The Past, Present and Future in the Perspective of Dialectical Theory
自我评价管理能力(优选10篇)
自我评价管理能力（优选10篇）自我评价管理能力（1）Time to go away, and now the work has gradually become a matter of course, this may be a blessing, is to let me worthy of nostalgia for a period of More than a month of probation down, their efforts, but also a lot of progress and learned a lot of things not previously, I think this is not only work, more importantly, gave me a chance to learn andIn the help and support of various departments, I do a good job co-ordination and upload work, to work in front, do the first, whether work capacity, or the quality of thinking has been further improved, better completed the company propaganda , Personnel management, staff training, file management, logistics services and corporate security and other aspects of the In order to strengthen the management of people, money and materials, I improved various management systems in the past, highlighted the system management, strictly according to regulations, to further clarify the work responsibilities, improve the use of official seals, paper use, computer use, leave, duty Various routine management, fully reflects the management of people do not thinking, the workDo a good job in office work, have a high theoretical quality and analytical ability to solve Learning through various means, for which the offices are equipped with computers, the use of online resources to learn and work-related knowledge, and constantly broaden their horizons, rich minds, enhance their ability to keep up with the development of the situation to meet the needs of the Improve the theoretical level, professional quality and ability toWilling to work with others, have a strong teamwork skills; strong sense of responsibility, and indeed complete the work of the leadership of the delivery, the work of the work of self- And the company colleagues to work together, harmonious and harmonious relations, with the head of the department successfully completed the work in the ____ work days, I gradually fell in love with this place, like the job, I would like to grow up here slowly become a qualified official __-x in the staff, a month of study and work, so I grew up a lot in the future I will continue to work, as always, to maintain a fine style, constantly Improve themselves, to make someFour years of university study, learn more professional basic knowledge and then is a self-learning ability, and practical experience, social experience is very As a graduate, the beginning of the company, have been very worried about how I do not know how to coexist, how to do a good job, but the company relaxed and harmonious working atmosphere, good learning development opportunities, so I quickly completed from students to staff . Can correctly face the setback, dialectical look at the Work can always maintain a positive attitude, and strive toThe past year is a year of constant learning and enrichment, a year of active exploration and gradual Of course, entering the workplace, inevitably lack of experience in business knowledge, and their own work requirements there are still some But these experiences also let me continue to mature, in dealing with a variety of issues to consider a more comprehensive, professional skills have been Here, I would like to thank the leadership of the company and my colleagues to cultivate the guidance of my induction and help, for their mistakes in my work reminders and I also know that graduation is only a small step in school, society is a real In future work, I will strive to identify their own position, to do their best to contribute to the company for the company to create real wealth, but also for their own to seek a greater自我评价管理能力（2）Work has been in the unit leaders carefully nurtured and taught, through their own continuous efforts, whether ideological, learning or work, have made considerable development and great achievements, now> work summarized as follows:We should actively participate in political studies, adhere to the four basic principles, uphold the party's principles and policies, and consciously abide by the laws and At work, I have been working in a certain department, department, And other departments work, no matter where they are, demanding their own, assiduously business, strive to become With such a firm conviction, I have been proficient in savings, accounting, planning, credit cards, a loan and other services, a ____ line of businessLearning, since I joined the work, I never give up learning theoretical knowledge and business I graduated from the school because of financial school, just work I use my spare time self-study college, and graduated in ____, but I did not meet the status quo, but also in the ____ self-study Northeastern University financial undergraduate, due to hard work,Excellent, fully affirmed by the teacher in the study, is currently actively preparing for thesis Not only to master and improve the financial knowledge, but also has a certain theoretical level, fully meet the standards of undergraduate Learning theory at the same time, more research business, the financial knowledge learned into the work to go, so that the level of business continues to increase, and in the year to participate in the National Intermediate Economist qualification examination, passed the same line was hired as an intermediate division .In the years of business knowledge examination, each accounting business qualification examinations have reached aFinally, I would like to say is that the above is only a little achievement in my work, which unit of leadership and the help of colleagues are I always firmly believe that the words "a match and then bright, and onlya large light beans, but if a match to lit a pile of matches, it will be " I want to use my bright youth, to ignite the excitement of everyone around, inspire colleagues to inspire together for our cause dedication, marry meritorious service,自我评价管理能力（3）I called xxxx, xxxx company has been to work for two years, in the past two years, there are successful, there are failures, there is joy, but also distress, in the company under the guidance of the leadership and colleagues in the full support of And help, my ability to work has been greatly improved, now two years of work to do a self-evaluation.2, to do their own work in the fear of hardship, not afraid of tired, do not be afraid of their own work, do not be afraid to work hard, Work closely with colleagues, the relationship between colleagues, unity and fraternity, mutual help and mutual respect; due to their lack of work experience in the work of the lack of handling of user complaints, the work of the staff of the work of the staff, Practical experience, service work done not meticulous, this is my future direction.2, I have been working in the company since the help of my colleagues in the care, through personal efforts and work-related experience in the accumulation of knowledge continues to expand, the ability to work has made great progress.3, review the past two years, I seriously study the business training, and actively participate in job training, dedication, courtesy, warm service, patiently answer questions, to provide quality services to customers and continue to practice to improve their quality and business Level, grow into a qualified salesperson.In the future work and life, I believe that through my efforts, I will grow into a good staff, to become an example of learning for others to contribute to the company.自我评价管理能力（4）Three years of sales experience taught me the basic idea of communication with others, smiling others, in good faith to be. In order to have a better practice platform, I will continue to exercise to improve themselves and I hope to use my beautiful youth, to ignite the surrounding every guest for our cause dedication, progress, a better tomorrow.I love the industry in this industry, through the efforts to enhance my confidence in this industry, to do a salesman is not my goal, I want to develop a higher level of work, through the work of learning and hard work, whether ideological , Study or work, have made considerable development and great harvest, I will be more efforts to strive for more development.I love the sales industry, through the efforts to enhance my confidence in this industry, to do a salesman is not my goal, I want to develop ahigher level of work, through the work of learning and hard work, whether it is ideological , Study or work, have made considerable development and great harvest, I will be more efforts to strive for more development. In the work, a strong sense of responsibility, adaptability, enthusiasm, careful work, good coordination and communication skills, good at communication, have a certain leadership; in character, honesty, loyalty, kindness, modesty, optimism; In the business, with overall business processing and good professional judgment.自我评价管理能力（5）I called ____, ____ company has been to work for two years, in the past two years, there are successful, there are failures, there is joy, but also distress, in the company under the guidance of the leadership and colleagues in the full support of And help, my ability to work has been greatly improved, now two years of work to do a2, to do their own work in the fear of hardship, not afraid of tired, do not be afraid of their own work, do not be afraid to work hard, Work closely with colleagues, the relationship between colleagues, unity and fraternity, mutual help and mutual respect; due to their lack of work experience in the work of the lack of handling of user complaints, the work of the staff of the work of the staff, Practical experience, service work done not meticulous, this is my future2, I have been working in the company since the help of my colleagues in the care, through personal efforts and work-related experience in the accumulation of knowledge continues to expand, the ability to work has made great3, review the past two years, I seriously study the business training, and actively participate in job training, dedication, courtesy, warm service, patiently answer questions, to provide quality services to customers and continue to practice to improve their quality and business Level, grow into a qualifiedIn the future work and life, I believe that through my efforts, I will grow into a good staff, to become an example of learning for others to contribute to the自我评价管理能力（6）Time to go away, and now the work has gradually become a matter of course, this may be a blessing, is to let me worthy of nostalgia for a period of More than a month of probation down, their efforts, but also a lot of progress and learned a lot of things not previously, I think this is not only work, more importantly, gave me a chance to learn andIn the help and support of various departments, I do a good job co-ordination and upload work, to work in front, do the first, whether work capacity, or the quality of thinking has been further improved,better completed the company propaganda , Personnel management, staff training, file management, logistics services and corporate security and other aspects of the In order to strengthen the management of people, money and materials, I improved various management systems in the past, highlighted the system management, strictly according to regulations, to further clarify the work responsibilities, improve the use of official seals, paper use, computer use, leave, duty Various routine management, fully reflects the management of people do not thinking, the workDo a good job in office work, have a high theoretical quality and analytical ability to solve Learning through various means, for which the offices are equipped with computers, the use of online resources to learn and work-related knowledge, and constantly broaden their horizons, rich minds, enhance their ability to keep up with the development of the situation to meet the needs of the Improve the theoretical level, professional quality and ability toWilling to work with others, have a strong teamwork skills; strong sense of responsibility, and indeed complete the work of the leadership of the delivery, the work of the work of self- And the company colleagues to work together, harmonious and harmonious relations, with the head of the department successfully completed the work in the ____ work days, I gradually fell in love with this place, like the job, I would like to grow up here slowly become a qualified official __-x in the staff, a month of study and work, so I grew up a lot in the future I will continue to work, as always, to maintain a fine style, constantly Improve themselves, to make someFour years of university study, learn more professional basic knowledge and then is a self-learning ability, and practical experience, social experience is very As a graduate, the beginning of the company, have been very worried about how I do not know how to coexist, how to do a good job, but the company relaxed and harmonious working atmosphere, good learning development opportunities, so I quickly completed from students to staff . Can correctly face the setback, dialectical look at the Work can always maintain a positive attitude, and strive toThe past year is a year of constant learning and enrichment, a year of active exploration and gradual Of course, entering the workplace, inevitably lack of experience in business knowledge, and their own work requirements there are still some But these experiences also let me continue to mature, in dealing with a variety of issues to consider a more comprehensive, professional skills have been Here, I would like to thank the leadership of the company and my colleagues to cultivate the guidance of my induction and help, for their mistakes in my work reminders and I also know that graduation is only a small step in school, society is a real In future work, I will strive to identify their own position, to do their best to contribute to the company for the company to create realwealth, but also for their own to seek a greater自我评价管理能力（7）Work has been in the unit leaders carefully nurtured and taught, through their own continuous efforts, whether ideological, learning or work, have made considerable development and great achievements, now> work summarized as follows:We should actively participate in political studies, adhere to the four basic principles, uphold the party's principles and policies, and consciously abide by the laws and At work, I have been working in a certain department, department, And other departments work, no matter where they are, demanding their own, assiduously business, strive to become With such a firm conviction, I have been proficient in savings, accounting, planning, credit cards, a loan and other services, a ____ line of businessLearning, since I joined the work, I never give up learning theoretical knowledge and business I graduated from the school because of financial school, just work I use my spare time self-study college, and graduated in ____, but I did not meet the status quo, but also in the ____ self-study Northeastern University financial undergraduate, due to hard work,Excellent, fully affirmed by the teacher in the study, is currently actively preparing for thesis Not only to master and improve the financial knowledge, but also has a certain theoretical level, fully meet the standards of undergraduate Learning theory at the same time, more research business, the financial knowledge learned into the work to go, so that the level of business continues to increase, and in the year to participate in the National Intermediate Economist qualification examination, passed the same line was hired as an intermediate division .In the years of business knowledge examination, each accounting business qualification examinations have reached aFinally, I would like to say is that the above is only a little achievement in my work, which unit of leadership and the help of colleagues are I always firmly believe that the words "a match and then bright, and only a large light beans, but if a match to lit a pile of matches, it will be " I want to use my bright youth, to ignite the excitement of everyone around, inspire colleagues to inspire together for our cause dedication, marry meritorious service,自我评价管理能力（8）Three years of sales experience taught me the basic idea of communication with others, smiling others, in good faith to In order to have a better practice platform, I will continue to exercise to improve themselves and I hope to use my beautiful youth, to ignite the surrounding every guest for our cause dedication, progress, a betterI love the industry in this industry, through the efforts to enhance my confidence in this industry, to do a salesman is not my goal, I want to develop a higher level of work, through the work of learning and hard work, whether ideological , Study or work, have made considerable development and great harvest, I will be more efforts to strive for moreI love the sales industry, through the efforts to enhance my confidence in this industry, to do a salesman is not my goal, I want to develop a higher level of work, through the work of learning and hard work, whether it is ideological , Study or work, have made considerable development and great harvest, I will be more efforts to strive for moreIn the work, a strong sense of responsibility, adaptability, enthusiasm, careful work, good coordination and communication skills, good at communication, have a certain leadership; in character, honesty, loyalty, kindness, modesty, optimism; In the business, with overall business processing and good professional自我评价管理能力（9）有效管理者管理能力的自我评价测验本测验有十个问题，每一个问题答案都有ABCDE五种选择，你认为自己符合哪种情况，就在相应的字母上画个圈，如我“非常了解”则选A。
欧洲文化入门复习资料
1、Two major elements in European culture：the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian element.2、The Homer epics consists of the Iliad and theOdyssey.The Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece，led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy. The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek. In the final battle，Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks.The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home island of Ithaca. It describes many adventures he ran into on his long sea voyage and how finally he was reunited with his faithful wife Penelope.3、古希腊三大悲剧家：Aeschylus, Sophocles,EuripidesWorks of Aeschylus：Prometheus Bound，Persians，and Agamemnon .There are only two actors and one chorus in these plays. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry.Works of Sophocles：Oedipus the King，Electra，and Antigone （theme：the difficult choice between public duty and private feeling）. He has had a great impact on European culture. The Oedipus complex（恋母情结）、Electra（恋父情结）were derived from his plays Work of Euripides：Andromache，Medea，and Trojan Women. He was more of a realist than other two. His characters are less heroic，more like ordinary people. He may be called the first writer of “problem plays”4.Herodotus is often called “Father of History”，wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians . His history is full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue.5.Thucydides is more accurate as an historian. He told about the war between Athens and Syracuse ，a Greek state on the island of Sicily. He traced events to their causes and brought out their effects. Macaulay called Thucydides “the greatest historian that ever lived”6.Pythagoras was a bold thinker who had the idea that all things were numbers. He was t he founder of scientific mathematics.7.Heracleitus believed fire to be the primary element of the universe，out of which everything else had arisen. To him,“all is flux，nothing is stationary”. He alsosaid，“you cannot step twice into the same river；for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you. The sun is new everyday”he held the theory of the mingling of opposites and believed that it was the strife between the opposites that produced harmony. 8.Democtitus speculated about the atomic structure of matter. Indeed，he was one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory. He was one of the earliest philosophical materialists and Marx`s first published work was a study of Democritus.9Socrates taught Plato，who taught Aristotle. They were active in Athens in the 5th and the 4th century B.C.Socrates was known through Dialogues by Plato. Socrates liked to talk with people in the marketplace and in the streets ，asking and answering questions. He was ready to discuss anything in heaven and earth，specializing in exposing fallacies. When words like justice ，religiousness，virtue，wisdom，ect. Were used by others，he would ask the speaker to explain them and then dissect the answers to show how they were wrong and or illogical. This method of argument，byquestioning and answering，has come to be known as the dialectical method.Plato showed himself a brilliant stylist，writing with wit and grace. His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. His other works: Apology（Socrates` defense of himself at the trial），Symposium （about beauty and love），and the Republic（about the ideal state ruled by a philosopher but barring poets）Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. It dealt with the problems of how，in the complex，ever —changing the world，men were to attain knowledge. The reply he gave was：men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general“ideas”，like beauty，truth，goodness. Only these ideas are completely real，while the physical world is only relatively real. For this reason，Plato`s philosophy is called Idealism. Many of his ideas were absorbed into Christian thoughtAristotle studied in Plato`s Academy for years. Later he became the tutor of Alexander the Macedonian King. In him the great humanist and the great man of science meet. On logic, moral philosophy，politics，metaphysics（形而上学），psychology，physics，zoology，poetry，rhetoric，he wrote epoch-making works，which dominated Europe thought for more than a thousand years. He did much to form，through his various and diverse interpreters，the philosophical，scientific and cosmological outlook of an entire world. Dante called him “the master of those who know”His works：Ethics（an introduction to moral philosophy），Politics，Poetics（a treatise on literary theory），and Rhetoric （dealing with the art of persuading an audience）Aristotle differed from his teacher in following ways：for one thing，Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato`s reliance on subjective thinking；also，he thought that “form”（idea）and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here ，he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical worldAristotle thought happiness that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason，goodness and contemplation should be a man`s aim in life.10.contending schools of thought:百家争鸣The Cynics：got their name because Diogenes，one of their leaders，decided to live like a dog and the word “cynic”means“dog”in Greek. He rejected all conventions—whether of religion，of manner，dress，housing，food，or of decency. In fact，he lived by begging. He proclaimed his brotherhood，not only with the whole human race，but also with animals. On the other hand，he had no patience with the rich and the powerfulThe Sceptics （诡辩学家）followed Pyrrhon，who heldthat not all knowledge was attainable. Hence he and his followers doubted t the truth of what others accepted as true.The Epicureans were disciples of Epicurus，whobelieved pleasure to be the highest good in life，butby pleasure he meant，not sensual enjoyment，butfreedom from pain and emotional upheaval. Thishe thought could be attained by the practice of virtue.His teaching wa s misunderstood by later peopleand the word“Epicurean”has come to meanindulgence in luxurious living. Epicuruswas a materialist.Opposed to the Epicureans were the Stoics. To them，the most important thing in life was not pleasure，but duty. This developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief Stoic was Zeno. He was also a materialist，asserting the existence of the real world. He believed that there is no such thing as chance，and that the course of nature is rigidly determined by natural laws. In the life of an individual man，virtue is the solo good；such things as health，happiness，possessions，are of no account. Since virtue resides in the will，everything good or bad in a man`s life depends only upon himself. If he has to die, he should die nobly，like Socrates.Greek architecture three styles：a.the Doric style （masculine style. powerful, sturdy, showing a good sense of propotion）, the Ionic style(feminine style), the Corinthian style(oranmental luxury)There famous temples: the Acropplis at Athens, the Parthenon.The impact of Greek culture: a,The Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other Eruropean countries.b. The Greeks invented mathematics and science and phylosophy. Their spirt of innovation had immence influence in later generations c. The Greek is the birthland of the democracy. d.They set a great example of thinking rationally and logically. e. In literature, they have exerted an influence which can be still felt today. Epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, lyric poetry, historical writing f.architecture, sculpture.Romans and Greeks异同：Common:a. Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of cittizen-assembly, hostile to monarchy and to servility. b. Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified-Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with Roman Venus, and so on-and their myth to be fused. c.Their languages worked in similar ways, and were ultimately related, both being members of the Indo-European language family which stretches from Banglandesh to Iceland. Difference: a.The Romans built up a vast empire: The Greeks didn’t. b.The Romans were confident in their military and administrative capabilities. c.The Greeks enjoyed an artistic and intellectural inheritance much richer than the Romans.Roman peace: The emperors relied on a strong army-the famous Roman regions-and an efficient bureaucracy to exert their rule, which was facilitated by a well-developed system of roads. Thus the Romans enjoyed a long period of oece lasting 200 years, a remarkable phenomenon in history known as the Pax Romana.Virgil:The greatest of Latin poet, wrote the greatest epic, the Aeneid.Tragic hero: Aeneas was a truely tragic hero because to fufil his hitoric mission he had to betray the great passion of his life. While he gained an empire, his love for Dido, qyeen of Carhage. While he gained an empire, he lost something no empire could compensate, happiness in life.The Colosseum:斗兽场It is an enormous amphitheatre built in the centre of Rome in imperial times. It held more than 5000 spectatots.The relationship between Judaism and Christianity: They are closely related. the Jewish tradition gave birth to Christianity. Both originated in Palestine-thehub of migration and trade toutes, which led to exchange of ideas over wide areas.The bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament.The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. Consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books called Pentateuch.The Pentateuch.(摩西五经)：Genesis: a religious account of the origin of the Hebrew people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career of Isosa and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph. (The fall of man, Noah’s ark)Exodus: a riligious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt, the period when they began to receive God’s Law. Leviticus: a collection of primitive laws. Numbers: a continuation of the account of the flight from Egypt with two censuses about the Exodus. Deuteronomy: the final words of Moses to his people, restating his orders and fifty years’ experiences as a leader.The spread of Christianity:it spread steadily over the Mediterranean region, instead of being poor people’s religion in the earlier days, it began to draw men and women from all classes. The Romans grew tired of war and feared the collapse of the empire. A war was won by Constantine, he believed that God had helped him in winning the battle, issued the Edict of Milan in 313. it granted religious freedom to all and made Christianity legal. later seeing it the hope of moral solidarity, Constantine renounced pretensions to divinity. In 392AD, Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all other religions.The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. His disciples in the first century wrote down in Greek about his life and teaching.Four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of the Christianity. The four accounts were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark, Luck,and John, four of Jesus’s early fellows. They tell of the birth, teaching, death, and Resurrection of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles, a history of the early Christian movement; the Epistles, or the letters to the church groups around Mediterranean; the book of Revelation,启示录：a visionary account of the final triumph of God’s purpose.The Old Testament was written in Hebrew, and the New Testament was written in Greek.The most ancient Latin version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition by St. Jerome.But the most important and influential of the English Bible is the “Authorized” or the King James version. The New Testament is，in essence (实质上)，the four accounts (四福音书)，written by the four disciples.弟子The word “Testament”means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.The New Testament: T he Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ.⑴. The Middle Ages: a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged. The fusion and blending of different ideas and practices paved the way for the development of what is the present- day European culture.（名词解释）In European history，the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.⑵. Feudalism: it in Europe was mainly a systemof land holding---a system of land holding in exchangefor military service. “Feudalism”was derived fromthe Latin “feudum”, a grant of land. It is also a systemof government ---a form of local and decentralizedgovernment.Feudalism was also a system of government---a formof local and decentralized government. This is a periodin which classical,Hebrew and Gothic heritagesmerged.And it is this fusion and blending of different ideas andpractices that paved the way for the development ofwhat is the present-day European culture.⑶. The church:after 1054, the church wasdivided into the Roman Catholic Church and theEastern Orthodox Church. The Catholic Church madeLatin the official language In the medieval “age offaith”, almost all Europeans belonged to the Christian(Catholic) Church. Religion was of great importance invirtually every phrase of daily life. The word“catholic”, meant “universal”. The Catholic Churchwas a highly centralized and disciplined internationalorganization.政教合一⑷. Lay members of Catholic Church: pope教皇--- supreme head; college of cardinals---elected pope,served as advisors, next in power to pope; archbishops大主教---province, bishops主教---diocese区, priests牧师---parish教区; religious orders---militarymonastic, lived in monasteries (abbeys) governed byabbots.⑸.Early Monasticism(早期修道院制)：Between300 and 500 A.D.，many men withdrew from worldlycontacts to deserts and lonely places. This movementdeveloped into the establishment of monasteries andconvents for monks and nuns. Some of the hermits (隐士)were great scholars known as “Father of theChurch”，whose work is generally consideredorthodox.(东正教)A noble champion of early monasticism was St.Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old andNew Testaments from the Hebrew and Greeksoriginals.His translation work, the Vulgate, becamethe official Latin Bible used by the Roman CatholicChurch of this day.⑹. Augustine of Hippo: The Confession, The Cityof God. （the Roman’s fall was a punishment forhaving become rich and corrupt and for havingpersecuted Christians.⑺.the crusades十字军东征(went on about 200years) :The Objectives of the crusades was at first torelease the Holy Land, in particular Jerusalem, fromthe Saracens, but in time was extended to seizingSpain from the Moors, the Slavs and Pagans fromeastern Europe, and the islands of the Mediterranean.原因：in 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of theTurkish Moslems who attacked the Christian pilgrimsto Jerusalem, killing many of them and sold manyothers as slaves. News of this kind roused greatindignation among Christians in Western Europe. Theresult was a series of holy was called crusades thatwent on about 200 years.后果：by 1291 the Moslems had taken over the lastChristian strongland. They won the crusades and ruledall the territory in Palestine that the crusades hadfought to control.影响：①although the crusades have not achievetheir goal to regain the holy land, they had animportant effect on the future of both the east and thewest. They brought the east into closer contact with thewest. And they greatly influenced the history ofEurope.②during the wars while many of the feudallords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home foundopportunities to strengthen themselves, thus amongother things, crusades helped to break down feudalism,which in turn led to the rise of the monarchies.③through their contact with the more culturedByzantines and Moslems, the western Europeanschanged many of their old ideas. Their desire forwealth or power began to overshadow their religiousideals. ④the crusades also resulted in renewingpeople’s interest in learning and invention. By the13th century, universities, which grew from cathedralschools, had spread all over Europe.⑻Charlemagne, among many other things he did,encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools,giving support to scholars and setting scribes to workcopying various ancient books.The result of Charlemagne’s efforts is called theCarolingian Renaissance. The most interesting facetof this rather minor Renaissance is the spectacle ofFrankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilatethe riches of the Roman Classical and theChristianized Hebraic culture.⑼christianism基督教: Catholicism天主教,Orthodox Church东正教; Protestantism基督新教⑽Beowulf is an Anglo-Saxon epic, originating fromthe collective efforts oral literature.⑾Dante Alighieri and the divine comedy: one of thelandmarks of world literature. 实质The greatestChristian poem with a profound vision of the medievalChristian world, expresses humanistic ideas whichforeshadowed the spirit of Renaissance; 影响wrotehis masterpiece in Italian rather in latin, influenceddecisively the evolution of European literature awayfrom its origins in latin culture to a new variedexpression.The fall of the Western Roman Empire: in the latterpart of the 4th century, the Huns swept into Europe ,robbing and killing as they came along,, manycivilized Germanic tribes fled their homelands in northEurope and were rushed into the Roman Empire.In476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the lastRoman emperor and took control of the government.。
英语四级
英语四级It is perhaps human nature to be drawn towards fame and wealth. In order to become successful, one must learn to struggle in the shadow land of dreams---a deep forest that can swallow up those who swing and hesitate. Only the determined stand a chance of making it.I wasn’t going to be one of those people who die wondering, I would keep putting my dream to the test---even though it meant living with uncertainty and fear of failure.Some psychologists believe that one’s state of mind has great influen ce over one’s social and intellectual performance and the quality of life depends much on one’s attitude towards life. By simply choosing optimism, we can lead a better life.True forgiveness is hard to achieve, especially when we believe we’ve been hurt too deeply. But many of us may not know that our life needs forgiveness, forgiveness helps establish harmonious relationships between human beings.Before we become other people’s judge and jury, we’d be wise to take a long, hard look at ourselves in the mirror.A genuine smile may have the power to heal broken relationships and unite distant souls.In that instant, it was as though a spark jumped across the gap between our two hearts.We tend to take what we have for granted, and seldom do we think about the value of life. Yet, Helen Keller, being both blind and deaf, taught us how to make the fullest use of our wonderful sense to appreciate life from a whollydifferent view---with love and passion.Such story set us thinking, wondering what we should do under similar circumstances. What events, what experiences, what associations, should we crowed into those last hours as mortal beings? What happiness should we find in reviewing the past, what regrets?Sometime I have thought it would be an excellent rule to live each day as if we should die tomorrow. Such an attitude would emphasize sharply the value of live. We should live each day as with a gentleness, a vigor, and a keenness of appreciation which are often lost when time stretches before us in the constant panorama of more days and months and years to come.Most of us take life for granted. We know that one day we must die, but usually we picture that day as far in the future. When we are in good health, death is all but unimaginable, we seldom think of it. The days stretch out endlessly, so we go about our petty tasks, hardly aware of our listless attitude towards life.Only the deaf appreciate hearing, only the blind realize the blessing that lie in sight. But those who have never suffered loss of sight or hearing damage seldom make the fullest use of these blessed faculties. Their eyes and ears take in all sights and sounds hazily, without concentration and with little appreciation. It is the same old story of not being conscious of health until we are ill.I have often thought it would be a blessing if each human being were stricken blind and deaf for a few days at some time during his early adult life. Darkness would make him more appreciate of sight, silence would teach him the joys of sound.It’s human, perhaps to appreciate little that which we have and to long for that which we have not, but it is a great pity that in the world of light, the gift of sight is used only as a mere convenience rather than as a means of adding fullness to life.Many tend to believe that the only thing we need for success are talent, energy and personality. Yet, the story of the young and competent executive in the following text demonstrates that such values as integrity, honesty and loyalty are even more essential for our success and happiness.Nature nurtures mankind unselfishly with its rich resources. Yet, man is so carried away in his transformation of nature that he is unaware that it also has limitations and needs constant care. Now worn by the excessive demands of mankind, nature is unable to maintain the ecological balance needed. Humanity is faced with the problem of how to stop, or at least to moderate the destruction of Mother Nature.In the present era, all of us are enthusiastically pursuing technological advancement and take it for granted that the development of technology will make us happier. However, little evidence can be found to prove the correlation between technology and happiness once material and technological advances reach a certain level.Man and wildlife are supposed to live in harmony, but human intrusion has driven a large number of species to extinction. It is high time that we took up the cause of wildlife conservation, otherwise, the price for us to pay in the future will be extremely high.Nowadays, great concern has arisen over the negative impact of technology on various aspects of life. Who is to blame for the negative impact, technology or the person who uses it?…… is always a “ hot” issue in discussions nowadays. A lot has been said and written about it. The defenders of technology are as many as the opponents of it.Technology is neither good nor bad. It depends on how we use it. I strongly believe that it is time for us to understand that the responsibility belongs exclusively to humans who have to acquire a social conscience, to respect human beings, nature and its balance.The acquisition of knowledge is self-contradictory by nature. The more one knows, the more he knows how litter he knows. Reading often leads to more questions than answers, writing opens things up rather than closes them off.The truth, as they say, is out there, but, maybe, like the rainbow, we can never really grasp it, never hold it in our hands and truly know it. We can only, as William Ja mes said,”live today by what we can get today and be ready to call it false hold tomorrow”.We know that easy access to more information than what we ever possibly dreamed of. Huge amounts of data move around the globe at incredible speed. Yet, knowledge transfer requires more than just technology. Lack of trust and resistance to change are the two major barriers to knowledge transfer.You stand a greater chance of being satisfied with your work if you put time and thought into your choice and if you actively take steps toward finding a career or an occupation that will bring more enrichment to your life than it will disruption. Ultimately, you are the person who can best decide what you want in your work.Stick it out= stay the course 坚持到底View sb. From a … perspective 从…角度来看某人When all is said and done 结果，说到底，归根结底In terms of … 从…角度来讲Channel sth. into sth. 把… 导向Find it in oneself o do sth. 愿意做某事Put sb. in control 让人能自控Do sb. wrong 中伤某人，冤枉某人At peace with 保持友好、和谐、平静Warts and all 不隐瞒缺点的Be integrated with each other in a dialectical manner 有机结合，辩证统一Have a great deal of physical energy 精力充沛Convergent/divergent thinking 求同/求异思维To switch from one perspective to another 从一个角度转换到另一个角度A deeply-rooted sense of reality 根深蒂固的现实感In the thick of crowds 呆在茫茫人海中Sitting on the sidelines 独坐一旁On the shoulders of giants 站在巨人的肩上Without regard to 不管不顾In this regard 在这一方面A lack of nerve 缺乏冒险精神Play save games 做四平八稳的事Lack credibility 缺乏可靠性Have a low threshold of pain 对痛苦的容忍很低Being alone at the forefront of a discipline 独自站在学科的前沿Developing a theory 发展一个理论Dry out 用尽枯竭Working in the area of his or her expertise 在自己擅长的领域工作Fall away 消失Striving for perfection 追求完美For the sake of sb. /sth. 为……的好处着想Chip away mental locks 消除思想枷锁More often than not 经常多半In reserve 备用的To the best of one’s ability 力所能及，竭尽全力Get in the way of sth. 妨碍某人做某事In view of 考虑到，由于，鉴于In line with 和……一致的Follow the herd 随大流Assess/ judge sth. on its own merits 对……客观评价To somebody’s credit 为某人带来荣誉，值得赞扬Chances are high that 很有可能Drive sb. to sth 驱使某人处于……状况Haul/pull oneself up by one’s (own) boot straps 靠自己的努力改善境遇Nurse sb./sth through sth 悉心照料….使之过渡Be a matter of survival 事关生存Racked one’s brains about sth 为……绞尽脑汁Purely in economic term 纯粹从经济方面Taking others’ help for granted 认为别人的帮助理所当然Sort out 把…分类，整理Stop in one’s tracks 就地停住To such an extend 到这样的程度以致Comply with 服从，依从In the strict sense 从严格意义上讲Could not care less = not at allFreedom from compulsion 摆脱强制Division of labor 劳动分工Be coincide with 与…一致，相符It’s not a coincidence that I do not coincide with you in politics 我和你政见不同这并非偶然Take the initiative 主动Undertake the initiative 采取措施Go in for 参加比赛等Sink/get one’s teeth into sth. 埋头做，认真做Stripping down to bare happiness 只留下简单快乐Curtail consumption 削减开支Were all of a piece 类似的，一样的Domestic electric appliance 家用电器Socially sanctioned irrational behavior 社会公认的不理智的行为Life is unpredictable 生活是不可预测的Break the news to sb. 把消息透露给某人Practice makes perfect.熟能生巧。
翻译本质的关联理论诠释
（申请文学硕士学位论文）Interpreting the Nature ofTranslation Based onRelevance Theory培养单位：外国语学院学科专业：外国语言学及应用语言学研究生：黄琼指导老师：王达金教授2005年05月分类号密 级UDC 学校代码 10497题目 翻译本质的关联理论诠释 英文 Interpreting the Nature of Translation题目Based on Relevance Theory研究生姓名黄 琼姓名王达金职称教授指导教师单位名称外国语学院 邮编 430070申请学位级别硕士学科专业名称外国语言学及应用语言学论文提交日期 2005-05 论文答辩日期 2005-05学位授予单位武汉理工大学学位授予日期答辩委员会主席评阅人2005年 5 月中文摘要翻译是一种跨文化的交际方式，关联理论这一指导交际的认知语用学理论对翻译极富解释力。
在关联理论的框架内，翻译是一个对原语进行阐释的动态明示--推理过程(孟建钢，2000：25)。
首先，译者要正确理解原语作者的意图，就要在接受原语信息的过程中通过语境来寻找信息的关联，即做出语境假设。
寻找关联的过程是一个认知与推理的过程。
之后，译者结合原交际意图和目标读者的期望，再根据关联性原则决定阐释什么和如何阐释。
关联理论的翻译观对翻译问题的解释是动态的，辨证的，它抓住翻译的本质，对翻译实践有着积极的指导意义。
本文拟从Gutt 对翻译的定义入手，就关联理论对翻译本质的诠释做一番探讨。
指出翻译是涉及大脑机制的动态推理过程，其中关联性起着关键作用。
译者对原语的理解和翻译过程中对语码的选择所依据的原则是关联。
在关联理论框架下，翻译是对原语的动态的阐释性使用，翻译原则应是相对的和多重的，翻译策略的选择应是灵活的，主要取决于原语作者的交际意图和读者的期望。
全文共分五个部分。
第一章介绍了关联理论的几个重要观点，包括交际的明示--推理本质，交际意图和信息意图，语境，关联性和关联原则。
辩证唯物主义英文
辩证唯物主义英文Dialectical Materialism: Understanding the Core Principles of MarxismIntroductionDialectical Materialism, also known as Marxist philosophy or Historical Materialism, is a theoretical framework developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It is a philosophical worldview and method that aims to understand the dynamics of society, history, and the natural world. Dialectical Materialism is the philosophical foundation of Marxism and provides a comprehensive understanding of the material conditions and social relations that shape human existence. This article aims to explore the core principles of Dialectical Materialism and their significance in understanding social, economic, and historical phenomena.1. Materialism and DialecticsAt the core of Dialectical Materialism lies the principle of materialism. Materialism posits that the material world and its laws are the primary reality, and the basis for understanding the social, economic, and historical processes. Dialectics, on the other hand, refers to the method of analyzing contradictions, conflicts, and the development of phenomena through the interaction of opposing forces. Dialectics views the world as constantly changing, and all things are in a state of motion and development.2. Historical MaterialismHistorical Materialism is a key concept in Dialectical Materialism, which seeks to analyze the historical development of human society and the underlying material conditions that shape it. It argues that the economic structure of society, known as the mode of production, determines the social, political, and ideological superstructure. Historical Materialism identifies several distinct historical stages, such as primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and ultimately, communism. Each stage represents a different mode of production and the corresponding social relations.3. Class Struggle and RevolutionDialectical Materialism recognizes the existence of class struggle, a fundamental contradiction in capitalist society. It argues that the bourgeoisie, the ruling class, exploits the proletariat, the working class, and this exploitation leads to social inequality and conflict. Dialectical Materialism predicts that the contradictions within capitalism will eventually lead to a revolution by the working class, overthrowing the capitalist system and establishing a socialist society. This revolution is seen as a necessary step towards communism, where class distinctions and exploitation cease to exist.4. Unity of Theory and PracticeDialectical Materialism emphasizes the unity of theory and practice, rejecting the separation of knowledge and action. It argues that theoretical understanding of the world should be linked to practical efforts to change it. This unity of theory and practice is reflected in the Marxist principle of praxis, which advocates for the application of theory in the real world to transform society. Dialectical Materialism encourages critical analysis and action-oriented engagement to bring about social change.5. Critique of IdealismDialectical Materialism also critiques idealism, which places emphasis on abstract ideas and consciousness as the primary drivers of history. It argues that ideas are rooted in material conditions and the social relations of production. According to Dialectical Materialism, the material base of society shapes the superstructure, including ideas, culture, and ideology. This critique of idealism reinforces the materialist perspective and underscores the importance of understanding the material conditions in shaping society.ConclusionDialectical Materialism provides a comprehensive and dialectical understanding of the material conditions, social relations, and historical development of human society. It offers insights into the dynamics of class struggle, the revolutionary potential of the working class, and the importance of the unity of theory and practice. By emphasizing the material basis of society and the interplay of contradictions, Dialectical Materialismprovides a powerful analytical tool for understanding and transforming the world. As a foundational principle of Marxism, it continues to inspire and guide social and political movements seeking to create a more just and equitable society.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版 练习题 参考答案之欧阳治创编
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and datawithout being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, itwould be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. 9. What are the major functions of language? Think ofyour own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.” The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild],and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound isunaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and openvowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p] B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolarliquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Becauseone of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the nextsound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varyingpronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the co nsonant that follows it. Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, andparadigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just likephonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays,motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexample s : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic we apons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counter productive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the headN, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can becoordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed. Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existenceis implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure? There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det N d) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PP b) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of varioustypes. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the Englishexam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure) Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speakerutters it and the response it calls fort h in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling,。
论中风起于_过用_刘耀东
11《素问·经脉别论篇》中曰：“故春秋冬夏，四时阴阳，生病起于过用，此为常也。
”所谓生病起于过用，是指凡超过人体适应限度，包括天气、七情、饮食、劳倦等，使脏腑气血损伤者，皆为之。
中风之发病当然也亦起于“过用”， 笔者不揣浅见，对于中风发病原因，试分述如下，与同道商榷。
1 “六气”过用中医认为，自然与人是同生共长的，自然界的运行规律与人体生命运行一致，《素问·四气调神大论第二》[1]曰：“夫四时阴阳者，万物之根本也，所以圣人春夏养阳，秋冬养阴，以从其根。
故与万物沉浮于生长之门。
”指出四时阴阳的变化，是万物生命的根本。
故医圣张仲景云：“春应肝而养生，夏应心而养长，长夏应脾而变化，秋应肝而养收，冬应肾而养藏。
”这是适应自然界的规律，人应之则不会生病或少生病。
若是违逆这个规律，若太过，如冬寒过甚，夏热过甚，秋燥过甚等，再加上人体气血不足，脉络空虚，或人体形胜气衰，痰湿素盛，过用之六气使得人体无法适应，风邪则乘虚入中经络，或外风引动痰湿，闭阻经络等而致中风发作。
现代医学证明天气骤冷时可出现血管收缩，血压升高，可能使血管破裂致脑溢血。
秋冬气温低，气压高，气候干燥，体表水分蒸发快，体内的红血球压积和血黏稠度增高，血流速度减慢，加上血管收缩的时间相对延长，可使血液浓缩，易发生中风等。
2 七情过用中医认为，七情生于五脏，正常的七情有利于五脏功能的发挥，如喜能使气血条达，营卫通利，但若情志刺激过度，超过人体适应的限度时，则表现过用，造成人体阴阳失衡，气血逆乱，情志过极不仅影响到脏腑功能，也会造成人体阴阳失衡，《灵枢》中记载：“悲哀忧愁则心动，心动则五脏六腑皆摇，怒则气上，喜则气缓，悲则气消，恐则气下，惊则气乱，思则气结”之说。
脑中风发作同样由于五志过极，心火暴盛，或素体阴虚，水不涵木，复因情志所伤，肝阳暴动，引动心火，风火相煽，气血上逆，遂卒倒无知。
正如《素问·玄机原病式·火类》云：“多因喜怒思悲恐之五志有所过极而卒中者，皆为热甚故也。
新编《简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版 课后练习题 答案Chapter 1 Introduction1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language a s the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speechis prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its usersto record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languagesthat can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and tohim competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett toshow that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech i s more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think willbe more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?–答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are。
历史唯物主义、实践唯物主义、辩证唯物主义
历史唯物主义、实践唯物主义、辩证唯物主义英文版Historical Materialism, Practical Materialism, Dialectical MaterialismIn the realm of philosophical and political thought, three closely related yet distinct concepts stand out: Historical Materialism, Practical Materialism, and Dialectical Materialism. Each of these terms has a unique place in understanding the interplay between material conditions and ideological, social, and historical developments.Historical Materialism focuses on the material conditions of society and how they shape historical change. This theory emphasizes the primacy of economic relations in determining the course of history. According to Historical Materialism, the development of productive forces and the emergence of new classes and conflicts within society drive historical progress. Thisperspective offers a materialist explanation for the rise and fall of different modes of production and social systems.Practical Materialism, on the other hand, underscores the importance of practical activity in shaping knowledge and understanding. This approach highlights the role of human agency in interacting with the material world and transforming it through purposeful action. Practical Materialism emphasizes the practical nature of human existence and the need to ground theoretical understanding in practical experience and activity.Dialectical Materialism combines the materialist analysis of historical development with the dialectical method of understanding change. This approach views the world as a dynamic interplay of opposing forces that are constantly in motion and transformation. Dialectical Materialism emphasizes the unity of opposites and the role of contradictions in driving historical progress. It sees change as the result of the interaction between internal contradictions within social and material systems.Collectively, these three concepts provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the material basis of historical, social, and ideological developments. They highlight the interconnectedness of economic, political, and cultural factors in shaping the course of history and the role of human agency in transforming social conditions. By examining these concepts, we can gain a deeper understanding of the material forces that shape our world and the dialectical nature of historical change.中文版历史唯物主义、实践唯物主义、辩证唯物主义在哲学和政治思想领域中，有三个密切相关但又有所区别的概念：历史唯物主义、实践唯物主义和辩证唯物主义。
思想录书评
Author of"Thought" is one of the most excellent mathematical scientists in seventeenth Century . His theory embodies consist in " T hought".On one hand,it inherits and carries forward the rationalism tradition to criticize everything.On the other hand, under the leading thought of all truth bound to the contradiction of the form and present,he points out the rational inherent contradictions and its limits.This book is unique to elucidate a wide range of problems on human nature and the world,life,society,history,philosophy, religious issues. For example, human vulnerability, it wrote:" a little thing can comfort us, because a little thing can hurt us. Some evil is just because the sake of others is entrenched in our body, and pull off the trunk, they will like the branches to come off." There are a lot of philosophical discourses, with dialectical relationship to prove, making me benefit a lot, increasing my knowledge, making us step out of the misunderstanding. As we look at things,it not only provides reference, but also provides a method, making you out of the ordinary.Each reading has new insights。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
均是精品，欢迎下载学习！！！ 欢迎下载百度文库资源
资料均是本人搜集 均是精品，欢迎下载学习！！！
Dmitry Ivanov St. Petersburg State University, Russia
The Past, Present and Future in the Perspective of Dialectical Theory Paper presented at the joint session of RC07 and RC16 “The Future and Sociological Theory” of the ISA XVI World Congress of Sociology
Durban, South Africa July 23 – 29, 2006 2 The conceptualization of social future is very difficult issue for traditional theory. Both structure and agency approaches can provide us only with visions of social present: extrapolation of the present or permanent and all-embracing present. Critical theory as it has been presented in H. Marcuse‟s works provides us with model of the future vision through dialectical negation: there are marginal and oppressed radical values and utopian movements contradicting dominant structures of the present society that are sources of development of the established social system. Oppressed anti-social movements of the present are not transforming but are conditioning direction of transformation towards future dominant structures and patterns of agency. The driving forces of dialectical theory – negation and utopia have enabled critical sociology developed by Marcuse to reveal the direction of the modern society change in the mid-20th century. Utopia of „Reason‟ (rationalized society) formulated in the 1930s was extracted from radical revolutionary movements (Marcuse, 1967). By the 1940s the rationalization thesis had become an affirmative discourse for arising organized capitalism. Utopia of „Eros‟ (desublimated society) formulated in the 1950s as dialectical antithesis for rationalization was extracted from marginal values and alternative life-styles of esthetic communities and hedonistic subcultures of radical intellectuals (Marcuse, 1973). By the 1960s the concept of desublimation became descriptive and affirmative idea for affluent consumerist capitalism. Utopia of „Post-technological rationality‟ (open multidimensional society) formulated in the 1960s as dialectical synthesis combining both „Reason‟ and „Eros‟ was extracted from movements of difference: antimilitarist, feminist, ecologist, for civil rights of ethnic and sexual minorities (Marcuse, 1964). By the end of the 20th century the concept of post-technological rationality became affirmative discourse for postindustrial and postmodernist capitalism. The dialectical theory developed by Marcuse was successful in revealing the direction to the future in marginal, socially negative tendencies of the present. But which are negating tendencies now if the social present for critical sociology – reified society is now the social past? Our present is de-reification – virtualization of society (Ivanov, 2000). One may speak about virtualization of society for the human essence is alienated not in the social but in the virtual reality. In a virtual reality of any kind a person deals not with a real object / thing, but with a simulation / image. A person who finds himself/herself in a social reality, takes it seriously, perceives it like something naturally given which he/she has to live in. A person immersed in a virtual reality enthusiastically plays in it, realizing its conventionality, conditionality of its parameters and the possibility of quitting it. Today the virtual reality logic become a paradigmatic one for any human activity and computer technologies as the most efficient simulation tools become the infrastructure of that 3 activity. The virtualization imperative, a “will to virtuality”, is transforming all domains of activities as they gained shape in the process of modernization. Images of consumer values, and not real things, circulate in the Postmodern market. The very economic process, i. e. value production leaves design bureaus and assembly lines and is transferred to marketing departments, agencies, media studios and so on. It is economical predominance of images that provokes an unprecedented expansion of speculative stock market that turns in a self-sufficient industry. The credit system makes solvency not so much a function of possessing real assets as a function of image of financial trustworthiness that both individuals and financial institutions functionaries can simulate. Credit cards owners and banks, even meeting the reserve requirements, are the solvency simulators as they operate by the fictious, virtual 'total money' - monetary aggregate M3. The virtual production, virtual corporation, and virtual money allow to make computer networks the main means and environment for economic activities. Under the Postmodern conditions the struggle for power is more and more waged in the form of TV debates and advertising. Rating and image-makers, press-secretaries, and part-time recruited show business stars put back the political party functionaries. Power becomes a function of political image. The very political process leaves party and government sessions, where programs are developed, administrative functions are assessed and controlled. The politics of today is made at the mass media studios, in PR agencies, and on the show stages. The administrating and politics get divorced. The differentiation of de-politicized professional administrators and public politicians as image carriers is an obvious symptom of a simulation of the mass democracy institutions. Having lost reality, multi-party system is simulated by experts, consultants and image-makers as a comfortable and habitual environment for competing political images. Parties that emerged as representatives of class, ethnic, confessional, regional interests, now turned into brands: emblems and advertising slogans, which attract the electorate. The brand loyalty utilization imperative drives the simulation process of the party‟s political struggle. Another symptom of simulation of the mass democracy institutions is a substitution of manipulations with ratings for appeal to the public opinion. Ratings based on a selective polls when respondents are inforced to choose variations of the expert's opinion, are only models of the real public opinion. These models are animated by the respondents, and through the media networks these simulacra become politically effective. The speculative economy of images and mediatized politics of images exemplify current human activities aimed at images rather than at real things / actions. Presented analysis of recent changes allows us to conclude that the society becomes a kind of virtual reality. When the modernist values lose their ability to be means of social integration and mobilization of interests, social institutions lose their power over an individual. Institutions become images taken in the game