自考 语言学概论完整版
2023年自考专业(汉语言文学)《语言学概论》考试历年真题摘选附带答案
2023年自考专业(汉语言文学)《语言学概论》考试历年真题摘选附带答案第1卷一.全考点综合测验(共20题)1.【单选题】区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是（）A.强调在社会环境中研究语言B.强调研究言语的个人特色C.明确语言学的研究对象D.更好地研究书面语2.【问答题】如何看待语言学研究的意义和价值3.【问答题】举例说明什么是语言符号的聚合关系，为什么说符号的聚合和组合是相互依存的4.【填空题】语言系统二层性的一大特点是_______层的最小单位一定大大少于_______层的最小单位。
5.【问答题】语言功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些体现?6.【问答题】考察下列词语的读音，根据语流音变的类型将其分别填入A、B、C、D四项中：①分[f?n]+配[p‘ei]→分配[f?mp‘ei]②喇[lA]+叭[pA]→喇叭[1Ab?]③豆[t?u]+腐[fu]→豆腐[t?uf]④慢[man]+慢儿[mar]→慢慢儿[maimar]⑤look[luk](看)+ed[d](动词过去时)→looked[lukt]⑥in[in](在……上)+bed[bed](床)→inbed[imbed]A.同化：_________B.异化：_________C.弱化：_________D.脱落：_________7.【填空题】语言的功能包括____ 功能和_______ 功能。
8.【填空题】语言符号的_______和_______，是语言符号的基本性质。
9.【问答题】举例说明语言特点对文字特点的影响。
10.【问答题】名词解释：义项11.12.【单选题】下列词语，属于绝对反义词的一组是（）A.快—慢B.正—反C.好—坏D.黑—白13.【填空题】_______和________是语言系统中的两种根本关系。
14.【单选题】下列对“不可言传，只能意会”这句话的意思理解不正确的一项是（）A.人的思维活动是不可能经过语言来进行的B.思维活动和语言表示有时可能会相互脱节C.不能绝对地说语言是抽象思维的唯一工具D.高度集中复杂的思维不可能完全凭借语言15.【问答题】“船来了”这一表述中的“船”，在具体运用中能够指渡轮、帆船、游艇等各种类型的船，但“船”的词义却是“水上运输和交通的工具”。
【免费下载】汉语言文学-语言学概论(自考)
本课程考试有一定难度，考试题型为单选26分、多选10分、名词解释16分、简答18分、分析12分、论述18分。
考试题型较灵活，在弄通弄懂导读的基础上，要在提高分析和识别能力上下功夫。
第一章：语言和语言学 一、识记内容。
1、口语：语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。
2、书面语：文字出现以后，语言的第二种客观存在形式。
●3、符号：指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
4、能指：语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分。
5、所指：也就是“能指成分”，即特定的物质实体，所指的意义内容。
6、聚合关系：在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中，因而聚合成为一个类。
7、组合关系：组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，也体现了部分与整体之间的关系。
8、语言学：是研究语言的科学。
●9、普通语言学：语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论。
10.理论语言学：把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等，把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。
●11.应用语言学：把侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用。
●12.传统语言学：一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。
13.结构主义语言学：索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”，至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”、“结构主义语法”，往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学，那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派，并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学。
●14.内部语言：第一，内部语言是语言的一种形式；第二，内部语言的交际对象是说话者本人，且没有出声。
因此，内部语言是没有说出口的内心的话。
●15.语言：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分，语言是均质的，是言语活动中的社会部分。
新版语言学概论自学考试复习资料（沈阳版）
新版语言学概论自学考试复习资料（沈阳版）第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。
人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。
多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。
二是“用处更大”。
主要:交际功能。
其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。
三是“能够创造”。
具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。
2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。
但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。
这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。
尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。
从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。
也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。
可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。
4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。
语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。
语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。
形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。
包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。
如俄语、维吾尔语。
孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。
自考语言学概论试题及答案
自考语言学概论试题及答案自考语言学概论试题及答案【篇一：01-07语言学概论自学考试试题和答案】00541语言学概论试卷一、填空题、（每空1分，共15分）1、（）的建立，使语言学摆脱了过去的附庸地位，成为一门独立发展的科学。
2、语言符号的形式是（），语言符号的内容是（）3、一个音节可以没有起音和（），但决不可缺少（）。
4、方言词是指（）。
5、附加在词根上，一般表示附加性词汇意义的语素叫（）。
6、交际的基本单位是（）。
7、语法手段可以分力两大类型：（）和（）。
8、语言发展有两个特点：（）和（）。
9、根据语言的亲属关系对语言的分类叫做（），也叫做（）。
10、文字起源于（记事的图画）。
二、单选题（在本题的每一小题的备选答案中，只有一个答案是正确的，请把你认为正确答案的题号，填入题干的括号内。
多选不给分。
每题1分，共15分）1、社会语言学属于（）①理论语言学②广义应用语言学③普通语言学④狭义应用语言学2、元音［］的名称是（）①舌尖后高圆唇元音②舌尖前高圆唇元音③舌尖后高不圆唇元音④舌尖前高不圆唇元音3、下列汉字的读音中，包含有三合元音的是（）①邮②欧③玩④农4、汉语普通话音节结构（）①最长由三个音素组成②最长由四个音素组成③最长由五个音素组成④最短由两个音素组成5、下列词中，属于单纯词的是（）①玻璃②黑板③语言④红旗6、下列词中，属于复台词的是（）①傻子②席子③天子④椅子7、下列词组中，属于多义的是（）①两只学生送的花瓶②两位学生送的花瓶③两只学生送的花篮④两个学生送的花篮8、下列词中粗体的成分，属于同音关系的是（）①杜鲁门——杜绝②负荆一负担③忽然－－突然④花朵——浪花9、英语的“foot”（脚，单数）变为“feet”（脚，复数）运用的语法手段是（）①附加②异根③内部屈折④重叠10、汉语普通话中的“卡通片”中的“卡”是一个（）①语素②音节③前缀④词11、汉语中的“了、着、过”在古代具有实实在在的词汇意义，到现代变成只表语义的助词，这属于（）①异化②类化③新语法范畴的形成④实词虚化12、下列语言中属于粘着语的是（）①苗语②越南语③俄语④日语13、在一种语言内部划分言时，最主要的依据是（）①语法②语义③语音④词汇14、下列词的词义，属于词义缩小的是（）①“皮”原指兽皮②“涕”原指眼泪③“瓦”原指一切烧好的上器④“江”原指“长江”15、人类几种古老文字的原始字形，都是（）①象形的②会意的③表音的④形声的三、多选题（在本题的每一小题的备选答案中，正确答案有三个或三个以上多请把为正确答案的题号，填入题干的括号内。
英语自考本科语言学概论
Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。
自学考试《语言学概论》章节试题及答案汇总
自学考试《语言学概论》章节试题及答案汇总导言&第一章一、选择：1. 在印度，传统语文学研究的文化经典主要是( B )。
A. 训诂学B. 宗教典籍C. 《圣经》D. 音韵学2.下列关于语言的功能表述中，不正确的是( C )。
A. 语言的功能是客观存在的B. 语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能C. 语言的人际互动功能是语言的本质D. 语言思维功能的生理基础是大脑3.( C )是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。
A. 身势B. 旗语C. 语言D. 文字4.思维方式的差异更多的体现在不同语言在表达思想时( A )方面的特点。
A. 语法B. 词汇C. 语音D. 句法5.儿童语言的习得的临界期是在( A )。
A. 十一二岁B. 三四岁C. 八九岁D. 十三四岁二、填空：1.语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
2.语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的最基本的手段。
3. 语言是说话者和听话者交际互动的工具。
4. 独词句的出现和从独词句到双词句，这是孩子学话中的关键的两步。
5.孩子最早的智力活动就是学话。
三、判断：1.语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
( √ )2.旗语是建立在语言基础上的再编码形式。
( × )3.语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。
( √ )4.独词句的出现和从独词句到双词句，这是孩子学话中的关键的两步。
( √ )5.思维的普遍性决定语言的普遍性。
( × )导言&第一章答案：选择： 1.B 2.C 3.C 4.A 5.A填空： 1.信息传递2.最基本3.语言4.独词句5.学话判断： 1. √2. ×语言改为文字3. √4. √5. ×思维改为语言;语言改为思维第二章选择题1、语言系统的组成规则主要表现为( B)A、系统的二层性B、结构的层次性C、结构的二层性D、系统的层次性2、人类语言和其他动物的交际方式的本质区别(A )A、单位的明晰性B、开拓性C、结构的层次性D、发展性3、语言符号和语言符号进入组合之后最大的特点是( A)A、可论证性B、任意性和可论证性C、随意性D、随意性和可论证性4、早在先秦时期，我国的(C )就提出了著名的“约定俗成”的观点。
自考英语语言学概论大纲考核章节精华中文版教材
第一章语言（Language）●本章主要考点●课文理解与重点内容分析：本章介绍语言的基本知识，包括语言的定义、语言的识别性特征和语言的功能。
1. 语言的定义语言是用于人类交际的任意性的发音的符号系统。
该定义有五个要点，即系统、任意性的、发音/声的、系统、用于人类交际。
2. 语言的识别性特征语言的识别性特征指人类语言区别于任何其他动物交流系统的特点。
主要包括：1）能产性：能产性也称创造性，人们能用语言创造新的意义，并立即被从未接触过它的人所理解。
创造性归因于语言的二重性和递归性。
2）离散性：3）不受时空限制的属性/位移性：人类语言可以让使用者表达说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体、事件和观点。
这一特性赋予人们概括和抽象的能力。
4）任意性：任意性是语言的核心特征，指符号的形式或声音与意义间没有理据或逻辑关系。
任意性有不同的程度。
5）文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过教与学，由人们接触的文化代代传递的。
6）结构二重性：二重性指底层有限的语音结构是上层词、句和语篇结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则，使语言拥有强大的能产性。
7）互换性：互换性指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接收者。
3. 语言的功能按照韩礼德的表述，幼儿语言有如下七个功能：1）工具功能：说话人可以使用语言做事情。
2）调节功能：语言可用来控制事件。
3）表现功能：语言可用来传达知识、汇报事件、进行陈述、说明、解释关系、传递信息等。
4）互动功能：语言可用来与周围的人进行交际。
5）自指性功能：语言可以用来表达个人的情感并展示个性。
6）启发功能：使用语言可以获得知识、了解世界。
语言可以用于学习，语言可以用于问答、用于争辩，用于验证假设、推导结论和新奇发现。
7）想象功能：语言用于创造想象系统，可以是文学作品、哲学领域里，也可以是空想、白日做梦和发呆遐想。
成人语言有三大元功能：人际功能、概念功能和语篇功能。
国内著名学者胡壮麟等人在其《语言学教程》中，用如下词语来表达语言的七大功能：1）信息功能：被认为是语言最主要的功能。
自考语言学概论笔记（全）
简答题1言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。
2书面语和口语的主要差别。
3书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义。
4语言和种族的关系5语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语言学必须明确自己的研究对象，才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。
6语言和言语的区别。
7任何符号，包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体。
8语言符号的强制性。
9语言符号的可变性10语言是一个系统11语言系统的各个子系统的系统性不平衡。
12语言系统具有相对的封闭性和自主性。
13语言系统的层次性14组合关系的含义15聚合关系的含义16组合关系和聚合关系的关系17普通语言学的含义和主要研究领域。
18应用语言学的性质和主要研究领域19、古代哲学家对语言的研究、古代的语言本体研究20、历史比较语言学的产生21、普通语言学的产生22、索绪尔的主要贡献23、社会语言学、功能语言学、认知语言学等语言学新学派的产生24、语言学和文学的关系25、语言学在历史学和考古学中的应用26、语言学研究在语言规划中的作用。
27、语言学研究与计算机科学。
28.简答语音中最基本的要素。
29.简答语音的本质属性体现在那些方面?30 简答国际音标与音素之间的关系。
31 简述元音分类的依据。
32 论述音位的性质(特征)。
33 音位的划分。
34.简答“对立关系”与“互补”关系35. 简答音位和音位变体的关系。
36. 音位与音素的区别。
37. 简答复元音与几个相连的单元音的区别。
38. 简答汉语普通话的音节结构特点。
39什么是语言的客观存在形式、为什么说语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言不完全是一模一样的、应该如何理解口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的40、为什么说语言虽然是民族的重要标志，但并不是最可靠的标志。
41.为什么不能单凭“相互理解程度”来区分语言和方言。
42区分语言和言语有什么意43.应该如何理解语言符号的任意性44.语言符号的离散特征和线形特征对语言系统的结构特点有什么重大意义。
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1.语法：词的构成，变化和词构成词组和句子的规则。
2.语法意义：语法形式所体现的意义。
3.语法范畴：语法意义的类。
4.历时语法：从语法发展变化角度纵向地、动态地研究语法，研究的重点是某些语法现象在特定时间过程中产生和消失的原因及其规律。
5.共时语法：从某一时期存在的语法现象的角度横向地、静态地研究语法，研究的重点是某一语言在特定空间范围内的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。
6.个别看法：指对个别看言，语法的研究，既包括研究一种语言的语法系统，也包括研究一种语言中与其他语言不同的语法特点，这类研究的意义在于发现各种语言独特的语法现象。
7.语法规则：语法规则本身也就是客观存在的语法，即人们说话时直觉和习惯上所遵守的某种语感。
8.普遍语法：指对人类语言的语法共性的研究，其意义在于发现人类语言中共有的语法机制。
9.核心语法：又叫小语法，仅指句法结构规则。
10.外围语法：又叫大语法，它研究与语法有关的词语知识、语义知识和语音知识。
11.语法形式：能体现一类意义或有共同性作用的形式都是语法形式，能体现语法意义的形式。
12.语法手段：根据语法形式的共同特点把它们归并为几个基本类别，这种语法形式的类就叫做“语法手段”。
13.递归：相同的规则可以在一个结构里重复使用。
14.语境：说话时的环境条件，包括特定的场所、对话人和上下文等。
15.句子：由若干个词或词组按照一定的规则组合成的，能表达相对完整的意义，前后有较大的停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。
16.句法范畴：由结构的变化来表示语法意义的形式就是司法范畴。
17.句法手段：通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式叫做句法手段。
18.句法：语法中主要说明句子成分和句子类型的部分称为句法，也称造句法。
19.词法：语法中主要描写词的形态特征和变化规则的部分称为词法，也称形态学。
20.词法范畴：由词的变化来表示语法意义的形式就是词法范畴。
21.词法手段：通过词的变化表现语法意义的形式叫做词法手段。
22.语调：是通过整个句子的音高、音重、停顿等来表示一定语法意义的形式。
23.语序：是通过句法结构中词语的位置顺序来表示一定语法意义的形式。
24.体词性范畴：指名词的词形变化形式表示的意义。
25.谓词性范畴：指动词的词形变化形式表示的意义。
26.词类；可以替换出现在词法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类。
27.词组：特定的词类与词类的组合就构成了词组。
28.向心词组：整个词组功能相当于词组中心语功能的词组，如偏正词组的功能与中心语相同。
例：十分愉快：愉快，就是向心词组。
29.离心词组：整个词组的功能不等于词组中任何成分的功能。
30.谓词性词组：整个词组的功能相当于谓词的词组。
31.体词性词组：整个词组的功能相当于体词的词组。
32.完全主谓句；主谓词组形成的句子叫完全主谓句。
33.不完全主谓句；能够补足缺少的成分而构成主谓句的句子就是不完全主谓句。
34.非主谓句；不具有主谓的结构形式但一般不需要或不能补出成分的句子就是非主谓句。
35.句组：由几个相对独立意义的句子（包括单句和复句）构成，句中没有特定的连接词，而且中间还有多个较大停顿（书面上分别用几个句末标点符号）的语言片断叫做句组。
36.复句：由两个成两个以上互不从属的主谓结构组成。
表达多个相互关联的较完整的意义，并且中间有较小停顿，或有特定的连接词连接。
前后有较大停顿的句子。
37.多重复句，由几个句子构成，说的是关系密切的一件事，句子之间有相互关联的连接词，末尾只有一个较大的停顿（书面上用一个句末标点符号）的语言片断。
38.复杂结构单句：包含着从属或降级主谓结构的内部结构复杂的单句叫做复杂结构单句。
39.直接成分分析法：把复杂词组逐层切分，一直切分到词为止；或者从词开始逐层组合，一直到复杂词组为止的方法叫做直接组成成分分析法。
1.语义：语言形式表达的内容，是语言的意义。
2.理性意义：也叫做逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主观世界的认识。
3.非理性意义：是说话人的主观情感、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容，它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上的。
4、词汇意义：由语汇形式表达的意义。
5.语法意义：由语法形式表达的意义。
6.语境意义：语言形式在特定的交际场合和知识背景等语境因素的作用下所表达的意义。
7.词义；语音形式结合在一起的人们对一定对象的概括反映和主观态度以及其他附加色彩。
8.词的理性意义：同词的语音形式结合在一起的对一定对象的区别性特征的认识。
9.词的非理性意义：附着在词的理性意义之上的反映感情色彩、语体色彩和形象色彩等方面的意义，又叫做词义的附加色彩。
10.词的通俗意义：由于概括深度的差异分出助词的理性意义的一种类型，是人们对事物所具有的一组非本质性特征的反映。
11.词的科学意义：由于概括深度的差异分出的词的理性意义的一种类型，是人们对事物的本质特征的反映。
12.义项：词典释义的最小单位，是从词语的各种用例中概括出来的共同的，一般的、稳定的意义。
13.义素：从义项分析中得到的词义的语义特征。
14.义素分析：把词语的义项进一步分析为若干义素的组合，以便说明词义的结构、词义之间的异同以及词义之间的各种关系。
15.单义词：一类词的意义可以概括反映一类对象，即只有一个义项的词。
16.多义词：一个词的意义可以概括反映相互联系的几类对象，即包含几个互相联系的义项的词。
17.本义：多义词的多个意义中，最初的那个意义叫本义。
18.基本义：多义词的多个意义中的某个时期最常用、最主要的意义。
19.派生义：多义词的多个意义中直接或间接地从本义衍生出来的意义，也叫引申义。
20.同义词：一种语言或方言中若干以不同的语音形式表达相同或相近的意义的词。
21.等义词：指包括理性意义和非理性意义（附加色彩）在内的词完全相同的两个或两个以上的词。
22.近义词：指理性意义相同或基本相同，但又有细微差别的两个或两个以上的词。
23.反义词：一种语言或方言中意义相反的两个词。
24.语义场：若干具有共同的类属义素的词语（义项）构成的聚合物。
25、上位词、下位词：语言中有些词所代表事物的范围包括在另一些词所代表事物的范围之内，那么这两部分词之间就具有上下位的关系，其中所代表的事物范围大的词叫做上位词，范围小的词叫做下位词。
26.关系意义：词语在组合成句子的时候总要形成一定的结构关系，由这些结构关系所赋予的意义就是关系意义。
27.语法关系意义：词语在一定的语法结构中形成的关系是语法结构关系，由语法结构关系所赋予的意义就是语法关系意义。
28.语义关系意义：词语在组合过程中产生的语义上的关系是语义结构关系，由语义结构关系赋予的意义就是语义关系意义。
29.语气意义：反映说话人使用句子的目的和说话人情绪的意义就是语气意义。
30.述谓结构：把一个命题进一步分析为由谓词和变元组成的语义结构叫做述谓结构。
31.变元：述谓结构的组成部分，与谓词有直接语义关系并受谓词支配的语义成分，又称“题元”“项”等。
32.语义角色：根据谓词和变元之间不同的语义关系把变元分出的不同的类型叫做语义角色。
33.语义指向：句子中某个成分发生语义联系的成分就是该成分的语义指向。
34、歧义：指同一语言符号序列可能表达不同意义的现象。
1.方言：通常指地域方言，它是全民族语言在不同地域的变体，是统一的全民族语言的分支。
2.亲属语言：是语言分化的产物，凡从同一种语言中分化出来的若干语言都是亲属语言。
3.社会方言：一种语言或地域方言内部同一定的社会特征和社会群体相关联的变体和特点被称为“社会方言”。
4.语系：谱系分类中最大的类，凡有亲属关系的语言都属于同一语系。
5.谱系分类；根据语言的历史来源或语言的亲属关系对世界上的语言进行分类，把有亲属关系的语言归在一起，把没有历史同源关系的语言互相分开，这种分类叫做语言的谱系分类。
6.隐语：某些团伙所创造使用的秘密词语或语句。
7.共同语：一个社会的全体成员共同使用的语言形式。
8.基础方言：作为民族共同语的基础的方言。
9.双语现象：某一言语社团使用两种方言或分别使用共同语和方言的社会现象。
10.地域方言：同一种语言由于语音、语汇和语法等方面的差异而在不同地区形成的地域分支或变体。
11.语音对应关系：方言之间所具有的、有规律的而非个别的语音之间互相对应的关系。
12.语言间的亲属关系：亲属语言有共同的来源，这些语言之间具有历史同源关系，这种关系被称作语言间的亲属关系。
13.借词：也叫外来词，主要指语音形式和语义内容都来自外语的词。
14、仿译词：意译词的一种，指那些用本民族语言的语素逐一翻译原词语的各个成分，不但把原词语的意义，而且把原词语的内部结构形式也移植过来的那些词。
15.意译词：词的语音形式和构词方式是本民族语言的，词义来自外语的词。
16.双语现象：一个社会同时使用两种或多种语言作为交际工具，它是民族的接触、尤其是民族杂居的产物。
17.语言转用：指一种语言取代其他语言而成为不同民族的共同交际工具。
18.洋泾浜语：这是汉语对混杂语言的称呼，指母语不同的人在相互交际时所使用的两种或多种语言混杂而成的交际工具。
19.克里奥耳语：作用某个社会群体的母语来使用的、由两种或多种语言混合而成的语言。
20.双言现象：指某一言语社团使用两种方言功分别使用共同语和方言的社会现象。
21.语言混合：在不同语言频繁接触的地区，来源于不同语言的成分可能混合在一起，产生一种与这些语言都不相同的新的交际工具，这种现象就叫做语言混合。
22.非克里奥耳化：克里奥耳语向基础语言的方向发展，使两种语言越来越接近，甚至使克里奥耳语为基础语言的一种变体的现象和过程被称之为非克里奥耳化。
23.语言规划：社会对语言文字问题所作出的有组织、有意识的管理、调节和改进。
24、语言政策：如果语言规划具有法律、法令和政令的形式，就被称作语言政策。
25、语言规范化：指把那些符合语言发展规律的新成分、新用法肯定下来并加以推广，对那些不符合语言发展规律，且又难以被社会公众接受的成分和用法，则根据规范化的要求加以剔除，从而为共同语确定语音、语汇、语法方面的标准，并用这些标准去引导人们的语言使用。
26.民族语言政策：主要指关于一个国家内部少数民族语言的政策，具体说，就是如何对待少数民族语言、如何规定少数民族语言的社会政治地位的政策。
□谓词在句义中直接说明话题的成分，相应于在语法中充当谓语的动词或形容词，主要反映动作或情感的变化、性质或情感的变化。
□述项句义中的话题与述题所涉及的对象，相当于语法中充当主语和宾语的名词。
□预设利用语言进行交际时双方所共知的常识或根据句子的语境推断出来的信息。
□蕴含两个句子中如果有一个对应的语言单位是上下位概念，这两个句子就是蕴含关系。
□语义指向论结构关系，A应该属于B，但在语义上A指向C.第四章词汇□词汇词汇是一个集合概念，指词和词的等价物：固定词组和总汇。