供给分析：通过研究市场需求和供给的变化，企业可以确定市场的价格和数量，以提高企业经营效益。
2.成本与生产分析：通过研究企业的生产成本及其对生产的影响，以确定最优生产量和最低成本，从而增加企业利润。
3.企业战略分析：研究企业在市场中的竞争状况和竞争策略，以制定最优的发展战略和市场定位策略。
4.决策分析：研究企业决策的目标、过程和方法，以提高决策效率和准确性。
5.风险与不确定性分析：研究企业面临的风险和不确定因素，以制定合适的风险管理策略。
6.组织设计与管理：研究企业组织结构和管理方式，以提高组织效率和员工绩效。
7.战略合作与联盟：研究企业间的合作和联盟关系，以增强企业的竞争力和市场地位。
总之，管理经济学涉及到企业经济活动的方方面面，是企业管理和经营的重要理论基础和实践指导。
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管理经济学_笔记(非常详细,绝对超值)
《管理经济学》整理绪论 P3管理经济学的对象和任务一、管理经济学的研究对象，以及与微观经济学之间的联系和区别：P3～P4识记借用理论共同之处不同之处研究对象对企业目标的假设对企业环境的假设研究目的管理经济学 1 把企业作为研究对象2 都研究企业的行为现实的企业短期目标是多样化的，长期目标是企业价值最大化。
企业环境，特别是外部环境信息是不确定的企业决策微观经济学抽象的企业利润最大化假设企业的外部环境信息为已知的企业行为的一般规律管理经济学的理论支柱二、管理经济学的理论支柱及重要意义：P4～P6 识记序号名称概念意义1建立经济模型由经济变量之间的函数关系构成的。
给决策提供科学的思维框架，使决策方法得以简化、科学化和定量化。
2边际分析法是微观经济学和研究资源最优化配置的基本方法体现了向前看的决策思想。
3需求弹性理论弹性是用来分析自变量的变化和因变量变化之间关系的有利工具。
①借用这个工具来研究各种变量变化之间的关系。
②是企业确定经营方针和进行价格决策的重要依据。
4市场机制和市场竞争的是微观经济学的核心内容，也是管理经济使决策适应不断变化的市场环境，在竞争中立于不败之地。
基本原理学的重要组成部分。
5边际收益递减规律要求在生产过程中，在各种投入要素之间保持最适度的比例关系。
决定了企业成本的习性和变化规律。
6机会成本原理是指资源用于次好用途时所能获得的价值。
用机会成本做决策，能判断资源是否真正得到了最优使用。
是提高我国管理决策水平的一项重要任务。
7货币的时间价值是指因放弃现在使用资金的机会，可以换取的按放弃时间的长短计算的回报，最常见的是利息。
只有计算资金的货币价值，才能正确评价投资的经济效益。
企业的目标三、管理经济学的决策准则对短期目标的设计和安排要服从于长期目标，在短期内，企业可以暂时放弃或减少对利润的追求。
1、企业目标短期目标—是多样化的，它包括投资者、顾客、债权人、职工、政府、社会公众，以及技术改造。
管理经济学 第8章 垄断竞争和寡头垄断
P
SMC SAC
LMC LAC
P1
D MR 0 Q
1
D’ Q
11
图 8-3 垄断竞争企业的长期均衡
垄断竞争企业长期均衡的条件是
MR=LMC=SMC
P=LAC=SAC
MR=LMC=SMC，利润没有最大化或 亏损没有最小化；
LMC=SMC，生产规模没有调整到 长期中最优；
12
P=LAC=SAC，有经济利润或亏损；
52
企 企 业 乙 高价 低价 高价
业
甲 低价 50， 120 60， 60
100， 100 120， 50 图 8-9
价格战
53
大家采取高价政策，大家都赚100； 一个高价，一个低价，高价者赚 50，低价者赚120； 两个都低价，两个都只能赚60。 大家都应该采取高价政策，但是， 大家都要对付对方的低价政策，所 以大家都采取低价政策，结果每个 人的明智选择是群体的非明
22
也就是说，以原来的交点位置决 定价格和产出，与需求曲线变动 后的新交点的价格和产出比较， 如果收入增加，则此方案可以采 纳。
23
P P2 P1 H2 H1 A1
MC 2 AC1 MC 1 A2 AC 2 D2
D1 C1 C2 MR 1 MR 2
0
Q1
Q2
Q
改进产品质量的成本影响
24
追加广告对成本的影响：
31
问题4：
寡头的名声不佳，但是，它的 产生又往往是经济的，为什么？
32
P A AC P1 P2 4 Q3 3 2 Q2 Q1 1
0 E F G H Q 寡头市场产生的必然与寡头市场的划分
33
二、拐折的需求曲线模型 寡头市场的价格比较稳定，寡 头之间一般不进行价格竞争。美国 经济学家斯威奇用拐折的需求曲线 模型对之作出了解释。
管理经济学第07章完全竞争市场中厂商的决策
第七章 完全竞争市场中厂商的决策
0、市场类型及其划分标准
经济学中通常把市场结构分为4种类型：
完全竞争 完全垄断 垄断竞争 寡头竞争
0、市场类型及其划分标准
影响市场竞争程度的因素：
v 第一，市场上企业的数目
v 第二，企业提供的产品的差别程度。
数目越多，竞争程度就越高
三、厂商短期产量决策和盈利能力
短期均衡的三种类型 1、均衡有盈利 2、 收支相抵 3、 亏损
1、获得盈利
需求曲线位于SAC最低点上方
价格为P0时，企业面临的需求曲线为d0，根据MR=MC利润最大化原 则，E0点为企业决策点，产量为Q0。
v AR=E0Q0 v SAC=FQ0
v TR=AR·Q=OQ0×E0Q0 v TC=SAC·Q=OQ0×FQ0
P
SMC
SAC
P0 G
E0 F
d0（AR=MR=P）
超额利润π=OQ0×FE0
企业处于盈利状态
0
Q0
Q
2、收支相抵
需求曲线切于SAC最低点
价格为P1时，企业面临的需求曲线为d1，根据MR=MC利润最大化 原则，E1点为企业决策点，产量为Q1。
P
SMC
v AR=SAC=E1Q1
SAC
v TR=TC=OQ1×E1Q1
• 完全竞争市场中，单个厂商面对的需求 曲线，既是它的边际收益曲线，也是 平均收益曲线，均等于价格
三、厂商短期产量决策和盈利能力
边际原则：把产量确定在边际收益等于边际成本的水平时，能实现利润最大。 完全竞争厂商将选择一个产量水平，使得：
MR=MC＝P
三、厂商短期产量决策和盈利能力
管理经济学中英文术语及其解释
管理经济学中英文术语及其解释Ability-to-Pay principle (税收的)能力支付原则the idea that taxes should be levied on a person according to how well that person can shoulder the burdenAbsolute advantage绝对优势the comparison among producers of a good according to their productivityAccounting profit会计利润total revenue minus total explicit costAdverse selection逆向选择the tendency for the mix of unobserved attributes to become undesirable from the standpoint of an uninformed partyAgent代理人 a person who is performing an act for another person, called the principalArrow ‟s impossibility theorem阿罗不可能定理a mathematical result showing that, under certain assumed conditions, there is no scheme for aggregating individual preferences into a valid set of social preferencesAverage fixed cost平均固定成本fixed costs divided by the quantity of outputAverage revenue平均收益total revenue divided by the quantity soldAverage tax rate平均税率total taxes paid divided by total incomeAverage total cost平均总成本total cost divided by the quantity of outputAverage variable cost平均可变成本variable costs divided by the quantity of outputBenefits principle受益原则the idea that people should pay taxes based on the benefits they receive from government servicesBudget constraint预算约束the limit on the consumption bundles that a consumer can afford Budget deficit预算赤字an excess of government spending over government receiptsBudget surplus预算盈余an excess of government receipts over government spending Business cycle经济周期fluctuations in economic activity, such as employment and production Capital资产the equipment and structures used to produce goods and servicesCartel卡特尔a group of firms acting in unisonCircular-flow diagram循环流向图 a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firmsCoase theorem科斯定理the proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their ownCollusion共谋an agreement among firms in a market about quantities to produce or prices to chargeCommon resources共源goods that are rival but not excludableComparative advantage比较优势the comparison among producers of a good according to their opportunity costCompensating differential补偿性工资差别 a difference in wages that arises to offset the nonmonetary characteristics of different jobsCompetitive market竞争性市场 a market with many buyers and sellers trading identical products so that each buyer and seller is a price takerComplements互补性商品two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to a decrease in the demand for the otherCondorcet paradox孔多塞悖论（投票悖论）the failure of majority rule to produce transitive preferences for societyConstant returns to scale规模报酬不变the property whereby long-run average total cost staysthe same as the quantity of output changesConsumer surplus消费者剩余 a buyer‟s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually paysCost成本the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a goodCost-benefit analysis成本收益分析 a study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public goodCross-price elasticity of demand需求的交叉价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of one good responds to a change in the price of another good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded of the first good divided by the percentage change in the price of the second goodDeadweight loss无谓损失the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a taxDemand curve需求曲线 a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDemand schedule需求表 a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDiminishing marginal product边际产品递减the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines．As the quantity of the input increasesDiscrimination歧视the offering of different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race, ethnic group, sex, age, or other personal characteristicsDiseconomies of scale规模不经济the property whereby long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increasesDominant strategy占优策略 a strategy that is best for a player in a game regardless of the strategies chosen by the other playersEconomic profit经济利润total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costsEconomics经济学the study of how society manages its scarce resourcesEconomies of scale规模经济the property whereby long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increasesEfficiency效率the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources Efficiency wages效率工资above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivityEfficient scale有效规模the quantity of output that minimizes average total costElasticity弹性 a measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to one of its determinantsEquilibrium均衡 a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demandedEquilibrium price均衡价格the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded Equilibrium quantity均衡数量the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium priceEquity平等the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of societyExcludability排他性the property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it Explicit costs显性成本input costs that require an outlay of money by the firmExports出口goods produced domestically and sold abroadExternality外部性the uncompensated impact of one person‟s actions on the wellbeing of a bystanderFactors of production生产要素the inputs used to produce goods and servicesFixed casts固定成本costs that do not vary with the quantity of output producedFree rider免费搭车者 a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it Game theory博弈论the study of how people behave in strategic situationsGiffen good吉芬商品 a good for which an increase in the price raises the quantity demanded Horizontal equity横向公平the idea that taxpayers with similar abilities to pay taxes should pay the same amountHuman capital人力资本the accumulation of investments in people, such as education andon-the-job trainingImplicit costs隐性成本input costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firmImport quota进口配额 a limit on the quantity of a good that can be produced abroad and sold domesticallyImports进口goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyIncome effect收入效应the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer to a higher or lower indifference curveIncome elasticity of demand需求的收入弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers‟ income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in incomeIndifference curve无差异曲线 a curve that shows consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfactionInferior good低档物品 a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in demandInflation通货膨胀an increase in the overall level of prices in the economyIn-kind transfers实物转移支付transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cashInternalizing an externality外部性的内在化altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actionsLaw of demand需求定理the claim that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good risesLaw of supply and demand需求与供给定理the claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded for that good into balanceLiberalism自由主义the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies deemed to be just, as evaluated by an impartial observer behind a “veil of ignorance”Libertarianism自由至上主义the political philosophy according to which the government should punish crimes and enforce voluntary agreements but not redistribute incomeLife cycle生命周期the regular pattern of income variation over a person‟s lifeLump-sum tax定额税 a tax that is the same amount for every personMacroeconomics宏观经济学the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growthMarginal changes边际变动small incremental adjustments to a plan of actionMarginal cost边际成本the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of production Marginal product边际产品the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input Marginal product of labor劳动的边际产品the increase in the amount of output from an additional unit of laborMarginal rate of substitution边际替代率the rate at which a consumer is willing to trade one good for anotherMarginal revenue边际收益the change in total revenue from an additional unit soldMarginal tax rate边际税率the extra taxes paid on an additional dollar of incomeMarket市场 a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or serviceMarket economy市场经济an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services Market failure市场失灵 a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficientlyMarket power市场势力the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market pricesMaximin criterion极大极小准则the claim that the government should aim to maximize the well-being of the worst-off person in societyMedian voter theorem中位选举人定理 a mathematical result showing that if voters are choosing a point along a line and each voter wants the point closest to his most preferred point, then majority rule will pick the most preferred point of the median voterMicroeconomics微观经济学the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in marketsMonopolistic competition垄断竞争 a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identicalMonopoly垄断 a firm that is the sole seller of a product without close substitutesMoral hazard道德风险the tendency of a person who is imperfectly monitored to engage in dishonest or otherwise undesirable behaviorNash equilibrium纳什均衡 a situation in which economic actors interacting with one another each choose their best strategy given the strategies that all the other actors have chosenNatural monopoly自然垄断 a monopoly that arises because a single firm can supply a good or service to an entire market at a smaller cost than could two or more firmsNegative income tax负所得税 a tax system that collects revenue from high-income households and gives transfers to low-income householdsNormal good正常商品 a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demandNormative statements规范性表述claims that attempt to prescribe how the world should be Oligopoly寡头 a market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or identical productsOpportunity cost机会成本whatever must be given up to obtain some itemPerfect complements完全互补品two goods with right-angle indifference curvesPerfect substitutes完全替代品two goods with straight-line indifference curvesPermanent income持久性收入 a person‟s normal incomePhillips curve菲利普斯曲线 a curve that shows the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemploymentPigovian tax庇古税 a tax enacted to correct the effects of a negative externalityPositive statements实证表述claims that attempt to describe the world as it isPoverty line贫困线an absolute level of income set by the federal government for each family size below which a family is deemed to be in povertyPoverty rate贫困率the percentage of the population whose family income falls below an absolute level called the …poverty linePrice ceiling价格天花板（上限） a legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold Price discrimination价格歧视the business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different customersPrice elasticity of demand需求的价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in pricePrice elasticity supply供给的价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in pricePrice floor价格地板I下限） a legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold Principal委托人 a person for whom another person, called the agent, is performing some act Prisoners‟ dilemma囚徒困境 a particular “game” between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficialPrivate goods私人物品goods that are both excludable and rivalProducer surplus生产者剩余the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller‟s cost Production function生产函数the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that goodProduction possibilities frontier生产可能性曲线 a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technologyProductivity生产率the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker‟s timeProfit利润total revenue minus total costProgressive tax累进税 a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a larger fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersProportional tax比例税 a tax for which high-income and low-income taxpayers pay the same fraction of incomePublic goods公共产品goods that are neither excludable nor rivalQuantity demanded需求数量the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase Quantity supplied供给数量the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell Regressive tax累退税 a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a smaller fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersRivalry竞争the property of a good whereby one person‟s use diminishes other people‟s use Scarcity稀缺性the limited nature of society‟s resourcesScreening筛选an action taken by an uninformed party to induce an informed party to reveal informationShortage短缺 a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied Signaling信号显示an action taken by an informed party to reveal private information to anuninformed partyStrike罢工the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a unionSubstitutes替代品two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to an increase in the demand for the otherSubstitution effect替代效应the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer along a given indifference curve to a point with a new marginal rate of substitution Sunk cost沉淀成本 a cost that has already been committed and cannot be recoveredSupply curve供给曲线 a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSupply schedule供给表 a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSurplus过剩 a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demandedTariff关税 a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyTax incidence税收归宿the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a marketTotal cost总成本the market value of the inputs a firm uses in productionTotal revenue (for a firm)总收益the amount a firm receives for the sale of its outputTotal revenue (in a market)总收益the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good, computed as the price of the good times the quantity soldTragedy of the Commons公共地的悲剧a parable that illustrates why common resources get used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as a wholeTransaction costs交易成本the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing and following through on a bargainUnion工会 a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditionsUtilitarianism功利主义the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies to maximize the total utility of everyone in societyUtility效用 a measure of happiness or satisfactionValue of the marginal product边际产品价值the marginal product of an input times the price of the outputVariable costs可变成本costs that vary with the quantity of output producedVertical equity纵向公平the idea that taxpayers with a greater ability to pay taxes should pay larger amountsWelfare福利government programs that supplement the incomes of the needyWelfare economics福利经济学the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-beingWillingness to pay支付意愿the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a goodWorld price世界价格the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good。
管理经济学4需求分析
魅力锦城· 活力工商
两种特殊的需求曲线
1.完全非弹性的需求：弹性等于0
Q=a=100
魅力锦城· 活力工商
2.完全弹性的需求： 弹性等于无穷大
P=b=4
数量
魅力锦城· 活力工商
收益分析
• 价格弹性揭示了需求量的变化关于价格变化的敏感程度， 这对企业决策是很重要的。这种重要性主要体现在，当价 格发生变动的时候，企业销售收入的变动将与需求的价格 弹性直接相关。 • 收益也称为总收益，实际上也就是销售收入。收益通常记 为TR，应有 • TR = P·Q 总 收益
魅力锦城· 活力工商
案例：汽油价格与小型汽车的需求
• 据统计，20世纪70年代初，美国各种汽车每年的销售量为 ：2500万辆大型汽车、2800万辆中型汽车和2300万辆小型 轿车。到了1985年，这一比例有了很大的变化，该年度只 出售了1500万辆大型汽车，比70年代中期有了大幅度的下 降。中轿车的销量相对不变，为2200万辆，而小型轿车的 销量却上升到了3700万辆。 • 原因是显而易见的。假设你每年要行驶15000英里。大型 汽车每加仑汽油行驶15英里，这就是说你每年需要1000加 仑的汽油；而小型汽车每加仑汽油行驶30英里，则你每年 只需要500加仑汽油。以1981年的最高汽油价格，即每加 仑1.40美元计算，这就等于节约了700美元。 • 汽油和汽车在需求上呈互补关系，但是小型汽车和大型汽 车在需求上又呈替代关系。这两种关系的替代结果是：汽 油价格的上升，导致小型汽车的需求量上升，大型汽车的 需求量减少。
案例：汽油价格与小型汽车的需求
• 在市场上，一种产品的价格变动往往会影响另一些产 品的需求。20世纪70年代美国的汽油价格上升时影响 了对小型汽车的需求，这就是一个典型的例子。 • 实际上，汽油价格在70年代有两次暴涨：一次是1973 年，石油输出国组织（OPEC）对美国实施禁运，一 次是1979年由于伊朗国王被推翻而导致该国石油供应 瘫痪。汽油价格从1973年的每加仑0.27美元攀升至 1981年的每加仑1.40美元。美国是一个“轮子上的国 家”，汽车是老百姓代步的必需品，石油价格的剧升 对他们当然不是一件小事。
管理经济学解析(ppt 60页)
[加]唐纳德.沃特斯著，《管理科学实务教 程》，张志强等译，汪同三审校，华夏出 版社，2000.6第1版(44.00元)
刘厚俊著，《现代西方经济学原理》，南 京大学出版社，1998.9第2版(20.50元)
价格机制---看不见的手
市场供不应求
某行业价格较高
利润较大
生产者增加产量
需要更多的生产要素
生产要素价格提高
资源转入该行业
资源得到重新配置
个人与企业的高度相互依赖性： 以市场为纽带
问题：什么是企业？ 企业是街上的超级市场，拐角处的服装店，集 市货摊，肯德基，可口可乐，中国联通等等。 当然，大家都知道像IBM这样的企业巨头店和 地区服装的区别。
▪经济活动的循环流动
支出(美元)
收入(美元)
产品市场
物品和服务
物品和服务
企业 家庭
经济资源 收入(美元)
经济资源
要素市场
生产要素支付(美元)
图1-1 收入、产出、资源和生产 要素支付的循环流动
生产要素---经济资源
自然资源=土地、矿物资源等 人力资源=劳动 加工资源=资本 另一种人力资源=企业家才能
0 3000
2000
会计利润(Accounting pro杂fit费)就是企业财50务00报表30上00
的利润。
0
净会计利润
(美元)
2000
▪经济利润的概念 销售收入(美元) 为了计 减：售出货物的成本(美元) 算经济利润， 毛利 损益表就要 减：外显成本(美元） 做以下修改： 广告
折旧
水电、煤气 财产税 杂费 会减计：利 内润 含成(美本元()美元) (考2虑0内0，含0成00本美前元的存利入润银) 行 的回报 放弃的薪水 净经济利润(美元）
《管理经济学》讲义
管理经济学第一讲均衡价格理论与价格机制一、管理经济学的研究对象与方法1.微观经济学以单个经济单位的经济行为为对象，研究资源配置。
2.管理经济学微观经济学原理与方法在企业管理决策中的运用。
1952年美国乔尔·丁出版了第一本《管理经济学》，宣告了这门学科的诞生。
3.管理经济学的研究方法·实证分析VS规范分析·局部均衡分析VS一般均衡分析·静态分析、比较静态分析VS动态分析·边际分析VS经济模型分析·供求分析·长短期分析二、需求理论1.需求与需求量（Qd）需求=欲望+购买力2.影响需求量的因素①商品自身价格 Qd与P负相关）②相关商品价格（P·替代品正相关·互补品负相关③收入水平（Y）正相关④偏好（T）⑤预期（E）↑价格看涨→当前Qd↓价格看跌→当前Qd3.需求定律、需求曲线、需求表与需求函数①需求定律 Qd与P反向变化的规律②需求曲线③需求函数 Qd =f（P、PO、Y、T、E）Qd=f（P）=a-bp（a、b>0）④需求表4.需求定律的例外（Qd与P正相关）①吉芬商品（1845年爱尔兰饥荒）②炫耀性商品5.需求量的变化与需求的变化Qd=f（价格，其他因素）①需求量的变化：价格变化对Qd的影响，用沿着需求线的运动表示②需求的变化：其他因素变化对Qd的影响，用整个需求线的平移表示③例证：控制香烟Qd·税率↑→P↑→Qd↓·警告、禁做广告→Qd↓三、供给理论1.供给与供给量（QS）2.影响因素①自身价格 QS与P正相关②相关商品价格③成本、技术④预期价格看涨→当前QS↓价格看跌→当前QS↑3.供给定律、供给曲线、供给函数与供给表①供给定律：QS与P同向变化的规律②供给曲线③供给函数QS=c+dp（c、d>0）④供给表4.供给量的变化与供给的变化QS=f（价格，其他因素）①供给量的变化：价格变化对QS影响，用沿着供给线的运动表示。