词汇学名词解释-复习提纲
第一章：A word can be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning, capable of performing a given syntactic function
The development of English Vocabulary.①Old English (OE) (449-1100)OE is chracterized by the frequent use of compounds. Some OE compounds involving alliteration have survived in Modern English.About 85% of OE words are no longer in use.②Middle English (1100-1500)ME is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.（law and governmental administration）③Modern English (1500-the present)
The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes：A. marked progress of science and technology（software, hardware）B.socio-economic, political and cultural changes（credit card, fringe benefit, pressure cooker）C.influence of other cultures and languages（maotai, sputnik）classification of English words according to different criteria 1. By origin：native words and loan words。Native words(Anglo-Saxon origin of OE) Loan words(borrowed from other language)
features of basic word stock:1.National
character2.Stability3.Word-formin g ability4.Ability to form collocations. 2.By level of usage(1) Common words: stylistically neutral, appropriate in both formal and informal writing and speech(2)Literary words:chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches .A. archaic words: They are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, legal documents, religious speeches, and proses.B.poetical words（the deep (the sea), slumber (sleep) maiden( girl), etc.）
(3) colloquial words：mainly used in spoken English, or in informal writing.(4) slang words（kick the bucket, top-notch teachers, buzz( telephone call)(5) technical words（psychoanalysis, interlanguage, discovery, assault and coversation） 3. By notion Function words: determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries.Content words: nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
第二章：The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.
The classification of morpheme：1.free and bound morphemes：A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.
A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morpheme.2. roots and affixes 1) roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. A. free roots：In English, many roots are free morphemes. B. bound roots：Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, especially from Greek and Latin.2) affixes A. inflectional affixes: plurality, tense, comparative or superlative degree. B. derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
第三章：1. Derivation(1)prefixes：Prefixes can be classified into the following categories by their meaning.A. 表“方式”的前缀（mis.co.mal）B. 表“态度”的前缀(anti.counter.pro.re)C. 表“程度”的前缀(super.under.over)D. 表“时间”的前缀(pre.post.ex.pre) E. 表“地点”的前缀(inter.trans.super.over.sub) F. 表“否定”的前缀(un.in)G. 表“大小”的前缀
(mini.maxi) (2)suffixes(1) -ee:加于动词后，表示受事者或施事者(2) -eer: 由其构成的名词有时含有贬义，表达作者或说话人对某人的蔑视态度(3）-er: 由其构成的新词在现代英语中显得生动活泼，带有浓厚的口语色彩(4) -ism(5) -wise: (in terms of, so far as... is concerned)在......方面，就......来说
2.Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shift into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero –derivation.Types of conversion 1.①N to V conversion A. to put in/on N 把.......放入.......使.......处于.......
B. to give N, to provide with N 给予，提供
C. to deprive of N 去掉
D. to ......with N 用......来做
E. to be/act as N with respect to 像......那样
F. to make/change... into N 使......成为......，把.......改变为......
G. to send/go by N
H. to spend the period of time denoted by N②Adj to https://www.360docs.net/doc/aa16994097.html,ually this type of verb means "to make/become...adj.”Some adjectives can only be converted into transitive verbs. ③adv. to V （to up. To down）④conjunction to V（to but）
2. ①V to N这一类词常与动词have, take, give, make 等词搭配使用形成一个短语
2)表示行动的结果（a find, a catch,
a cough, etc. ）3) 原动词表示一种行动或行为，转化为名词后表示行为的主体，如：（a bore, a cheat, a sneak, a coach, a good kick）②A to N(1) Partial conversionA. 表示一种类的概念，指具有某种特点的一类人，不指个别人。B. 以-s, -sh, -se, -ch 结尾表示民族概念的形容词转化为名词，与定冠词连用，指整个民族 C.表示抽象概念，指具有某种特点的东西D.最高级形容词转化为名词，其中一些词用在固定词组或英语习语词组中。E. 过去分词构成的形容词转化为名词。这类词前面加定冠词，不指一般人，而指特定的人。(2) Complete conversion 3. N to A. 英语中的名词可以直接用作定语修饰另一个名词，既不需要加形容词词尾，也不需要任何格的变化，这样的定语就是名词定语.
3. Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more words to form a new unit, a compound word. Classification of compounds 1. Noun compounds(1)a+n（hard disk, easy chair, deadline) (2) n+n（mousemat, Dream Team, information highway, etc.)（3) adv+n（after-effect, overburden）(4) gerund+n（chewing gum, reading lamp）(5）present participle+n（ruling class, floating bridge(6) v+n（swearword, driveway）(7) n+v（nightfall, toothpick, watersupply, snowfall）(8) v+adv(show-off, put-off)(9）adv+v(downfall, upset, upstart)2. adjective compounds (1) 由状语转化而成的复合形容词（an off-the cuff opinion(临时想起的一点意见）(2）短语动词（a stand-up collar (竖领）(3）动词不定式（take-home pay(扣除税后的实得工资）a cross-border raid(越界袭击）(4）定语从句压缩（a difficult-to-operate machine）3. verb compounds
第四章：Acronymy: Initialism词首字母缩略词and Acronyms首字母缩略词Initialisms(首字母缩略词）Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name a technical term, or a phrase.（BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP(Very Important Person)
Three types of initialisms1.The letters represent full words: （CIA=Central Intelligence Agency ofthe U.S）2.The letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word:（ID=Identification(card)3. A letter represents the complete form of the first word, while the second word is in full form.(V-Day=Victory Day) Acronyms :are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term,
etc.(SAM=surface-to-air missile SALT=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) Rapid growth of acronyms and initialisms :space-saving and time-saving devices
Clipping: 1. Back clippings:(ad=advertisement;
gas=gasoline )2.Front clippings:(chute=parachute;)3.Fro nt and back clippings:（flu=influenza;fridge=refrigerat or） 4. Phrase clippings:（pub=public house;pop= popular music）
Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in it full form or both of which are not in their full forms.1. First part of the first word+the last part of the second word:（botel (boat+hotel):汽艇游客旅馆）2. First part of the first word+ First part of the second word:（psywar (psychological+warfare):心理战）3. Whole form of the first word +last part part of the second word:（viedophone (viedo+telephone))4. First part of the first word+ Whole form of the second word:（helipad (helicopter +pad)
从文体色彩来看，拼缀词可分为以下三大类：1.俚语或临时语2.科技用语3. 报刊用语
Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.
Words From Proper Names From names of people From names of places From trdemarks From literature
第五章：Word Meaning and Semantic Features
1. Conventionality and Motivation 1.1 Conventionality归略法：Most English words are conventioal, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.1.2 Motivation有理据的：Motivation refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.
①Phonetic motivation: Words motivated phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic words,whose pronounciation suggests the meaning.They show a close relationship of sound to sense.（miaow of a cat; roar of a lion; quack of a duck）②Morphological motivation:When a word is morphologically motivated, a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.
（anticancer, kilometer, etc.）③Semantic motivation:
It refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.
隐喻：在20世纪的绝大部分的时间里，隐喻被认为是语义演变的主要因素。相似性是构成隐喻的基础，是词义得以演变的依据 the eye of a needle(针眼）the eye of a potato(土豆的芽眼）相似性包括外观相似、功能相似、褒贬相似、心理相似等。
隐喻的分类（1）结构隐喻：一个概念通过隐喻的方式系统地用另一个概念表达出来，两个概念具有结构上的相似性（2）方位隐喻：方位隐喻是指参照空间方位而构建的一系列隐喻概念。（3）本体隐喻：用关于物体的概念或概念结构来认识和理解我们的经验，如可将抽象的概念喻说成具体的物体，可使后者的有关特征映射到前者上去。（4）容器隐喻：将本体（不是容器的事物，如大地、视野、事件、行动、状态、心境等）视为一种容器（5）拟人隐喻：将事体视为具有人性。
转喻：转喻基于邻近联想突显性（salience)一件事情、一个物体或一个概念有很多属性，而人的认知往往更多地注意到其最突出、最容易记忆和理解的属性，即突显属性。语境依赖性2.Main types of word meaning 2.1 grammatical meaning语法意义指词中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义，如词的词性、名词的单复数、动词的时态。
2.2Lexical meaning①denotative meaning/conceptual
meaning/cognitive meaningIt is the central factor in linguistic communication.The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary. It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.②Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind ③Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. 2.3 Social or stylistic meaning：One of the consequences of the way in which English has developed over the past 1,500 years has been the emergence of different styles. This has been partly due to the influx of new words from other languages such as Latin and French and partly to the variety of social needs which English has had to fulfill. 2.4. Affective meaning2.5. Reflexive meaning：R eflexive meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.
2.6.collocative meaning：The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context
are called collocative meanings.
2.7.Thematic meaning i：mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical constructions.
3.文化差异：文化差异往往和不可译性联系起来，主要表现在带有文化含义的语项翻译上。英汉两种语言所体现出来的文化异同表现在多个方面，但主要集中在概念意义和联想意义上，可粗略归类为等额对应、差额对应和文化空缺。
(1)等额对应，是指甲文化语境下的某一表达形式在另一语言文化背景下能找到现成的表达形式。（入乡随俗 When in Rome, do as the Romans do）(2)差额对应指英汉两种语言都拥有某一文化概念，但两种概念在文化语义层面并不完全对应。(母亲望子成龙The mother longs to see her son become
a dragon.)
4.英汉文化差异的表现(1)动物的联想意义(狗急跳墙A cornered beast will do something desperate)(2)颜色的联想意义(红包 red envelope红娘matchmaker)
第六章：1.Polysemy：When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or polysemic.Polysemy is also an essential feature of language’s economy and efficiency.
1.1Two approaches to polysemy：One is diachronic, the other is synchronic. 1.2 Processes leading to polysemy A. Concatenation
B.Radiation
2.语境是帮助译者确定多义词词义的最有效的途径。我们在此主要探讨两种语境，即话题语境和搭配语境在翻译实践中确定多义词词义的作用。
1.话题语境：话题指话语所涉及的主题或内容common一词在法律领域与其他词搭配完全丧失了“普通的；共有的”等含义。（common assurance 物权证书）
2.搭配语境：搭配语境指的是句子成分内部词与词的搭配使用
3. Homonymy. Types of homonyms:①Perfect homonyms: words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.②Homophones: words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. ③Homographs: words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.
4. The stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy :Context plays a very important r ole in the hearer’s interpretation of words of these two types.Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect.
第七章：1. Synonymy：There are also words that sound different but have the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms, and the sense relation of “sameness of meaning” is called synonymy. Two kinds of synonyms①Complete (perfect) synonyms：are very rare. Examples are spirants and fricatives in phonetics, word-formation and word-building in lexicology.
②Relative synonyms：differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:(1) In degree of a given quality or in (2) In affective and stylistic meaning(3) In collocation and distribution
2.Antonymy：Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. And the oppositeness of meaning is called antonymy.Types of Antonyms（1）Contraries(相对性反义词) Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor, heavy and light, etc.2. Complementaries (Contradictories)(互补反义词) Complementaries represent a type of binary semantic contrast. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two terms is absolute, that is they are in such a relationship that “ the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other: an entity can not be both at once.”
3. Conversives (反向或逆反反义词) Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure1. Root antonyms：Words like love-hate, up-down are root antonyms for they are words with different roots.2. Derivational antonyms：Words with the same roots having negative affixes.
Some relevant points about antonyms 1. Marked and unmarked members：Antonyms often do not have equal status with respect to markedness. In certain pairs of gradable antonyms, one word is marked and the other unmarked. 2. Some words without antonyms 3. Different antonyms under different circumstances：1) Different circumstances give rise to different antonyms:2) Different contexts bring about different antonyms 3)Some words with different collocations have different antonyms 4. Lexical antonyms vs. syntactic negation：Lexical antonymy is often stronger than syntactic negation (using not).
Hyponymy：We know that the English words red, white, blue, etc. are “colour” terms, that is, they have the feature indicating a category to which they all belong. Semantic(Lexical) field s
第八章：Two types of context 1.Linguistic context语言语境(1) Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word.(2) Grammatical context.In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word
(3) Verbal context.The verbal context, in its broad sense, may cover an entire passage, or even an entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.
2.Extra-linguistic context (Context of situation)非语言语境(1) The actual speech situation in which a word occurs(2) The entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance or a speech event has to be set.
The vital role of context in determination of word meaning 1. Eliminating ambiguities：Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or a group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning 2. Conveying emotional overtone3. Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word1. Suggested ways for the correct comprehension of word meaning 1.The use of an up-to-date and adequate monolingual dictionary2. A good knowledge of the culture of the English-speaking
people3.Development of the ability to determine the meaning of a word from its context
第九章：Causes of changes in word meaning Historical cause Social cause Foreign influences Linguistic cause Psychological cause词义演变三动因①客观动因：客观世界每一个引起人们注意的变化都会及时地反映到词义中。②主观动因：语言的使用者是人，人的主观世界如思想观念和心理感情等的变化必然导致词义演变。③语言动因：词义的演变跟语言本身的发展也有关。由于语言接触，出现借词的大量涌入，使原有词的词义发生演变。
Four tendencies in semantic changeRestriction of meaning (specialization)
1.词义的缩小（specialization or narrowing）指词从原先表达外延较宽的概念缩小到外延较狭窄的概念。（1）从泛指到特指：meat原指“各种食物”，在sweetmeat（甜食）, greenmeat（蔬菜）（2）从抽象到具体：room一词从前的意义是“空间”、“地方”（3）从普通名词到专有名词. prophet(预言者，先知）写成the Prophet时，伊斯兰教徒都知道是指穆罕默德；（4)从一般词语到术语。许多科学术语都来自一般词语。recovery(恢复），
2.Extension of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大指从原先表达外延较狭窄的概念扩大到外延较宽的概念，其结果是新义大于旧义，旧义包含在新义之中。（1）从特指到泛指
bird (幼鸟-----鸟）（2）从具体到抽象grasp的原义是用手“抓牢，握紧”，指的是具体的动作。（3）从术语到一般词语bullish(股市看涨的)源自股市的“牛市的”、“行情看涨的”（4）从专有名词到普通名词sandwitch(三明治，夹肉面包）来自桑德威奇伯爵四世（the fourth Earl of Sandwitch)。
3.Degeneration of meaning (pejoration)指词从原表示“中性义或褒义”转为表示“贬义”。
4. Elevation of meaning (amelioration)从表示“贬义或中性的意义”转为表示“褒义”。
Iconicity （象似性）The idea that language is fundamentally arbitrary, and that there is no resemblance between the signs of language and the thoughts they stand for, is one of the oldest commonly held views in linguistic thought. 1.Iconicity of order 顺序象似性 2. Iconicity of distance 距离象似性 3.Iconicity of complexity复杂象似性4.Iconnicity of Markedness(标记象似性)
第十章： English Idioms 1.习语的本质是概念性的。2）习语意义有认知机制。
Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. https://www.360docs.net/doc/aa16994097.html,nguage is arbitrary—means that the sound image or the form of a word and the meaning or concept the word stands for bear no intrinsic relationship.
https://www.360docs.net/doc/aa16994097.html,nguage is vocal—the primary medium for all language is sound.
3. Language is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication.
Functions of language The primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication.
1. Phatic function/communion：Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and hearer.
https://www.360docs.net/doc/aa16994097.html,rmative function：Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out.
3. Interrogative function：Language is used to ask for information from others.
4.Expressive function (emotive function)：Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings.
5.Evocative function：Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.
6.Performative function：Language is used to do things or to perform acts.
7. metalingual function：It means that we can use language to talk language itself.
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