old english and middle english
英语发展简史
英语发展简史在罗马人入侵英格兰之前﹐来自欧洲地区的凯尔特人(Celts﹕属于今天苏格兰﹐爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先)已经在英伦列岛居住多年。
罗马人自公元前55年代开始﹐发动对英格兰的入侵﹐但直到公元43年才完全征服英格兰﹐自罗马人入侵到公元410年撤出英格兰﹐罗马人已经在英格兰盘居长达四百年之久。
在罗马人离开后﹐来自欧洲西日耳曼部落‘Angelen’ 地区的盎格鲁人(Angles) ﹑其它部落的撒克逊人(Saxon) ﹑朱特人(Jutes) 和弗里斯兰人(Frisian)开始跨海西迁进入英格兰地区(英语中的‘English’就是出自古词‘englisc ’﹐‘englise’中的‘ Engle’表示‘ the Angles ’﹐即是‘盎格鲁人’的意思)﹐并与当地的凯尔特人(Celts) 为争寻土地发生了长期的战争﹐经历几代后也续渐在英格兰各处定居下来。
凯尔特人(Celts)的国王 Arthur在Celts与日耳曼人之间长久的战争中﹐虽然曾一度与日耳曼停战﹐但最终凯尔特人还是不敌日耳曼人而被驱赶到今天的爱尔兰﹑威尔士和马恩(Man)岛地区﹐日耳曼人称威尔士地区的Celts为‘wealas’意即外国人﹐‘ Welsh ’和‘Wales’亦因此而得名。
英语作为最初期日耳曼人使用的语言﹐自从在英伦半岛生根成长到今天﹐整个语言的演进基本上可以划分为以下4个时期﹕1. Pre-old English. 前古英语时期(从日耳曼人入侵开始至公元500年罗马人撤出英格兰)2. Old English. 古英语时期(公元500-1100)3. Middle English. 中古英语时期(公元1100-1500)4. Modern English. 现代英语时期(公元1500-现在)古英语时期在前古英语时期﹐表记文字只有凯尔特人和日耳曼人受罗马字母影响而产生的RUNES字母。
但是从597年后开始﹐St. Augustine 主持了Kent国王Ethelberht 的受洗仪式﹐令他皈依了基督教。
古英语,中古英语,现代英语的特点
古英语,中古英语,现代英语的特点The Evolution of English: A Brief Overview of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English.The history of English language is a fascinating journey through time, marked by significant changes and evolution. The three main stages of English language development are Old English (also known as Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. Each stage exhibits unique characteristics and reflects the social, cultural, and historical context of its time.Old English, the earliest stage of English, dates back to the 5th century and was primarily spoken in Anglo-Saxon England. This period is characterized by a heavy reliance on Germanic vocabulary and a complex grammatical structure. Old English nouns, for example, had a variety of forms depending on their function in a sentence, including different forms for the singular, plural, nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative cases. Verbs also had awide range of forms to express different tenses, moods, and voices.The vocabulary of Old English was primarily Germanic, but it also borrowed words from other languages,particularly Latin and Norse. This borrowing was due to the influence of the Roman Empire and the Viking invasions of England. Old English literature, such as the Beowulf epic, displays a rich and varied vocabulary, as well as a complex grammatical structure.Middle English, which spanned from the 11th to the 15th century, saw significant changes in both vocabulary and grammar. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 introduced a new ruling class that spoke French, resulting in a large influx of French words into the English language. This influx, along with the influence of other languages such as Latin and Greek, led to a significant increase in the size and diversity of the English vocabulary.Grammatically, Middle English saw a simplification of the Old English grammatical system. The number of nounforms was reduced, and the system of verb conjugation became less complex. Adjectives also began to lose their grammatical gender and number forms. These changes made English grammar easier to learn and use, especially for those who were not native speakers.The Renaissance period in the 15th century marked a further change in English, with a renewed interest in classical literature and a focus on the refinement of the language. This period saw the emergence of Early Modern English, which was characterized by a more standardized spelling system and a more consistent grammar.Modern English, which began in the 16th century and continues to the present day, is the result of further changes and evolution. The Industrial Revolution, the growth of empires, and the development of new technologies all had a profound impact on the language. The standardization of spelling and grammar, the expansion of vocabulary, and the influence of other languages have all contributed to the development of Modern English.Modern English is characterized by a wide range of dialects and accents, reflecting the diverse cultural and geographical backgrounds of its speakers. The vocabulary of Modern English is vast and diverse, with words borrowed from many different languages. The grammar of Modern English is relatively simple compared to Old English, with fewer noun forms and a more consistent system of verb conjugation.In conclusion, the history of English language is a fascinating journey through time, marked by significant changes and evolution. Old English, Middle English, and Modern English each exhibit unique characteristics that reflect the social, cultural, and historical context of their respective periods. From the complexity of Old English grammar to the simplicity of Modern Englishspelling and grammar, the evolution of English language is a testament to the adaptability and resilience of human language.。
古英语中古英语和现代英语例子 -回复
古英语中古英语和现代英语例子-回复【古英语中古英语和现代英语例子】【主题：英语语言的发展及变迁】引言：英语是一门历史悠久、流传广泛的语言。
它在不同时期、不同地区发生了巨大的变化和进化。
本文将以中括号内的主题为基准，一步一步介绍古英语、中古英语和现代英语的例子，并分析其演变过程和影响。
第一部分：古英语（Old English）古英语是英语历史上的第一个阶段，约公元450年至1066年使用。
在这个时期，英语受到了盎格鲁-撒克逊人、朱特人和丹麦人等日尔曼部落的影响。
其中，盎格鲁-撒克逊人的语言对古英语的形成起到了重要作用。
例子1：盎格鲁-撒克逊诗歌古英语的重要文学形式是诗歌，最著名的作品是贝奥武夫（Beowulf）。
这部史诗描述了一位英勇的战士贝奥武夫与怪兽的战斗。
古英语中使用的词汇和语法结构与现代英语相比相当不同。
例子2：古英语单词古英语的词汇很大程度上被改变或淘汰。
例如，古英语中的“eorþe”意味着“地球”，而现代英语中使用的“earth”就是它的后裔。
第二部分：中古英语（Middle English）中古英语是古英语后期发展而成的一种形式，约1066年至1470年间使用。
这个时期的英语受到了许多外来语言（如诺曼底法语）的影响，这些语言带来了新的词汇和语法结构。
例子1：《坎特伯雷故事集》（The Canterbury Tales）《坎特伯雷故事集》是中古英语文学杰作之一，由乔叟在14世纪末完成。
这部作品以诙谐的方式展示了各种社会类型的故事，其中使用了丰富多样的词汇和句法结构。
例子2：中古英语的法语借词由于诺曼底征服，法语成为英国贵族和法庭的主要语言。
因此，中古英语中有很多法语借词，如“government”（政府）和“royal”（皇家）等，这些词至今仍在现代英语中使用。
第三部分：现代英语（Modern English）现代英语是指自1470年以来的英语形式，经历了大量的词汇和语法变化。
1.2 The Old English Period and Middle English Period
The Old English Period and the Middle English Period (449-1485)（Brief Introduction）Part one About the Middle Ages (476-1453)In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century (476 A.D) is called the Middle Ages. It is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times.In the latter part of the fourth century the Huns (匈奴)swept into Europe from central Asia, robbing and killing as they came along, and large numbers of the half civilized Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, the Franks, the Angles and Saxons, and the Vandals fled their homelands in northern Europe and were pushed to cross the Danube river(多瑙河) into the territory of the Roman Empire. In A.D. 476 a Germanic general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. While the Eastern Roman Empire continued, the power of ancient Rome was gone. In its place mushroomed a great many Germanic kingdoms, which in a few hundred years were to grow into the nations known as England, France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, western Europe was the scene of frequent wars and invasions. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives; towns and villages fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste.During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. It continued to gain widespread power and influence. In the Late Middle Ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art and learning for hundreds of years. It shaped people’s lives. That is why the Middle Ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.Whatever names we may give to this span of time, this is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged. And it is this fusion and blending of different ideas and practices that paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.As for England, where the early inhabitants were Celts, since historical times, it has been conquered three times. It was conquered by the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Normans.England was not much affected by the Roman Conquest, but she felt the full weight of the other two conquests.The Anglo-Saxons brought to England the Germanic language and culture, while the Normans brought a fresh wave of Mediterranean civilization, which includes Greek culture, Roman law, and the Christian region.It is the cultural influences of these two conquests that provided the source for the rise and growth of English literature.Part two The Old English Period---The Anglo-Saxon Period(449-1066) 盎格鲁-撒克逊时期I.Historical backgroundBetween the 8th and 5th centuries BC, the Celts inhabited Britain and became the dominant residents. The name Britain came from the Britons, a Celtic tribe. In 55 and 54 BC, Britain was twice invaded by Roman troops led by Julius Caesar, and was invaded again by the Romans under Claudius I in 43 AD. Britain subsequently became a Roman province and it remained so until the beginning of the 5th century and the Celts became either slaves or unfree cultivators of the land. The Romans were excellent builders and they constructed towns and cities which prospered far longer than any previous settlements on the island.In 410, Germanic barbarians attacked Rome, forcing all Roman troops to leave Britain in order to defend their own nation, and thus ending the Roman occupation of Britain. After the Romans withdrew from the island, the tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes (later known simply as Anglo-Saxons) migrated to England from what is today Denmarkand Northern Germany. They settled down there and soon ruled over the whole of England, enslaving some of the native Celts while driving the others to the hills north and west, to Wales and Scotland and even Ireland across the sea. Thus began the Anglo-Saxon period in Britain and English, the language of the Angles, replaced the old Celtic language, as the dominant language of the land.II. The Old English LiteratureThe Anglo-Saxons were heathen upon their first arrival in England. In A.D. 597, the first missionaries led by St. Augustine came to England from Rome and converted King Ethelbert of Kent, and within a century all England was Christianized. Churches were built and the monks ere among the most learned in the country. The heathen mythology was gradually replaced by the Christian religion, but heathen concepts of nature and the supernatural persisted for a considerable period of time and often were curiously mixed with Christian views and expressions. This phenomenon found its expression not infrequently in literary works of the Anglo-Saxon period.The Germanic tribes from the Northern Europe brought with them not only the Anglo-Saxon language (the basis of Modern English), but also a specific poetic tradition, which is bold and strong, mournful and elegiac in spirit. Generally speaking, the Old English poetry that has survived can be divided into two groups:A. the religious group ---Mainly on biblical themes/containing specific Christian doctrines: Genesis A, Genesis B and Exodus are poems based on the Old Testament; The Dream of the Rood comes from the New TestamentB. the secular group ---Including the national epic poem, Beowulf, and a number of more or less lyrical poems of shorter length, which evoke the Anglo-Saxon sense of the harshness of circumstance and the sadness of the human lot, The Traveler's Song and the Seafarer.BeowulfBeowulf, a typical example of Old English Poetry, is regarded today as the national epic （民族史诗）of the Anglo-Saxons. It describes the exploits of a Scandinavian hero, Beowulf, in fighting against the monster Grendel, his revengeful mother and a fire-breathing dragon.The story took place in Scandinavia and was originally in an oral form, sung by the bards/poets at the end of the 6th century. The present script was written down in the 10th century and found in 1705.Thematically the poem presents a vivid picture of how the primitive people wage heroic struggles against the hostile forces of the natural world under a wise and mighty leader. The poem is an example of the mingling/mixture of nature myths and heroic legends.Part three The Middle English Period (1066-1485)I. Background informationIn late Saxon England, feudalism assumed definite shape, with the king at the top, then the earls and the thanes, then the freemen and last the serfs. Agriculture developed and trade expanded. Towns came into existence and wealth became more concentrated. With the Norman Conquest, feudalism underwent further development.The Norman Conquest (1066) brought England more than a change of rulers. Politically, a feudalism system was established in England; religiously, the Rome-backed Catholic Church had a much stronger control over the country; and great changes also took place in languages. After the conquest, three languages co-existed in England. French became the official language used by the king and the Norman lords; Latin became the principal tongue of church affairs and in universities; and Old English was spoken only by the common English people.After the Norman Conquest, England became no longer an isolated nation and trade relations with the European continent grew steadily. The three centuries afterwards saw the large scale introduction into England of French culture,including French customs and manners, medieval French literature and the literature of Italy and other European countries.The Norman Conquest starts the medieval period in English literature, which covers about four centuries. The accession of Henry VII in 1485, the beginning of the Tudor dynasty, is an arbitrary but convenient one to mark the "end" of the Middle Ages in England.II. The Middle English Literature1.Popular folk literature and RomanceAs a result of the simultaneous use of three different languages, there were in England a number of literary works written in Norman-French and in Latin besides those in English. The literature the Normans brought to England is remarkable for its bright, romantic tales of love and adventure, in marked contrast with the strength and somberness of Angle-Saxon poetry.(爱情故事和传奇故事，特点是明快和浪漫，有别于以往的强悍和忧郁。
英语发展史三个阶段简述英文
英语发展史The development of English language can be broadly categorized into three major stages: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. Each stage represents a significant transformation in the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the language.The first stage of English language development is Old English, which began around the 5th century AD and lasted until the 11th century. During this period, English was heavily influenced by Germanic languages and was spoken by Germanic tribes who had settled in what is now known as England. Old English was characterized by complex inflections and a relatively simple vocabulary. Some of the most notable works of literature from this era include Beowulf and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.The second stage of English language development is Middle English, which lasted from the 11th century until the late 15th century. During this period, the English language was influenced by French due to the Norman Conquest of 1066. Middle English saw the introduction of many new words into the language, particularly in areas such as law, government, and religion. The grammar of Middle English was also simplified, and the inflections of Old English were gradually replaced by a more analytic system. Some of the most well-known works of literature from this era include Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.The third and final stage of English language development is Modern English, which began in the late 15th century and continues to the present day. Modern English is characterized by a significantly simplified grammar compared to its predecessors, with fewer inflections and a more fixed word order. This simplification was partly due to the influence of Latin and other European languages. Modern English also saw the introduction of many new words from other languages, particularly during the Renaissance and Industrial Revolution. This has led to a much larger vocabulary than earlier stages of the language. Notable works of literature from this era include Shakespeare's plays and the works of Jane Austen.In conclusion, the development of English language can be divided into three major stages: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. Each stage was characterized by significant changes in the language's grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. From its Germanic roots to its current status as a global language, English has undergone many transformations throughout its history, and it will undoubtedly continue to evolve in the future.。
Old and Middle English Literature 英国文学史 中古英语文学史
中古英语文学The 3 ConquestsThe Roman Conquest (55 BC to 410 AD) tribalBritain became a province of Roman Empire.Christianity was introduced.Britain achieved a certain degree of civilization.Anglo-Saxon Conquest / English Conquest (410 to 1066 AD) tribalThe English language emerged (Old English).Christianity was widely accepted.England became more unified.The Norman Conquest (1066-1485The Middle Ages/ Age of Faith/The Dark Age) FeudalFeudalism was established and developed.French culture thrived.I. Old English: 450-1066Beowulf the national epic(史诗) of the Anglo-Saxons (folk legend from NorthernEurope)It is more than 3,000 lines of alliterations, the oldest poem on the English language, and the most important specimen of Anglo-Saxon literature, and also the oldest surviving epic in the English language.II. Medieval English: 1066 - middle 14th century—Feudal EnglandChivalric Romance (骑士传奇):(literature for nobility, esp. the court)(i). France: Song of Roland (/rəulənd/, hero in the 8th century)(ii). Rome: stories of Alexander the Great and the gods and goddesses in mythology.(iii). Britain: legends about King Arthur and his Knights of Round Table recountingthe adventures of Lancelot(/la:nsələt/), Galahad (/gæ ləhæd/), Gawain (/ga: wei/) andother Round Table Knights.Death of King Arthur by Thomas Malory is a collection of stories about King Arthur.(Quest of Holy Grail, love, death and dissolution)Geoffrey Chaucer1340-1400-the father of English poetry founder or English realism (wisdom, humor, humanity)The Canterbury Tales first time to use “heroic couplet”(英雄双韵体/对句) Popular ballads-literature of the peasants。
关于英语的历史
关于英语的历史英语的历史开始于盎格鲁—撒克逊人对英格兰的占领与统治。
此前，英国本土上的早期语言是当地凯尔特人使用的凯尔特语(Celtic)，其中含有一些拉丁语成分。
此后，英语经历了古英语(Old English)、中古英语(Middle English) 和现代英语(Modern English)三个发展阶段。
公元前 700 年左右，凯尔特人开始越过海峡，迁徙到对岸的不列颠岛上。
这些人中，有一支名叫布立吞人 Britons 的民族成为岛上的主体民族，因此罗马人称该岛为布里塔尼亚 Britannia(布立吞人之地)，英语中的不列颠 Britain 由此而来。
古英语(Old English)古英语时期(公元449-1150年)，英语词汇量约有五六万，其主体是统治者使用的盎格鲁—撒克逊语(Anglo-Saxon)，词汇属于西耳曼支的日耳曼词(Germanic)。
这部分词汇构成今天称之为本族语词(Native Words)的主体公元 43 年，罗马征服不列颠，将其划为帝国西北边陲的一个行省。
然而，北方的皮克特人 Picts 却经常南下骚扰罗马占领下的不列颠。
于是在公元 122 年，哈德良皇帝下令在罗马占领区北面修筑了一条长长的防御工整，这长墙因此被称为哈德良墙。
哈德良墙后来也成为不列颠岛上两个主体民族英格兰人和苏格兰人之间的分界线。
公元 449 年，北方的皮克特人和爱尔兰人大举进犯不列颠。
布立吞人 Britons 从欧洲搬来了几支日耳曼部族的救兵，主要有三支，分别是盎格鲁人 Angles、撒克逊人Saxons 和朱特人 Jutes。
日耳曼援兵们轻松击溃了皮克特人和爱尔兰人，却将本地的布立吞人 Britons 四处驱逐。
入侵者在不列颠建立了七个主要王国，从此不列颠开始被以盎格鲁人为首的日耳曼部族所占领，他们的语言开始发展成一种新语言，即英语English(盎格鲁人的语言)，这个阶段的英语被称为古英语由于公元六世纪晚期基督教的引入，超过 400 个拉丁词被借用引入英语，包括：priest, paper, school 等词，以及一些较少的希腊语词汇公元十、十一世纪，古英语受到了属于北日耳曼语支的古诺尔斯语的强烈影响。
英语词汇发展史
英语词汇发展史简介语言史家一般把英语的历史分为三个时期：①古英语（Old English）时期（AD450-1100）；②中古英语（Middle English）时期（AD1100-1500）；③现代英语（Modern English）时期（AD1500至今）1 古英语时期（又称盎格鲁-撒克逊时期the Anglo-Saxon Period）日耳曼部落在不列颠定居以后，各自占领一些地区。
盎格鲁人占领了泰晤士河以北的英格兰大部分地区和苏格兰的低地，朱特人占领了肯特郡一带地区，撒克逊人占领了泰晤士河以南的大部分地区。
各个部落建立了一些小王国，出现了英语史上的七国时代（the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy）。
直到公元830年，阿尔弗烈德大王（Alfred the Great）才统一了整个英格兰地区。
由于全国长期没有统一，所以古英语时期存在着多种方言，主要的方言有四种：西撒克逊语（West Saxon）、肯特语（Kentish）、莫西亚语（Mercian）和北恩布瑞安语（Northumbrian）。
这四种方言都曾一度占主导地位。
西撒克逊语保存下来的手稿最多，其它方言在形成英语的过程中也起到了重要的作用。
古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日耳曼语族的特点。
这主要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法，复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。
据统计，在史诗《贝奥武夫》（Beowulf）3183行的诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。
有些复合词中不重读的部分，渐渐失去独立地位，而演变为词缀，如for-，in-，-ful等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用，共有24个名词后缀、15个形容词后缀，-dom，-hood，-ship，-ness，-the，-ful，-ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。
古英语时期诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵（alliteration），由此产生的许多短语一直保留至今，如might and main（全力地），friend and foe（敌友），a labour of love（出自喜爱而做的事）。
英语的发展历史
In 1492 the Kolumb discovered the new continent, the British established many oversea company, such as East Africa, Ltd. (1579), (1588), East India Company (1600), reaching out to the world.东陆公司（1579），非洲公司（1588），东印度公司（1600）,
英法百年战争（1337—1453）结束后，英格兰回到了英吉利人手中，英语 又找回了国语的尊严。
After 1489, French is only used for writing the law and the Congressional record. In 1500, London dialect has been upgraded to a standard english. 1489年后，法
During the Renaissance, British education is developing rapidly, the school replaced the old style private school, printed materials replaced the manuscripts, scholars have become an author.
语只用于书写法令与国会记录。到了1500年，伦敦方言已升格为标准英语。
1350 - 1500 is a great master of literature of the times, court poet
*Old English and Middle English almostly
英国文学2 The Old English Period and the Middle English Period
Writing Features of the Poem: 1) It is not a Christian but a pagan poem. The whole poem presents us an all-round picture of the tribal society and Christian culture. 2) The use of the strong stress and the predominance of consonants are very notable in this poem. Each line is divided into two halves, and each half has two heavy stresses. 3) The use of the alliteration is another notable feature. Three stresses of the whole line are made even more emphatic by the use of alliteration. 4) A lot of metaphors and understatements are used in the poem. For example, the sea is called "the whale-road" or "the swan road"; the soldiers are called "shield-men"; the chieftains are called the "treasure keepers"; human-body is referred to as "the bone- house”; God is called "wonder-wielder”; monster is referred to as "souldestroyer".