胡壮麟语言学(前三讲)
?Introducing Language
?Symbol
?V ocal
?Arbitrary
?System
?Human communication
?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
?II. Design Features of Language
?Arbitrariness
?Duality
?Creativity
?Displacement
?Arbitrariness
?There is no logical connection or innate relationship between forms of linguistic signs and their meaning.
?Duality
?Language has two levels of structures: sound and meaning.
?
?The sounds can combine with one another to form units that have meanings.
?Creativity
?The creativity of Language comes from duality and recursiveness.
?Displacement
?language can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
?Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
?III. Functions of Language
?Jakobson：6 functions
Addresser—— emotive
Addressee—— conative
Context ——— referential
Message ——poetic
Code ———— metalingual
Contact————phatic
?Halliday: 3 metafunctions
?Ideational function
Language is used to organize, understand, and express our experience of the world and of our own consciousness. ?The ideations function can be divided into two subfunctions: the experiential function and the logical function.
?The experiential functions is largely concerned with the content and ideas.
?The logical function is largely concerned with the relationship between ideas.
?We can say that ideational function can be used to construct a model of experience and logical relations.
?Interpersonal function
Language enables us to participate in communicative acts with other people, to express and understand feelings, attitudes and judgements.
?Textual function
Language is used to relate what is said (or written) to the real world and to other linguistic events.
?This involves the use of language to organize the text itself or to create relevance to context.
?Functions of language in the textbook
?Informative function
?Interpersonal function
?Performative function
?Emotive function
?Phatic function
?recreational function
?metalingual function
?Lecture 2 Linguistics
?The definition of Linguistics
?Main branches of linguistics
?Macrolinguistics
?Some important distinctions in linguistics
?I. Definition of Linguistics
?Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language.
?The Principles for evaluating the study of language
?Exhaustiveness
?The linguists should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation.
?Consistency
?There should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.
?Economy
?Other things being equal, a short statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more complex one.
?Objectivity
? A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data and cannot allow prejudice to influence his conclusion.
?II. Main branches of linguistics
?Phonetics
?Phonology
?Morphology
?Syntax
?Semantics
?Pragmatics
?III. Macrolinguistics
?Psycholinguistics
?Sociolinguistics
?Anthropological linguistics
?Computational linguistics
?IV. Some important distinctions in linguistics
?Descriptive/Prescriptive
? A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.
?It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rule s for ―correct‖ use of language.
?In other words, if a linguist talks about ―what is in language‖ or ―what people actually say‖, he is descriptive.?If he tells people ―what should be in language‖ or ―what people should say‖, he is prescriptive.
?Synchronic/Diachronic
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.
The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.
?The distinction between synchronic and diachronic studies is only theoretically clear.
?In reality, it is not easy to draw a sharp line between these two aspects of language studies.
The reasons are as follows:
?First, languages are in a constant state of changing.
?Secondly, the language of any speech community is never uniform.
?Thirdly, when a language changes, one set of features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.
?Langue/parole
This distinction is first made by the Swiss linguist, F. de Saussure early in this century.
?Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
?Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.
?The distinction between Langue and Parole
?langue is abstract; Parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.
?Secondly, Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; Parole is always a naturally occurring event.
?Thirdly, Langue is relatively stable and systematic; Parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.
?Competence/Performance
?The distinction is made by American linguist Noam Chomsky in 1965 in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (句法理论诸方面/句法理论面面观).
?Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
?Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.
?Lecture 3 Phonetics
I. Three branches of phonetics
II. Speech organs
III. Classification of consonants
IV. Classification of vowels
?I. Three branches of phonetics
?Articulatory phonetics studies the production of speech sounds.
?Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.
?Auditory or perceptual phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds or how speech sounds are received or perceived by listeners.
?II. Speech organs
?Three Cavities
Oral cavity
Nasal cavity
Pharyngeal cavity
?IPA
?Otto Jespersen
?International Phonetic Alphabet was published in August 1888.
?In the IPA chart, the sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.
?III. Classification of consonants
?Manners of articulation
?Stop/plosive
?Nasal
?Fricative
?Affricate
?Approximant
?Lateral
?Places of articulation
?Bilabial
?Labio-dental
?Dental
?Alveolar
?Post-alveolar
?Palatal
?Velar
?glottal
?Classification of vowels
Criteria
?The height of tongue raising.
?The part of tongue that is raised: front, center or back
?The length or tenseness of the vowel
?lips rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
?Lecture 4 Phonology
?The definition of phonology
?Phonetics and phonology
?Basic unit of phonology: Phoneme
?Some important terms:
minimal pairs
free variants
distinctive features
syllable
stress
?Phonological process
?Phonological rules
?I. The definition of phonology
?Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.
?Its primary aim is to discover the principles that govern how sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.
?II. The distinction between phonetics and phonology
?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.
?Phonology studies the sound patterns and sound system of languages.
?Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds.
?Phonology studies how speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.
?III. The basic unit of phonology: phoneme
? A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language is a PHONEME.
?Allophone (音位变体)
The non-distinctive sounds of the same phoneme are called allophones.
?Conditions for allophones
?Phonetic similarity:
The allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.
?Complementary distribution:
When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
?IV. Some important terms
?Minimal Pairs (最小对立体)
Word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.
Free variants (自由变体）
?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form,
but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.
?Distinctive feature
?It is first proposed by Roman Jakobson (1896-1982)
? A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.
?Syllable
?The syllabic structure
?English syllabic structure (ccc)v(cccc)
?Chinese syllabic structure (c)v(c)
?Open syllable
?Closed syllable
?Maximal onset principle
?When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.
?telling
?Stress
?Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
?Stress is a relative notion.
?Word stress: words with two syllables.
?Sentence stress: in principle, a stress may fall on any word or syllable.
?V. Phonological Process
Three aspects of a phonological process
? a set of sounds that will undergo the process;
? a set of sounds produced by the process;
? a set of situations in which the process applies.
?Typical phonological processes
?Nasalization
?Dentalization
?Velarization
?Phonological rules
[-nasal]→[+nasal]/_ [+nasal]
[-dental]→[+dental]/_[+dental]
[-velar]→[+velar]/_ [+velar]
?Devoicing（清音化）
A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless.
?Assimilation
?Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
?Assimilation is often used interchangeably with coarticulation.
?Progressive assimilation（顺同化）
?Regressive assimilation（逆同化）
?Progressive assimilation
?If a preceding sound influences a following sound, this phenomenon is termed progressive assimilation.
?map /m?p/
?Perseverative coarticulation (后滞协同发音)
?Regressive assimilation
?If a following sound influences a preceding sound, this phenomenon is called regressive assimilation. cap-can[k?n] since-sink[si?k]
?Anticipatory coarticulation(先期协同发音)
?The rule ordering
Elsewhere Condition
?The more specific rule applies first.
?Lecture 5 Morphology (I)
?What is morphology?
?What is morpheme, allomorph?
?How can morphemes be classified?
?What is morphophonemics?
?Definition of morphology
?Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
?Morpheme
?Morpheme: The minimal (smallest) meaningful unit is known as morpheme. (语素/词素)
?Decontextualization
?morphological
?Allomorph
?Morph: the concrete form of a morpheme.
?Allomorph: concretely realized variant of a morpheme.（语素变体）
?Morpheme ―plural‖
Dog+plural → dog+s
Bus+plural → bus+es
Sheep+plural →sheep
Goose+plural → geese
?The morpheme ―plural‖ takes different forms in actual realization, called morphs.
?They are all allomorphs of the one morpheme.
?The classification of morphs as allomorphs is based on
(i) Similarity of meaning
(ii) Complementary distribution
?Classification of morphemes
?Free morphemes
?Bound morphemes
?Free morpheme
Those morphemes which can occur independent of other morphemes, that is, those which constitute words by themselves.
?Morpheme
?Linguist
?Syntax
?Bound morpheme
?Those which must appear with at least another morpheme.
? E.g. -s linguists morpemes
-ly friendly
?Derivational morphemes
?inflectional morphemes
?Derivational morphemes
A derivational morphemes is one that is used to derive a new word.
e.g. rich→enrich operate→operation deep→deepen friend→ friendly
Inflectional morpheme
?Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationships between words and thus function as grammatical markers.
?Inflectional morphemes in English
?Regular plural suffix –s (-es);
?-s (-es) indicating simple present for the third person singular;
?The possessive case of nouns;
?–er/-est attached to simple adjective or adverbs to show comparative or superlative degrees;
?The past tense marker-ed or progressive marker –ing added to verbs.
?True or false?
?Both derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes.
?Root, stem and affix
?Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without the total loss of identity.
?That is to say, the root is the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.
?Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
That is to say, stem is the part of the word left when inflectional affixes are removed.
friendships
?Root: friend
?Stem: friendship
?Affix(词缀): the collective term for the types of morphemes that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
?Affix is bound.
?Affixes can be divided into inflectional affix and derivational affix.
?According to their positions in words:
Affixes can also be divided into prefix, infix and suffix.
?Morphophonemics 形态音位学
?Morphophonology 形态音系学
?Morphophonemics
?The analysis and classification of the phonological factors affecting the appearance of morphemes.
?It studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology.
?Phonological conditioning
?The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.
e.g. The negative morpheme may be realized by in-, im- or ir-.
inefficient improper irregular illogical (assimilation)
?Dissimilation （异化）
?grammar (O.E.)→ glamor (M.E.)
?Arbor (Latin) → arbol (Spanish)
?Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.
?Morphological conditioning
?Morphemes can be determined by morphological factors.
a）All the allomorphs should have common meaning.
b）All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.
c）Allomorphs that share the common meaning should occur in parallel formation.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照
语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.360docs.net/doc/c315351587.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.360docs.net/doc/c315351587.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.
语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第3章
Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase 第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成 1. Morpheme 词素的定义 Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology 2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类 ①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素 Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation. Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes. ②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many others A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot). A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix. ③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀 Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways: 1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. 2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. 3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版).
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
胡壮麟语言学复习及答案
胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the
系统功能语言学英汉对照术语表
系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表 作者：翁素贤提供 转贴自：摘自《系统功能语言学多维思考》 您要打印的文件是：系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表 打印本文 系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表 ―――摘自《系统功能语言学多维思考》 A Abitliy 能力 Actor 施动者 Addressee 受话者 Addresser 发话者 Agent 施事 Anaphoric 指前的 Antonym 反义词 Antonymy 反义意义 Autonomy 自治性 B Behavior 行为 Behavioral process 行为过程 Beneficiary 受益者 C Cataphoric 指后的 Categorical 绝对的 Categorization 范畴化 Central token 中心标志 Chain 链 Channel 渠道 Choice 选择 Clause 小句 Clause as theme 句项主位 Cleft sentence 分裂句 Closed system 封闭系统 Coclassisfication 相互区分
Coextension相互扩展Coherence连贯 Cohesion链接 Cohesive chain链接链Cohesive tie链接纽带Cohyponym共同下义词Collocation搭配Collocational chain搭配链Comeronym共同局部关系词Command命令 Comment述题 Competence（语言）能力Complementarity互补性Congruence一致性Conjunction连接，连词Consonant辅音 Consonant grammar协和语法Constructivism构建主义Context语境，上下文Context of culture文化语境Context of situation情境语境Continuity连续体Continuum连续体Conventional meaning常规意义Coocurrence同现Cooperative principle合作原则Coordination并列Coreference相互对应Correspondence对应 Critical linguistics批评语言学Cross-coupling交互匹配 D Decategorization非范畴化Declarative陈述的 Delicacy精密度 Dialect方言 Dialectal variety方言变体Diatypic variety功能变体Didactic教导性的 Direct speech act直接言语行为Discontinuity脱节，间断性Discourse话语 Discourse analysis话语分析
英语语言学教程胡壮麟版
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat