语用学课件 Pragmatics 3
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❖ Put forward by Grice in the William James Lectures at Harvard University in 1967
❖ An inference from the semantic content depending on context, speaker’s intention, hearer’s attitude and the mutual assumption.
4 maxims
❖ The maxim of quantity
❖ Make your contribution as informative as required; ❖ Do not make your contribution more informative than required.
❖ The maxim of quality
❖ A: Can you tell me the time? ❖ B: Well, the milkman has just come.
❖ It seems likely to simplify the structure and the content of semantic descriptions.
❖ Psychological/ pragmatic meaning
❖
depend on the intention and feeling of
the speaker and hearer.
Grice’s theory of meaning
❖ Natural meaning(meaning-n) ❖ With no agent or intention, the meaning is
perceived naturally. X means that P entails P. ❖ Those black clouds mean rain. ❖ Those spots mean measles. ❖ Non-natural meaning (meaning-nn) ❖ Intention is involved. X means P, but it doesn’t
Kinds of communicational content
Meant-nn
said
implicated
conventionally
Non-conventionally
Non-conversationally
conversationally
generally
particularly
❖ Said vs. implicated
❖ “With some knowledge of a certain language, the speaker produces a standard grammatical sentence and this sentence, without any consideration of circumstantial factors, can be understood properly according to its conventional meaning.”
❖ CP-involved implicature
❖ (CP)
❖ A: Where is my fish? ❖ B: Oh, the cat looks happy.
❖ General vs. particular
❖ (maxim observation)
Conversational implicature
that intention (i) ❖ What is communication? ❖ Incidental transfer of information ❖ Communication proper involves intention and agency. Only
those inferences that are openly intended to be conveyed can properly be said to have been communicated.
❖ She is poor and honest.
❖ She is poor but honest.
❖ (propositional content, implication)
❖ (context-free)
❖ Non-conversational vs. conversational
❖ A poorly described class which Grice thought as derivable from the possible “aesthetic, social, or moral” maxims which he indicated exist but did not argue for in his work
The importance of CI
❖ CI stands as a paradigmatic example of the nature and power of pragmatic explanation of linguistic phenomena.
❖ It provides some explicit account of how it is possible to mean more than what is actually said.
❖ The maxim of manner
❖ Be perspicuous, and specifically:
❖
avoid obscurity
avoid ambiguity
be brief
be orderly.The Hornian system
Observation vs. violation
Conversational Implicature
Lecture 3
❖ Words are like leaves; and where they most abound, ❖ Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.
(Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism)
❖ Do not say what you believe to be false; ❖ Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
❖ The maxim of relation
❖ Make your contribution relevant.
Cooperative Principle
❖ CP---Make your contribution such as it is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
❖ The theory has a very general explanatory power: a few basic principle provide explanations for a large array of apparently unrelated facts.
❖ Metaphors, tautologies, some logical dilemma, nall—not all
Theories of meaning
❖ The referential theory claims that every sentence is a combination of words and each word stands for an object. The meaning of the word is the object the word refers to.
❖ The lone ranger jumped on his horse and rode into the sunset. ❖ The lone ranger rode into the sunset and jumped on his horse. ❖ The flag is white. ❖ The flag is white, red and blue. ❖ (ambiguous?)
necessarily entail P. ❖ The rings on the bell mean the bus is full. ❖ His cough means that he is seriously ill.
Non-natural meaning (meaning-nn)
❖ A meant something by X = A intended the utterance of X to produce some effect in an audience by means of the recognition of this intention. (Grice, in ‘Meaning’, 1957)
❖ War is war.
❖ Meaning in use, context and intention
❖ Stevenson (1963) proposes two kinds of meaning:
❖ Descriptive/ conventionwenku.baidu.coml meaning
❖
not carry the individual will and attitude
❖ The king of France is bald. ❖ The morning star is the Evening star.
❖ The distinction between a sentence and the use of a sentence
❖ “we cannot talk of the sentence being true or false, but only of its being used to make a true or false assertion, or (if this is preferred) to express a true or false proposition.” (Strawson, 1950)
❖ (truth-conditional)
❖ Conventional vs. non-conventional
❖ Simply attached by convention to particular lexical items or expressions. (but, therefore, even, yet)
❖ Observation:
❖ The CP-directed implicatures ❖ Another classic topic in Pragmatics because it
studies the unstable context-specific pragmatic overlay of that stable semantic core.
❖ S meant-nn by uttering U if and only if: ❖ (i) S intended U to cause some effect z in recipient H ❖ (ii) S intended (i) to be achieved simply by H recognizing
❖ N.B. Phrased as a prescriptive command, the principle is intended as a description of how people normally behave in conversation (different from Rhetoric).
❖ An inference from the semantic content depending on context, speaker’s intention, hearer’s attitude and the mutual assumption.
4 maxims
❖ The maxim of quantity
❖ Make your contribution as informative as required; ❖ Do not make your contribution more informative than required.
❖ The maxim of quality
❖ A: Can you tell me the time? ❖ B: Well, the milkman has just come.
❖ It seems likely to simplify the structure and the content of semantic descriptions.
❖ Psychological/ pragmatic meaning
❖
depend on the intention and feeling of
the speaker and hearer.
Grice’s theory of meaning
❖ Natural meaning(meaning-n) ❖ With no agent or intention, the meaning is
perceived naturally. X means that P entails P. ❖ Those black clouds mean rain. ❖ Those spots mean measles. ❖ Non-natural meaning (meaning-nn) ❖ Intention is involved. X means P, but it doesn’t
Kinds of communicational content
Meant-nn
said
implicated
conventionally
Non-conventionally
Non-conversationally
conversationally
generally
particularly
❖ Said vs. implicated
❖ “With some knowledge of a certain language, the speaker produces a standard grammatical sentence and this sentence, without any consideration of circumstantial factors, can be understood properly according to its conventional meaning.”
❖ CP-involved implicature
❖ (CP)
❖ A: Where is my fish? ❖ B: Oh, the cat looks happy.
❖ General vs. particular
❖ (maxim observation)
Conversational implicature
that intention (i) ❖ What is communication? ❖ Incidental transfer of information ❖ Communication proper involves intention and agency. Only
those inferences that are openly intended to be conveyed can properly be said to have been communicated.
❖ She is poor and honest.
❖ She is poor but honest.
❖ (propositional content, implication)
❖ (context-free)
❖ Non-conversational vs. conversational
❖ A poorly described class which Grice thought as derivable from the possible “aesthetic, social, or moral” maxims which he indicated exist but did not argue for in his work
The importance of CI
❖ CI stands as a paradigmatic example of the nature and power of pragmatic explanation of linguistic phenomena.
❖ It provides some explicit account of how it is possible to mean more than what is actually said.
❖ The maxim of manner
❖ Be perspicuous, and specifically:
❖
avoid obscurity
avoid ambiguity
be brief
be orderly.The Hornian system
Observation vs. violation
Conversational Implicature
Lecture 3
❖ Words are like leaves; and where they most abound, ❖ Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.
(Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism)
❖ Do not say what you believe to be false; ❖ Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
❖ The maxim of relation
❖ Make your contribution relevant.
Cooperative Principle
❖ CP---Make your contribution such as it is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
❖ The theory has a very general explanatory power: a few basic principle provide explanations for a large array of apparently unrelated facts.
❖ Metaphors, tautologies, some logical dilemma, nall—not all
Theories of meaning
❖ The referential theory claims that every sentence is a combination of words and each word stands for an object. The meaning of the word is the object the word refers to.
❖ The lone ranger jumped on his horse and rode into the sunset. ❖ The lone ranger rode into the sunset and jumped on his horse. ❖ The flag is white. ❖ The flag is white, red and blue. ❖ (ambiguous?)
necessarily entail P. ❖ The rings on the bell mean the bus is full. ❖ His cough means that he is seriously ill.
Non-natural meaning (meaning-nn)
❖ A meant something by X = A intended the utterance of X to produce some effect in an audience by means of the recognition of this intention. (Grice, in ‘Meaning’, 1957)
❖ War is war.
❖ Meaning in use, context and intention
❖ Stevenson (1963) proposes two kinds of meaning:
❖ Descriptive/ conventionwenku.baidu.coml meaning
❖
not carry the individual will and attitude
❖ The king of France is bald. ❖ The morning star is the Evening star.
❖ The distinction between a sentence and the use of a sentence
❖ “we cannot talk of the sentence being true or false, but only of its being used to make a true or false assertion, or (if this is preferred) to express a true or false proposition.” (Strawson, 1950)
❖ (truth-conditional)
❖ Conventional vs. non-conventional
❖ Simply attached by convention to particular lexical items or expressions. (but, therefore, even, yet)
❖ Observation:
❖ The CP-directed implicatures ❖ Another classic topic in Pragmatics because it
studies the unstable context-specific pragmatic overlay of that stable semantic core.
❖ S meant-nn by uttering U if and only if: ❖ (i) S intended U to cause some effect z in recipient H ❖ (ii) S intended (i) to be achieved simply by H recognizing
❖ N.B. Phrased as a prescriptive command, the principle is intended as a description of how people normally behave in conversation (different from Rhetoric).