哈佛大学论文写作教程
关于学位论文写作中注释及参考文献的规范要求
关于学位论文写作中注释及参考文献的规范要求第一篇：关于学位论文写作中注释及参考文献的规范要求中国社会科学院研究生院学位办公室关于学位论文写作中注释及参考文献的规范要求一、学位论文的注释要求：注释必须规范，一律采用脚注、自动插入格式；每页重新编号，编号数字形式采用①、②、③、…；每个注释要件及顺序依次为：作者姓名、书名或文章名、出版单位名称及出版时间、页码。
1．一般中文著作例:田余庆：《东晋门阀政治》，北京大学出版社1991年版，第57页、第78—80页。
2．编纂类著作，应在编者姓名之后标注“编”或“主编”或“编辑”字样例：朱学勤：《程序公正与实质正义》。
中华读书网编：《学术权力与民主》，鹭江出版社2000版，第34页。
3．论文集内论文，应先注明论文，再注文集等版本信息例：罗荣渠：《扶桑国猜想与美洲的发现—兼论文化传播问题》。
见罗荣渠著：《美洲史论》，中国社会科学出版社1997年版，第169—180页。
4．翻译著作（译文），除应包括上述版本信息外，还应括注原作者国别、译者姓名例：［德］贡德·弗兰克著：《白银资本——重视经济全球化中的东方》，刘北成译，中央编译出版社2000年版，第289—290页。
5．古典文献类著作，除应包括上述版本信息外，还应括注卷次例：《史记》卷25，第1088页。
6．报刊文章例：[法]巴斯蒂：《义和团运动期间直隶省的天主教教民》，马胜利译，《历史研究》，2000年第1期，第30页。
7．外文论著，应遵循国际学术惯例，凡文章篇名，应用“”表示；凡书名、报纸和刊物名，一律用右斜体表示例：William Rehg,“Translator’Introduction”,in Habermas’s Between Facts and Norms,MIT Press,1996.p.IX；David M.Radmussen,How is Valid Law Possible? In Philosophy and Social Criticism,Vol.20,No.4.1994.8．引用同一著作、论文，在本文同一页中再出现时，应采用简化格式例：田余庆：前引书，第80—90页。
美国研究生教育的淘汰机制及启示——以哈佛大学、麻省理工学院为例
哈佛 大学 研究生如 果想 答辩 。 必须 在最 后一年 的
哈 佛 大学研 究生学 习 的每 一阶 段都 有淘 汰 。 且 前 一年春 季交 上两 章节 完成 的文 稿 ， 则下 一年 不能 而 否 非常严 格 。该 校 东亚语 言与 文明 系 ，博士 生 第一 、 二 参加 答辩 。学生按 规定 六年 内应 完成论 文 。 对于长 时 年 ， 根据学 生学 习课程 情况 予以淘 汰 。学 生两年 内 间不 完成论 文 的 “ 就 老博 士 生 ” 哈 佛 大学 规 定 ， ， 十年 未 至少要 完成 ｌ ６门单 学期 的课（ 年） 半 或等 量课程 。 有超 完成 学业 者 ． 再予 以注册 。 不
比较 与借 鉴
ｘ ■ ｛ ∞ ０％
２ 年 ９ 擎９ｗ ０ 第期当一 ｛ ’ ０ ９ 凄《， “ ０
美国研究生教育的淘汰机制及启示
以哈佛大学 、 麻省理工学院为例
● 王 颖
摘 要 ： 佛 大 学、 省理 工 学 院等 美 国大 学研 究生教 育 的 淘汰机 制 包括 招 生 录取 、 养过 程 、 哈 麻 培 论文 写作过程 等 方面 的淘汰 ， 对我 国研 究生教 育质量提 高、 淘汰机 制 实施 有一 定借鉴 意义 。
关 键 词 ： 汰 制 、 生 标 准 、 程 要 求 、 文要 求 淘 招 课 论
研 究 生教 育 的淘 汰 制度 本过 ， 就被 要求退 学 。在这 时期研 究 制 ， 目的是 为了避免 最差 。 其 一定 的淘汰 率 ， 研究型 生还需 要掌握 好第 二外语 。研 究生每 选一 门课 ． 意 是 就 大 学教 育质量 、 教育水 平提 高的可 靠保 障 。
第 四 年在 综 合 、 业考 试 结束 后 ， 生要 选择 导 专 学
议论文写作训练五步构段法
议论文写作训练（四）
议论文主体段落的写法
语言表达中，段落是至关重 要的。几乎可以断言，能够写好 一段，一定能写好一篇。不重视 段落的训练，这是不少学生写不 好文章的重要原因。
——张志公
味坚持，选错位置，可能也是一位来自秀的大学毕业生，在其他行业小有建树，但比起他现在对人类的贡献，就相去甚远
了。⑤正是因为找准了自己的位置，找到适合自己发分展析的行句 业，才成就如此辉煌的人生。 总结句
议论文主体段落的写法
——五步（句）构段法
议论文主体段落写法
——五步（句）构段法 • 观点句：语段中心 （分论点） • 阐释句：道理论证（引用名言等） • 材料句：事实论据（举例子） • 分析句：分析论据（分析例子） • 结论句：推出结论（小结）
议论文五步构段法
课后强化训练
选择第三次月考优秀作文中的一段，用“五 步构段法”升格。
祝你学习进步！
议论文五步构段法
观点句
【例段1·修改稿】
阐释句
材料句
①贫困也是一笔财富。②自古“寒门出贵子，白屋出
公卿”，贫困让人学会努力、学会思考、学会成长。③司
马光出身贫寒;范仲淹两岁丧父,随母改嫁，幼时连稠一点
的粥都难以喝到；明代龙图大学士宋濂家中一贫如洗。荷
兰画家梵高也曾穷困潦倒，一文不名，生活上常靠着弟弟
接济；苏联伟大作家高尔基曾经是个流浪儿；居里夫人刚
满十岁就外出打工……④他们因为贫穷，才更知道珍惜，
知道只有靠自己的努力才能摆脱。因为贫穷，才会在黑暗
中长途跋涉，在逆境中执着前行。⑤可见贫困也是一笔财
议论文作文之材料作文议论文
材料作文议论文【篇一：材料作文议论文】材料一：寂静的夜晚，大理石地板对英雄雕像说：“瞧你多么风光，人们在你面前顶礼膜拜，而我却被人们踩在脚下，默默无闻。
”雕像说：“当初你忍受不了工匠的雕刻，就只能做一块地板。
” 写一篇不少于800字的议论文。
本次作文属于典型的材料作文，没有话题核心词，话题隐藏在材料之中，需要考生仔细琢磨，认真提炼。
所给材料有两个重要的对象：大理石地板和英雄雕像。
相互对举，互为呼应。
大理石地板仍然是地板的原因在于它缺少了“雕刻”的重要一环，而英雄雕像成为“英雄”的原因在于它经受了“雕刻”之苦。
这就告诉人们一个朴实的道理：成功的获得必须学会“忍受”，学会付出，不经艰难困苦，哪来玉汝于成？不经一番寒彻骨，哪来梅花香如故？如果上升到哲学的层面考察的就是过程与结果（量变与质变、原因与结果）的关系。
人们究竟顶礼膜拜英雄石像什么呢？那是人们看到的是雕像背后附着的意义（艺术价值、历史价值、社会价值、精神价值等等），但单就雕像的答话中，不难理解材料隐藏的寓意：在忍受（一种主观行为）工匠的雕刻（一种来自外界力量的改变）的过程中，雕像慢慢地有了质的飞跃。
显然，这里人们顶礼膜拜的是雕像身上的精神内核——“逆境”中拼搏奋斗的精神。
本文，不大适合反向立意，如果站在大理石地板的角度大谈“平凡就是伟大”的道理是不得要领的。
因为，从对话的材料来看，雕像的话有导向作用。
“当初你忍受不了工匠的雕刻，就只能做一块地板”这句话的言外之意阐释了伟大来源于忍受痛苦、接受磨砺的道理。
立意推荐：1、艰难困苦，玉汝于成。
2、不经风雨，怎见彩虹？3、自古英雄多磨难。
4、宝剑锋从磨砺出，梅花香自苦寒来。
5、没有付出，哪来收获？6、天将降大任于斯人，必先苦其心智。
材料：1、《真心英雄》的歌词。
2、吃得苦中苦，方为人上人。
3、《孟子》关于“天将降大任于斯人”的论述。
4、《格言》上的寓言故事“骄傲的雕像”或“铺路石”。
5、运动员“刘翔”、“姚明”等。
论文哈佛大学引用标准格式
Harvard Referencing System GuideMotivation For This DocumentIn academic work, you are expected to follow certain rules of conduct in your study. Specifically, whenever you create an assignment, essay, presentation, group project, or other work which will be submitted for discussion or for evaluation, then your work needs to be of academic standard. Not doing so may cause your grade to be reduced significantly, perhaps even to the point of failure.“Academic standard” is quite a vague term and can be di fferent things to different people. However, for business students you can imagine that your work should try to emulate the work of other people in the field of business. In particular, this includes work which you see in professional journals, the work of your professors and the writers of your textbooks.Of course, you are not expected to be able to produce leading edge content in your work, but the format of your work should follow the same academic standard as professional writers in your field at least in terms of structure, referencing, and layout.This document only discusses the elements of referencing which are required for “Academic standard” work. Other elements of your work such as its structure and layout are also important, but these are not discussed here.Referencing can be done in many ways. For your programme, the standard method of referencing is the “Harvard System of References”. This system is very common world-wide, and is nearly universally understood. However in your professional career or in other other academic programmes, you may be required to use other systems of referencing. You are responsible for being aware of the local standards required in any work which you produce.In most reference systems, the idea is to leave the main text of your work uncluttered, but to still provide clear hints to the reader about where they can look for further information. Thus, most reference systems are actually implemented in two parts: a citation, and a bibliographic entry. A citation is just a shorthand marker that you insert into the body of your work to allow the reader to find a resource such as a book or an article or a television programme or whatever. The format for this is specified by the system of referencing you are using. In the case of the Harvard System, a citation looks like “Smith (2002)”. A bibliographic entry provides a complete description of the actual resource in a standard form. It contains just enough information for readers to find the resource for themselves. Again, the Harvard System of referencing has its own unique way of expressing this information.What This Document IsThis work is taken largely from an online guide to the Harvard System at the University of the West of England website (UWE, 2005).This is a guide to the Harvard System of References and is based on British Standards 1629:1989 and 5605:1990. As these standards do not yet include references to electronic resources we include our own recommendations for these below. These recommendations follow current common practice.This document provides a series of guidelines for citations (also known as attributions) and their accompanying bibliographic entries. These guidelines however are not completely rigid: you have some flexibility in how you do both citations and bibliographic entries. But it is important that you decide, within the flexibility allowed by the guidelines, your specific way of making them. Whatever that way is, you should be absolutely consistent within your work (i.e., within yourassignment/report/presentation). Inconsistency is sloppy and viewed as unprofessional. Of course, if your professor or supervisor imposes other constraints on you, then you should follow those as well.General Comments About Electronic ResourcesThe general recommendation for electronic resources is that you need to include all the usual information for print resources. In addition, you need to indicate that the resource is online, where it was found online, and when it was found online. Details of this are provided below.Furthermore, for any electronic resource which has a printed counterpart (e.g., an electronic book, or electronic newspaper, etc.), you should present the information in a similar way in both cases. For example, if your bibliographic entries to printed books includes the title of the book quoted and in italics (“like this”) then your bibliographic entry to electronic books should also present the title in the same way.Citation in the text of your work.IntroductionA citation is simply a reference to a resource. The resource could be a page in a book, a magazine article, a television programme, or even a telephone call. In the Harvard System, a citation is simply the author's name, plus the date of publication (though in the case of an authour who publishes more than one resource in a given year, you need to add an optional letter “a”, “b”, etc., to distinguish between these resources). This simple method lets you look up the bibliographic entry easily, and also lets you see directly who is being quoted or referenced. The full details of the resource (the title of the book and the publisher, for example) are provided in the bibliography section.Here is an example of a citation:...the work of Jones (1991a) shows that lipids are...When you write a report or give a presentation you include citations for a number of reasons:•As a shorthand method of allowing your readers to understand any background material which may be important in understanding your work.•As a way of giving credit to other people for their ideas, techniques, opinions, or theories•As a way of proving that statements you make have a foundation in reality (e.g., that your quotations were really made by some other persons, that the theories or results that you mention are really published somewhere, that the data you quote is real, etc.)•As a way of giving specific references to other data, ideas, techniques, opinions and theories which you are using in your work, so that other people can evaluate your work and/or compare it to the work of others.When do you create citations in your work? Here are some situations where you should create citations:•Whenever you mention a theory or a definition of a concept, you should provide a reference to the reader so that they can look up exactly what you mean. Ideallythe reference you choose would be one which provides further information onyour theory/concept, but perhaps also a general discussion of the area with othercompeting theories or alternative definitions.•Whenever you quote data that you did not gather yourself through primary research, then you need to say where you got it from, and you do this by citing the source of the data which you mention.•Whenever you mention an opinion or quotation of somebody else, you should provide a reference to the reader so they can look it up.Where do you create citations in your work? The citations you provide in your work are put into the text just after the place where the theory/concept/data/quotation/opinion (or whatever it is that needs explanation)It is important to note that every citation in your work should be linked to a corresponding bibliographic entry at the end of your work. In general, if you wish to cite a particular book at several places in your work (e.g, you reference a theory on p.17 of the book, a quotation from p.39 of the book, and some data from p.82 of the book), then you should:•make individual citations at each place in your work, and noting the page number in the book. e.g.,•...according to the theory of Smith (Smith, 1996, p.17)...•...and Smith (1996, p.39) stated: “economics is a pure science”, by which...•...but other data indicates that only 0.9% (Smith, 1996, p.82) of...•Make a single bibliographic entry describing the book. e.g.,•Smith, J. 1996. “Economics”. Toronto. University of Toronto Press. In general, don't duplicate your references.Primary Resources（第一手资料）Almost all of the time you will reference primary resources. “Primary resources” are simply resources which you have actually seen/heard/read. In the text of your work you make a reference to a primary resource simply by using the author's surname and year of publication. There are a number of equivalent ways to do this, depending on the style you wish to employ.If the author's name occurs naturally in a sentence, then just give the year in brackets:...as defined by Mintzberg (1983)If not, then both name and year are shown in brackets:In a recent study (Handy, 1987) management is described as..If the same author has published more than one cited document in the same year these are distinguished by lower case letters attached to the year of publication:Drucker (1989a)If there are two authors both names should be given before the date:Gremlin and Jenking (1981)...If there are three or more authors only the surname of the first author should be given, followed by 'et al.' (which is the short form of a phrase meaning, “and others”): Kotler et al. (1987)If the author is unknown, use ‘Anon.’ to indicate “anonymous author”:Anon. (1967)Secondary Resources（二手资料）In some cases you may wish to quote some resource that has been referred to in something you have read. This generally happens when the original resource is not available to you. Such resources are called “secondary resources”. Secondary resources should be avoided if at all possible.The general principle to follow in this case is that you must create a bibliographic entry to describe the primary resource (i.e., to the book which you have read). This bibliographic entry is done in the normal way. However, the citation in the body of your work will be a little different: you must cite both the secondary resource and the primary resource you have read.Here are some examples which will make this clearer:Examples:Rowley (1991) cites the work of Melack and Thompson (1971) whodeveloped the McGill Archaeology questionnaire.Melack and Thompson (1971, cited by Rowley 1991) developed the McGill Archaeology questionnaire.Rowley (1991, citing Melack and Thompson 1971) refers to the McGillArchaeology questionnaire.In each of these cases, in your list of references the work by Rowley would be the only one included.Creating Bibliographic References.（建立参考书目格式）Every citation in your work will link to exactly one bibliographic entry. However, onebibliographic entry might be linked to many citations.Where do you put your bibliographic entries? In the Harvard System, they are all placed in one sectio n of your work, usually titled something like “Bibliography” or “References”. The Bibliography section follows the main body of your work.Format of the Bibliography Section（参考书目的格式）The format of the bibliography section is quite simple. It begins with something which announces that this is the bibliography section. For example, a title at the top of the first page, “Bibliography” which is in larger type and centred on the page. Or, a separate page with the title “References” in large type and centre d on the page. In either case, following this section heading are the bibliographic entries.In the Harvard System, the bibliographic entries are listed in sorted order. The sorting is done based on the following elements, in order of importance:•the first author's surname.•The first author's initials.•The date of publication.•An optional letter (a,b,c,d,...) distinguishing different publications by the same author in the same year.You will note that these elements are the same ones which make up the citation which you will use in the body of your work. This makes a clear link between any citation in the body of your work, and the bibliographic entries. Some examples will make this clear:Anderson, B. 2005. “...”Jones, H. 2004. “...”Jones, Q. 1996. “...”Jones, Q., 1999. “...”Jones, Q., 1999a. “...”Jones, Q., 1999b. “...”Smith, A. 1762. “...”Between each bibliographic entry you should normally insert a little space to allow the reader to see where one entry ends and another one begins. For example, a blank line or blank half line between entries would make your bibliography easier to read. All modern word processing software can do this for you.When you are doing research, you should collect references to each kind of material in a consistent way. If there is a resource to which you wish to make a reference, but is of a kind which is not mentioned here, then you should consult a more detailed source. There are many such sources available on the internet.Individual Bibliographic Entries（建立可供读者查阅的参考书目格式）The most important principle in making references is that the reader should be able tolocate the resource solely from the bibliographic information that you have provided. The rest of this section describes what information needs to be provided when creating bibliographic references for different kinds of resources.Note that electronic versions of resources (e.g., electronic books or articles) which can be also found in other media (e.g., printed) are referenced through bibliographic entries which are identical to their non-electronic counterparts, but with a somewhat standard additional part. Thus, an online book would be referenced as for a printed book, but would have in addition to the information needed for a printed book the following: After Title:“[online]”After Remainder of Bibliographic Entry:“Available from:” URLAccessed date.Reference to a book or a report.（书、报告）You need to provide the following information, in order:List of Author(s)for each author: Author's surname, followed by Author's initials.Year of publication.Title. (in italics and/or quoted and/or underlined).Edition. (if not the first).Publisher.Place of publication.Plus for electronic resources the following phrases and data:After Title:“[online]”After Place of Publication:“Available from:” URLAccessed date.Example:（书）HEMINGWAY, E., 2003. Better reading French: a reader and guide toimproving your understanding of written French. : McGraw-Hill.DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 2002. National service framework fordiabetes: delivery strategy. : Department of Health.Online Examples:HEMINGWAY, E., 2003. Better reading French: a reader and guide toimproving your understanding of written French [online]. : McGraw-Hill.Available from: [Accessed 25 August 2004].DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 2002. National service framework fordiabetes: delivery strategy [online]. : Department of Health. Available from: /assetRoot/04/03/28/23/04032823.pdf [Accessed 5May 2004].For books without individual authors use ANON.Example:ANON. 1991. Turbo assembler: users' guide version 2.0. , CA: Borland. Reference to a contribution in a book.（注释）The reader needs to know:List of Author(s)for each author: Author's surname, followed by Author's initials.Year of publication.Title of Contribution.“eds.” List o f Editor(s)for each editor: Editor's surname, followed by Editor's initials “in” Title of Book (in italics and/or quoted and/or underlined).Edition. (if not the first).Publisher.Place of publication.Page numbers of contribution.Plus for electronic resources:After Title:“[online]”After Page Numbers:“Available from:” URLAccessed date.Example:（注释）SMITH, C.,1980. Problems of information studies in history. In: S. STONE, ed. Humanities information research. : CRUS, 1980, pp 27-30.WESTMORLAND, L., 2000. Taking the flak: operational policing, fear and violence. In: G. LEE-TREWEEK, ed. Danger in the field: risk and ethics in social research [online]. : Routledge, pp 26-42. Available from:/ [Accessed 25 May 2004].NOTE: When referring to specific pages in a book 'pp' is used. Use 'p' if referring to a single page.Reference to a journal article.（期刊）Some journal articles are published in print only, some in print and online (of which someare exact copies and some will appear in a different format), and some online only. In all cases, the version you cite should be the version that you have seen.The reader needs to know:List of Author(s)for each author: Author's surname, followed by Author's initials.Year of publication.Title of Article.Title of Journal.(in italics and/or quoted and/or underlined).Volume NumberPart Number. (in brackets).Page numbers. (optional)Plus for electronic resources:After Title:“[online]”After Page Numbers:“Available from:” URLAccessed date.Example:（期刊）NICOLLE, L.,1990. Data protection: laying down the law. ManagementComputing, 13(12), pp 48-49, 52.CHRISTENSEN, P., 2004. The health-promoting family: a conceptualframework for future research. “Social Science and Medicine” [online],59(2), pp 223-243. Available from:/science/journal/02779536 [Accessed 5 May 2004].SANDLER, M.P., 2003. The art of publishing methods. “Journal of Nuclear Medicine” [online], 44, pp 661-662. Available from:/content/vol44/issue5/index.shtml [Accessed 5May 2004].C.M., KROESEN, K., et al., 2004. Complementary and alternativemedicine: a concept map. “BMC Complementary and AlternativeMedicine” [online] 4:2 (13 February 2004). Available from:/content/pdf/1472-6882-4-2.pdf [Accessed 5 May 2004].Reference to a newspaper article.（报纸）The reader needs to know:List of Author(s)for each author: Author's surname, followed by Author's initials.Year of publication.Title of Article.Title of Newspaper.(in italics and/or quoted and/or underlined).Date Published.Page numbers. (optional)Plus for electronic resources:After Title:“[online]”After Page Numbers:“Available from:” URLAccessed date.Example:（报纸）BOOTH, J., 2004. Blair plans annual UK-China summit. Guardian [online]11 May, p 6. Available from:/guardian/2004/05/11/pdfs/gdn_040511_brd_6 _2263446.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2004].HASSELL, N., 2004. Gilts investors take profits. Times [online] 10 August.Available from: /xchange-international[Accessed 8 August 2004].Reference to a conference paper.（会议论文）The reader needs to know:List of Author(s)for each author: Author's surname, followed by Author's initials.Year of contribution“in” (in italics)List of Editor(s) of the Conference Proceedingsfor each editor: Editor's surname, followed by Editor's initials.Title of Conference Proceedings.(in italics and/or quoted and/or underlined).Date of Conference.Place of Conference.Publisher (if known)Page numbers.Plus for electronic resources:After Title:“[online]”After Page Numbers:“Available from:” URLAccessed date.Example:（会议论文）SILVER, K.,1989. Electronic mail the new way to communicate. In: D.I.RAITT, ed. 9th International Information Meeting, 3-5 December 1988. :Learned Information, pp 323-330.Reference to an Act of Government.（政府法案）Reader needs to know:Name of Issuing BodyYear of PublicationName of Act (in italics and/or underline and/or quoted)Other Identifier Numbers/Codes/Chapter NumbersPlace of PublicationPublisher.Example:（政府法案）Parliament. 2002. Football (disorder) (Amendment) Act 2002. Chapter 12. : The Stationery Office.Reference to a Command paper.（行政公文）Reader needs to know:Name of Committee/Department/Working Group/CommissionYear of PublicationTitle (in italics and/or underlined and/or in quotes)Place of PublicationPublisher.Other Identifying Codes, if any, in brackets.Example:（行政公文）Department of Trade and Industry. 2001. Productivity and enterprise: aworld class competition regime. : The Stationery Office. (Cm 5233). Reference to a thesis.（论文）Use similar method to a book.Example:LEVINE, D.,1993. A parallel genetic algorithm for the set partitioningproblem. Ph.D. thesis, Illinois Institute of Technology.Reference to a film, video and television broadcast.（电影、视频和电视广播）The reference for films and videos should include: title, year, material designation, subsidiary originator (director is preferred), production details - place: organisation. Example:。
学术论文的写作规范与范例
学术论文的写作规范与范例近年来，随着学术界的不断发展，学术论文已经成为了评价一个学者能力的重要标准。
然而，随着学术界的竞争日益激烈，学术论文的质量也日益受到重视。
这就需要我们深入了解学术论文的写作规范以及范例，提高写作能力，不断创新。
一、学术论文的写作规范1. 规范的文字表达。
学术论文的语言应该规范、严谨，不能有口语化和随意性的表达。
使用的语言要达到准确、简洁、清晰的标准。
并要注意避免使用诸如“What’s more”、“In my opinion”等一些过多修饰和模糊表达的形式。
2. 合理的篇章结构。
学术论文应该有明确的篇章结构，例如：引言、目的、方法、结果、讨论和结论等，每个部分都有其约定俗成的内容和格式。
在具体应用时，作者可以根据自己的需要适当地调整和修改。
3. 准确的引用格式。
在学术论文中，引用他人观点和研究成果是非常重要的，但是引用的格式也应该要符合学术规范。
常用的引用格式有哈佛引用法、APA引用法、MLA引用法等，具体的使用应该根据不同的学科领域和院校的要求来规定。
4. 严谨的研究态度。
学术论文的写作需要一种严谨、认真的态度。
在撰写论文时，要尽量避免一些没有科学依据的表述，不做主观猜测和臆断，要有准确的数据、实验证据来支持自己的观点。
二、学术论文范例以下是一篇学术论文的范例，仅供参考：标题：大学生参与社区服务行为的影响因素分析摘要：本文以某大学生为研究对象，通过问卷调查、数据采集等方法，对其参与社区服务的行为进行了调查研究。
结果表明，大学生参与社区服务行为的影响因素主要包括：个人价值观、社会支持、时间因素和制度规定等。
并在此基础上，提出了一些针对性的改进措施。
引言：社区服务是现代社会中的一个重要课题。
社区服务可以促进社会和谐、增强民众归属感，而大学生是社区服务的重要一部分。
因此，分析大学生参与社区服务行为的影响因素，对于促进社区服务的发展，具有十分重要的意义。
方法：本文采用了问卷调查法，共有200名来自某大学的大学生参与了本次研究。
哈佛格式参考文献内容
哈佛格式参考文献内容在哈佛格式中，参考文献的内容需要按照一定的规则进行编写。
下面是一些常见的参考文献类型以及它们在哈佛格式中的内容要求：1. 书籍（Book）：作者姓氏，作者名字的首字母缩写. (出版年). 书名. 出版地点，出版社。
2. 期刊文章（Journal Article）：作者姓氏，作者名字的首字母缩写. (出版年). 文章标题.期刊名，卷号(期号)，页码。
3. 网络文章（Website Article）：作者姓氏，作者名字的首字母缩写. (发布年). 文章标题.网站名. [在线]. 可获取的网址。
(访问日期)。
4. 报纸文章（Newspaper Article）：作者姓氏，作者名字的首字母缩写. (出版年，出版月日). 文章标题. 报纸名，版面。
5. 会议论文（Conference Paper）：作者姓氏，作者名字的首字母缩写. (发表年). 论文标题. 会议名称，会议地点，会议日期。
6. 学位论文（Thesis/Dissertation）：作者姓氏，作者名字的首字母缩写. (完成年). 论文标题. [学位类型]. 学位授予单位。
7. 电子书（E-book）：作者姓氏，作者名字的首字母缩写. (出版年). 书名. [电子书版本]. 出版地点，出版社。
请注意，以上只是一些常见的参考文献类型，实际情况可能会有所不同。
在编写参考文献时，你需要根据具体的来源类型和哈佛格式的要求进行适当的调整和补充。
同时，还需要注意使用正确的标点符号，如逗号、句号、冒号等，以及斜体或引号等格式要求。
确保参考文献内容的准确性和完整性，以便读者能够准确找到所引用的来源。
哈佛大学入学考试题
哈佛大学入学考试题近年来，哈佛大学作为全球顶尖学府之一，其入学考试一直备受关注。
作为学术界的瑰宝，哈佛大学的入学考试旨在选拔高素质的学生，他们在智力、领导力、创新能力、社区服务等方面都具有出色的表现。
本文将通过讨论哈佛大学入学考试的一般性特点以及具体的考题样式，为考生提供了解和参考。
1. 入学考试的一般性特点哈佛大学入学考试具有以下一般性特点：首先，多元化。
哈佛大学入学考试注重考察学生的综合能力，不仅包括学术能力，还涉及领导力、创造力、社区服务、团队合作等方面。
通过综合能力的考察，哈佛大学希望选拔具有多元特长和全面发展的学生。
其次，灵活性。
哈佛大学入学考试并没有固定的考试形式，可以是笔试、口试或面试等形式。
考试科目和题型也会根据不同的专业和学院而有所不同，以考察学生相应专业背景和潜能。
再次，公正性。
哈佛大学入学考试注重公正性，尽量避免对学生背景的重视程度不对称。
学校会采用多层次、多方面的评估方式，结合学术成绩、个人陈述、推荐信等多种材料进行综合考量，以尽可能减少评审主观因素对录取结果的影响。
2. 考题样式及分析以下是哈佛大学入学考试的常见考题样式，供考生参考：选择题部分：1. 英语阅读理解。
这部分考题要求考生根据所给文章，回答相关的问题或选择最合适的答案。
题目涵盖文学、历史、社会科学等多个领域，旨在考察考生的阅读理解和分析能力。
2. 数学与逻辑推理。
这部分考题主要测试考生的数学逻辑思维能力。
题目涉及代数、几何、概率、数据分析等方面，要求考生运用逻辑推理和数学知识解决问题。
3. 判断推理。
这部分考题要求考生根据所给信息，判断陈述是否正确，并给出相关理由。
题目常涉及逻辑推理、科学方法、伦理道德等方面的问题，考察考生的辩证思维和分析能力。
写作部分：1. 文章写作。
这部分考题要求考生根据所给主题，撰写一篇有逻辑性和连贯性的文章。
文章可以是议论文、说明文、记叙文等形式，考察考生的写作能力和思维深度。
2. 个人陈述。
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哈佛大学教授教你写论文 本文是哈佛化学与化学生物学学院G. M. Whitesides教授研究小组内部分发的论文写作方法,从中我们不但可以学到如何有效的写作论文,而且可以学到一个科研小组是如何协作完成论文的写作。
Whitesides Group: Writing a Paper George M. Whitesides Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
1.What is a scientific paper? A paper is an organized description of hypotheses, data and conclusions, intended to instruct the reader. Papers are a central part of research. If your research does not generate papers, it might just as well not have been done. “Interesting and unpublished”is equivalent to “non-existent.”
[科技论文是集假说、数据和结论为一体的概括性描述] Realize that your objective in research is to formulate and test hypotheses, to draw conclusions from these tests, and to teach these conclusions to others. Y our objective is not to “collect data.”
[研究的目的是为了形成并证实假说,得出结论,不是简单的数据收集。] A paper is not just an archival device for storing a completed research program, it is also a structure for planning your research in progress. If you clearly understand the purpose and form of a paper, it can be immensely useful to you in organizing and conducting your research.
A good outline for the paper is also a good plan for the research program. You should write and rewrite these plans/outlines throughout the course of the research. At the beginning, you will have mostly plan; at the end, mostly outline. The continuous effort to understand, analyze, summarize, and reformulate hypotheses on paper will be immensely more efficient for you than a process in which you collect data and only start to organize them when their collection is“complete.”
[论文并不仅是收集研究结果,也有助于形成进一步的研究工作的框架][好的文章提要也是研究工作的好计划,在研究的过程中,应该反复修改这些计划或提要。研究工作开始时,应有完善的计划;工作结束时,应充分的总结。]
2.Outlines 2.1 The reason for outlines. I emphasize the central place of an outline in writing papers, preparing seminars, and planning research. I especially believe that for you, and for me, it is most efficient to write papers from outlines. An outline is a written plan of the organization of a paper, including the
data on which it rests. You should, in fact, think of an outline as a carefully organized and presented set of data, with attendant objectives, hypotheses and conclusions, rather than an outline of text. [按照提纲进行写作是最有效的方法][提纲是一篇论文的行文计划,应该包括论文所依靠的数据。提纲不仅仅是列出各段的内容,而是按照目的,假说,结论来精心组织数据。]
An outline itself contains little text. If you and I can agree on the details of the outline (that is, on the data and organization), the supporting text can be assembled fairly easily. If we do not agree on the outline, any text is useless. Much of the time in writing a paper goes into the text; most of the thought goes into the organization of the data and into the analysis. It can be relatively efficient to go through several (even many) cycles of an outline before beginning to write text; writing many versions of the full text of a paper is slow.
[在我们就提纲达成一致以前,写正文是没有意义的][在动笔前,详细讨论几遍写作提纲会提高写作效率;写很多遍正文反倒很慢]
All the writing that I do - papers, reports, proposals (and, of course, slides for seminars)- I do from outlines. I urge you to learn how to use them as well.
2.2 How should you construct an outline? The classical approach is to start with a blank piece of paper, and write down, in any order, all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper. Ask yourself the obvious questions:“Why did I do this work?”“What does it mean?”“What hypothesis did I mean to test?”“What ones did I actually test?”“What were the results?”“Did the work yield a new method or compound? What?”“What measurements did I make?”“What compounds? How were they characterized?”Sketch possible equations, figures, and schemes. It is essential to try to get the major ideas written down. If you start the research to test one hypothesis, and decide, when you see what you have, that the data really seem to test some other hypothesis better, don't worry. Write them both down, and pick the best combinations of hypotheses, objectives and data. Often the objectives of a paper when it is finished are different from those used to justify starting the work. Much of good science is opportunistic and revisionist.
[找一页空白的纸,以任何顺序,写下与这篇文章有关的所有重要观点][自问一些显而易见的问题][如果你的研究开始是为证实一个假设,然而当你发现你有的数据仿佛真的可以更好地验证其它的假设时,你也不必担心。把它们两者都写出来,去选择假设,目的和数据的最佳组合。]
When you have written down what you can, start with another piece of paper and try to organize the jumble of the first one. Sort all of your ideas into three major heaps (A-C).