语言学终极权威版

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言语是运用语言进行交际的行为和结果，包括说话、写作等行为以及所说的话、所写的文章等。
语言和言语是相互依存的，语言为言语提供规则和材料，言语则是语言的具体体现和运用。没有语言就没
有言语，没有言语也就没有语言。
语言学流派及研究方法
历史比较语言学
通过比较不同语言的异同来探究语言之间的亲属关系和演变规律。
语言学的研究对象是人类的语言，包括口语、书面语以及手语等。
语言学的研究目的是揭示语言的本质和规律，探索语言的起源、发展、演变和消亡的过程和原因，以及语言与人类社会、文化、心理等方面的关系。
语言与言语关系
语言是一种社会现象，是人们在长期的社会实践中约定俗成的符号系统，用于交流思想、感情和信息。
词义关系与语义场理论
词义关系
包括同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系、整体与部分关系等。这些关系构成了词汇的语义网络。
语义场理论
语义场是由一组具有共同义素的词构成的集合。同一语义场中的词具有相互依存和制约的关系，形成一个系统。语义场理论对于理解词义的变化和词汇的发展具有重要意义。
词汇变化规律及历史比较法
语言学纲要修订版
目录
• 语言学基本概念与理论 • 语音与音系学 • 词汇与语义学 • 语法与句法结构 • 文字、书写系统与文献学 • 社会文化背景下的语言现象解读 • 现代汉语专题研究
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语言学基本概念与理论
语言学定义及研究对象
语言学是研究人类语言的科学，包括语言的性质、结构、发展、演变以及语言与思维、文化、社会等方面关系的学科。
语法单位及层次分析法
语法单位
语素、词、短语、句子等是语言的基本单位，它们按照一定的规则组合起来，形成语言的各级结构。

语言学概论第四版答案语言学概论讲义,精致版

语言学概论第四版答案语言学概论讲义,精致版导读：就爱阅读网友为您分享以下“语言学概论讲义,精致版”的资讯，希望对您有所帮助，感谢您对的支持!语言学概论导言及第一章一语言学的性质语言学：以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。

汉语/英语/日语/。

语言学，研究某一民族或国家的语言，具体性、细致性、实践性语言学概论，研究人类语言的共同规律，抽象性、概括性、理论性二语言学研究的方法和分类（一）从研究方法和角度分：1、历史语言学：用历史的方法考察语言的历史演变，研究其变化规律。

2、对比语言学：用比较的方法对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们的相异之处和共同规律。

3、历史比较语言学：采用历史和比较两种方法发现几种语言在历史演变中对应的规律，拟测出语言的亲族关系。

4、描写语言学：截取语言发展某阶段的横断面，以静态描写的方法，记录语言的结构。

（二）从研究的时间关系看：历时语言学——共时语言学（三）从研究对象看：个别语言学——普通语言学（四）从研究范围和程度看：微观语言学——宏观语言学（五）从研究的侧重点看：理论语言学——应用语言学三语言学的回顾与小结1、语文学阶段：·语文学是一门研究古文献和书面语的学问。

目的：读懂古文献·语文学的特点：（围绕“小学”展开）a.b.c.d. 研究的对象是古文献和书面语带有主观臆测性不是一门独立学科，而是经学、哲学、文学、历史的附产品为后来真正独立的语言学提供了材料、奠定了基础2、历史比较语言学阶段威廉·琼斯、葆朴、格里木等特点：a. 语言学已成为研究语言本身发展规律的独立学科。

b. 研究对象还是文献语言c. 仍带有某些主观臆测d. 为人类普通语言学的产生打下基础3、结构主义语言学阶段索绪尔特点：a. 严格区分语言和言语，侧重研究语言 b. 重视共时语言的研究c. 重视口语的研究 d. 重视结构和系统的思想4、形式语言学乔姆斯基特点：a. 追求人类语言普遍语法规则，并力求高度形式化b. 用演绎推理的方法，解释人的语言能力c. 研究“理想的人”的语言能力d. 由面向人的语言学转而面向机器5、功能语言学韩礼德系统/功能6、交叉语言学认知语言学社会语言学文化语言学应用语言学四、语言学在科学体系中的地位与其他人文学科：哲学、文献学、文学、历史学、考古学、社会学、人类学等与各个自然科学：生物学、医学、数理逻辑、信息科学、认知科学既受其他学科研究的影响，也影响着其他学科。

语言学精品课胡壮麟版ppt课件

language.
2. Scopes of linguistics
☺General linguistics—studies linguistics as a whole.
☺ Phonetics—study of sounds ☺ Phonology--study of the system of
sounds, how they are combined ☺ Morphology—study of the structure and
language development, more practical than written form, hard to record • writing : • permanent, can be recorded
• ngue and parole • —by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure
• descriptive –describes and analyzes the language people are currently speaking. It deals with “what people actually say”
• 3.2 synchronic vs. diachronic • synchronic—description of a language at
• 2.1.4. Language is symbolic. • 2.1.5. Language is human –specific. • 2.1.6. Language is used for
communication
2.2. Design features of language
• 2.2.1. arbitrariness • 2.2.2. productivity • 2.2.3. duality • 2.2.4. displacement • 2.2.5. cultural transmission

(完整word版)语言学第六章之后

Chapter 6 Language and Cognitionl.语言与认知6.1. What is Cog nitio n 认知？а.Mental processes, information processing b.Mental process or faculty ofknowin g,i ncludi ng aware ness,percepti on, reas oning, and judgme nt.2. The formal approach:形式法structural patter ns, in cludi ng the study of morphological, syn tactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach 心理法：Ianguage from the view of general systems ranging from percepti on, memory, atte nti on, and reas oning.The conceptual approach认知法：how Ianguage structures (processes& patterns) con ceptual content.6.2. Psycholi nguistics 心理语言学The study of the relati on ships betwee n lin guistic behavior and men tal activity.б.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得① Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Twoword stage 双词句阶段Stage of three-word uttera nces 三词句阶段④ Flue ntgrammatical conv ersati on stage6.2.2 Lan guage comprehe nsior理解Mental lexicon (心智词库)：information about the properties of words, retrievable whe n un dersta nding Ian guage For example, we may use morphological rules to decomposea complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that freque ncy of exposure determ ines our ability to recall stored in sta nces Connectionism (连结主义)：readers use the same system of links between spelling un its and sound un its to gen erate the pronun ciatio ns of writte n words like tove and to access the pronun ciati ons of familiar words like stove, or words that are excepti ons to these patter ns, like love.Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehendingIan guage, with the no vel items being processed based on their similarity to the known onesWord recognition 单词识另廿:recognition of spoken words and printed ones.Cohort theory:集群模型Marsle n-Wilson & Welsh (1978)The first few pho nemes of a spoke n word activate a set of word can didates that are con siste nt with the in put. Eg. To an in structi on pick up the can dle ” liste ners sometimes gla nces first at a picture of a can dy.In teractive model:交互模型Higher process ing levels have a direct, -down” inftue nee on lower levels. Lexicalkno wledge can affect the percepti on of phon emes. eg.ln certa in cases, liste ners 'knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, liste ners con ti nue to “ hear ” phon emes that have bee n removed from the speech sig nal and replaced by no ise. Race mode I竞争模型Pre-lexical route: computes phono logical in formati on from the acoustic sig nalLexical route: the phono logical in formatio n associated with a word becomes available whe n the word itself is accessed eg.l iste ners use phono tactic in formatio n such as the fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boun daries.Factors invo Ived in word recog niti on: ?Freque ncy effect: the ease with which a word is accesseddue to its more freque nt usage in the L.Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurre nee in the discourse or con text.Cotext: We recog nize a word more readily whe n the precedi ng words provide an appropriate con text for it.Lexical ambiguity 词法多义性eg.My friend drove me to the bank.Comprehe nsion of sen te nee句子的理解Serial models 串行模型:the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a Ianguage' grammar. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of in formatio n that is guara nteed to be releva nt to its in terpretati on, primarily grammatical in formati on.Parallel models:并行模型emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of in formati on, in clud ing grammatical, lexical, and con textual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how theprocessor uses all releva nt in formati on to quickly evaluate the full range of possible in terpretati ons of a senten ce.Structural factors in comprehe nsio n 理解中的结构因素Comprehe nsion of writte nand spoken Ianguage can be difficult becauseit is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Minimal attachment 最小配属:the“ structurally simp-etructuralsimplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Eg. The second wife will claim the in herita nee bel ongs to her.Garden path sentenee花园小径eg The horse raced past the barn fell. Fat people eat accumulates. Lexical factors in comprehe nsio n 词汇因素The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexic on. eg.The salesma n gla need at a/the customer with suspici on/ripped jea ns.Syntactic ambiguity 句法歧义Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases. Ambiguous category of some of the words in the senten ce. Eg. Joh n pain ted the car in the garage. Comprehension of text 语篇理解Resonance model:共振模型information in Iong-term memory is automaticallyactivated by the presenee of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.Discourse interpretation 语篇理解Schemata and drawing inferencesSchema图式a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the no rmal expected patter ns of thin gs. eg.The customer en ters a restaura nt, looks for atable, decides where to sit, walks to the table …6.2.3. La nguage product ion 语言的生成(1) Access to words语言提取：步骤1.Conceptualization: what to express Word select ion: a competitive process 2.：select a word that corresp onds to the chose n concept. 3.:Morpho-phonological encoding: begins with the retrieval of all competitors.(2) Gen eratio n of sentence句子的生成1. Conceptual preparation®念准备:deciding what to say -a global plan is needed2. Word retrieval and applicati on of syn tactic kno wledge3. Processes of sentence gen erati on4. Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positi ons foreach unit(3) Writte n Ian guage producti on:similar to those in the producti on of spoke n Ian guage. A major differe nt is that, once a syntactic lexicon unit and its morphological representation have been accessed, it is the orthographic rather tha n the phono logical form that must be retrieved and produced.6.3 Cognitive Linguistics 认知语言学Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of therelatio n betwee n the way we com muni cate and the way we thi nk.6.3.1 Con strual and con strual operatio n识解及操作Construal 识解:the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways(1) Attention / salience 注意力，突显:the operations grouped under salience have to do with our direct ion of atte ntio n towards someth ing that is salie nt to us. eg. We drove along the road.(2) Judgment / Comparison 判断，对比:the construal operations of it have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. eg.There ' s a cat[figure] on the mat[gro und](3) . Perspective/ situatedness 视点，观察者位置:we view a scenein terms of our situatedness.It depends on two things : 1. Where we are situated in relation to the scene we ' re viewing. 2. How the scene is arranged in relation to our situatednessMy bike is in front of the car.6.3.2 Categorization 范畴化The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on com mon alities and differe nces.Three levels: basic level superordi nate level subord in ate level.6.3.3 Image Schema意象图式Johnson, Mark.An image-schema is a “ skeletal mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kin esthetic) experie nce.1. A cen ter-periphery schema 中心-边缘图式The structure of an apple2. A containment schema 容器图示huma n bodies as containers3. A Cycle schema 循环图示Days Weeks4. A Force schema 力图示Physical: Wind, Gravity5. A link schema 连接图式6. A part-whole schema 部分-整体图式7. A path schema 路径图式8. A scale schema标量图式9. A verticality schema 垂直图式634 Metaphor 隐喻George Lakoff and Mark Joh nsonMetaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.Target domain 目标域-what is actually being talked about.Source doma in 源域-the doma in used as a basis for un dersta nding targetEg Time is money. The target domain,time,is conceptualized in terms of the source doma in of mon ey.1. Ontological metaphors实体隐喻means that human experienceswith physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events,activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Eg. Inflation is lowering our standard of living2. Structural Metaphor 结构隐喻Provides rich highly structured, clearly deli neated source domai n to structure target doma in. eg.He attacked every weak point in my argume nt.3. Orientational Metaphor 方位隐喻Gives a concept a spatial orientation eg MORE IS UPaddi ng more of a substa nee, and percei ving the level of the substa nee rise.6.3.5 Metonymy 转喻is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by LakoffOn the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories:the world of “ concepttie world of “ fornth” world of “ things ” and “ events ”(1) Whole ICM and its part(s)整体与部分间的转喻：(i) Thing-and-Part ICM 事物及部分转喻eg. America for “ United StatesSca’IeICM 标量转喻eg, How old are you? for “what is your(agj e?bnstitution ICM.构成转喻eg.: wood for “ forest (旳)Eve nt ICM.事件转喻Eg.Bill smokedmarijuana. (v) Category-and-Member ICM.范畴及范畴成员转喻Eg .the pill for“ birthcontrol pill ”(vi)Cateeond-Property ICM.范畴及属性转喻Eg. blacks for“ black people ” (vii) Reduction I压缩转喻eg.crudefor “crude oil ”⑵Parts of an ICM部分与部分间的转喻(i) Action ICM.行为转喻eg.o author anew book (ii) Perception ICM.知觉转喻eg.sight for “thing seen (iii) Causation ICM.因果转喻eg.slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road (iv)Production ICM.生产转喻eg.I ' ve got a Ford for “car ” (v) Control ICM 控制转喻eg.The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) PossessionICM 领属转喻eg.He married money for “ pers on with mon ey" (vii) containment ICM 容器转喻(viii)Location ICMs 地点转喻(ix)Sign and Referenee ICMs符号和指代转喻6.3.6 Blending Theory 整合理论I.Cross-Space Map p ing跨空间映射 2.Ge nericSpace 类属空间3.Blend 整合4.Emergent Structure®创结构Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society7.1 Lan guage and culture语言和文化7.1.1 How does lang uage relate to cultureIn 20th century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology(the study of huma nity ), en compass ing all huma n phe nomena that are not purely results of huma n gen eticsLon don School 伦敦学派：Mali no wski 马林诺夫斯基:The meaning of a word greatly depe nds upon its occurre nee in a give n con textEth no graphy of com muni cati on 交际民族学：l.speech com mun ity 言语社团2. situatio n, eve nt and act 场景，事件，行为3.SPEAKING(situatio n,participa nts,e nds,act,seque nce,key,i nstrume ntalities, no rms,ge nres) Speech community言语社团:a group of people who form a community, and share the same Ian guage or a particular variety of Ian guageTheory of the con text of situatio n情景语境理论J. R. Firth (1890-1960):A. The releva nt features of the participa nts, pers ons, pers on alities.1. The verbal 言语action of the participants2.The non-verbal action of the participa ntsB. The releva nt objects.C. The effects of the verbal acti on.“ who speaks what to whom and whe n and to what end ”Halliday: Study Ian guage from a social semiotic or in teract ional perspective Functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential Linguistic model in the study of literature7.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设:Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different Ianguages may probably express speakers ' unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism(语言决定论) Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)The stro ng versio n 强式说): The weak versi on (弱式说):7.1.3. Case studies个案研究Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. Nida(1998): Words are sometimes “ idiomgovettyed ” and “cultusaecific ”7.1.4 To which extent Do we need culture in our linguistic studyA study of linguistic issues in a cultural setting can greatly promote our understanding of motivatio n and directi on ality in lan guage cha nge.7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroon文化在语言学习中的重要作用:A. To get the students familiar with cultural differenee.B. To help the students tran sce nd their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will.C. To emphasize the in separability of un dersta nding lan guage and un dersta nding culture through various classroom practices.7.2. Lan guage and Society7.2.1 How does language relate to society? Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent scienee —元性或自治性Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性A situationally and socially variationist perspectiveA maxim in sociolinguistics: “ You are what 尔o即尔所言)”(WOMEN REGISTER女性语域LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视现象7.2.3 What should we know more about socioli nguistics 社会语言学的重要作用Sociolinguistics:社会语言学an interdisciplinary study of Ianguage use, attemptsto show the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and society.7.2.4 What implicatio ns can we get from sociolin guistics ?社会语言学的重要启示:sociolinguistics' contributions: 1. Ithas contributed Jtg a change of emphasis in the content of Ian guage teachi ng. 2.…inno vati ons in materials and activities for the classroom. 3.…a fresh look at the nature of Ianguage development and use. 4.…a more fruitful research in this field.applied socioli nguistics 应用社会语言学In Ian guage classrooms In law courts In cli nic sett ings7.3 Cross-cultural Communi cati on 跨文化交际What should we know all about cross-cultural com muni cati on? I.Try to look at thi ngs from other persons point of view 2.Try to sense their feeling to a given issue3. Try to un dersta nd their way of knowing the world7.3.2 Case studies个案研究Whe n in Rome do as the Roma ns do Put yourself in other ' s shoes One culture ' s meat is anotherculture Honpotycand sincerity are key pointsto mutual un dersta nding.Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用What is pragmatics语用学? What' s the differenee between pragmatics and semantics 语义学？Pragmatics is the study of the use of Ian guage in com muni cati on, particularly the relati on ships betwee n senten ces and the con texts and situati ons in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of: (1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depe nds on kno wledge of the real world;(2)How speakers use and un dersta nd speech acts;(3) How the structure of senten ces is in flue need by the relati on ship betwee n the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without refere nee to the users and com muni cative functions of senten ces.8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论8.1.1 Performatives and con statives施为句和叙事句1. Performative: In speech act theory an uttera nee which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warni ng).2. Con stative: An uttera nee which asserts somethi ng that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity eonditions of performatives 施为句的条件:(1) There must be a releva nt eonven ti onal procedure, and the releva nt participa nts and circumsta nces must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very ofte n, the releva nt people must have the requisite thoughts, feeli ngs and in ten ti ons, and must follow it up with acti ons as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutio nary act 会话含义理论1. What is a speech ac言语行为？A speech act is an uttera nee as a functional unit in com muni cati on. In speech act theory, uttera nces have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning)命题意义：This is the basic literal mea ning of the uttera nee which is conv eyed by the particular words and structures which the uttera nee contains. Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force) 言外之意:This is the effect the utteranee or written text has on the reader or listener.A speech act which is performed in directly is sometimes known as an in direct speech act, such as the speech act of the requesti ng above. In direct speech acts are ofte n felt to be more polite ways of perform ing certa in kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.2. Locutionary act言内行为:A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts betwee n three differe nt types of acts invo Ived in or caused by the uttera nee of a senten ce. A locuti onary act is the say ing of someth ing which is meanin gful and can be un derstood.3. Illocutionary act 言外行为:An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a fun cti on.4. Perlocutionary act言后行为:A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of say ing someth ing.8.2 The theory of eon versati onal implicature 会话含义理论8.2.1 The cooperative prin ciple 合作原贝U1. Cooperative principle refers to the “ c-operation between speakers in using the maxims during the eonversation. There are four eonversational maxim会话准贝U :(1) The maxim of quantity 数量:a. Make your eon tributio n as in formative as required.b. Don' t make your eon tributi on more in formative tha n is required.(2) The maxim of quality 质量:Try to make your eontribution one that is true.a. Don' t say what you believe to be false.b. Don' t say that for which you lack adequate evide nee(3) The maxim of relati on 关系:Say things that are releva nt.(4) The maxim of manner方式:Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expressi on.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature言外之意:The use of eonversational maxims to imply meaning during eonversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims 准则的违反1. Con versati onal implicature 言外之意In real com muni cati on, the in ten ti on of the speaker is ofte n not the literalmeaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conv ersatio nal implicature.r the speakers ' inten tio n through the words.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature含义的特征：1. Calculability 可推导性2. Cancellability / defeasibility 可取消性3. Non-detachability 不可分离性4. Non-conventionality 非常规性8.3 Post-Gricean developme nts后格莱斯时期的发展8.3.1 Releva nee theory关联理论Every act of oste nsive com muni cati on com muni cates the presumpti on of its own optimal releva nee.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principles Q原则和R 原则The Q-pri nciple is in ten ded to inv oke the first maxim of Grice ' Quan tity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricea n maxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based基于听话人)is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient 你的话要充分(cf. quantity);⑵ Say as much as you can (given Rt符合R 原则的前提下).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your con tributi on n ecessary (cf. Relati on, Quan tity-2, Mann er);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息量原则和方式原则Q-pri nciple:Speaker' maxim 准贝U: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your kno wledge of the world allows, uni ess provid ing a stron ger stateme nt would con trave ne the I-pri nciple.I-pri ncipleSpeaker' s maxim: the maxirhrainimization 最小化原贝USay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your com muni cati onal en ds.Recipie nt ' s corollary: the en richme nt ruleAmplify the in formatio nal content of the speaker ' utiera nee, by fin di ng the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker -intended point. ' s m M-pri ncipleSpeaker' nsaxim: Do not use a prolix 冗长的，obscure模糊的or marked 显著的expressi on without reas on.Recipie nt ' s corollary: If the speaker used a prolixna r ked expressi on M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U - specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.Chapter 9 Language and Literature9.1 Theoretical background 概i术1. Style: Style refers to variation in a person ' speech or writing or a particular person ' s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.2. Stylistics 文体学:According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus adopting a linguistic approach. This brings literature and linguistics closer.9.2 Some gen eral features of the literary lang uag文学语言的一些普遍特征9.2.1Foregro unding and grammatical form前景化和语法格式1. Foregrounding前景化:Foreground refers to the part of a scene nearest to the viewer, or figuratively the most noticeable position. Foregrounding means to put someth ing or some one in the most esse ntial part of the descripti on or n arrati on, other than in a backgro und positi on.2. In literary texts, the grammatical system of the Ianguage is often exploited,experime nted with, or made to “ deviate from other, more everyday, forms of Ian guage,and as a result creates in terest ing new patter ns in form and in meaning.9.2.2 Literal la nguage and figurative Ian guage字面语言和比喻语言1. Literal language: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually called literal mea ning.2. Figurative Ianguage: A. k. a. trope, which refers to Ianguage used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.We can use some figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, metonymy,syn ecdoche, etc.Simile 明喻：a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like. Metaphor 暗喻：like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.Metonymy 转喻：means a change of nameSynecdoche提喻：is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers to using then ame of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.9.2.3 The an alysis of literary Ian guage文学语言的分析9.3 The Ian guage in poetry诗歌语言9.3.1 Sou nd patterni ng 语音模式9.3.2 Differe nt forms of sound patterni ng 不同形式的语音模式1. Rhyme 押韵(end rhyme): The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of ano ther line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away (cVC).2. Alliteration 头韵:The initial consonants are identical in alliteration (Cvc).3. Ass onance 准押韵:Ass onance describes syllables with a com mon vowel (cVc).4. Consonance辅押韵:Syllables ending with the same consonants are described as hav ing consonance (cvC).5. Reverse rhyme 反韵:Reverse rhyme describes syllables shari ng the vowel andin itial consonant (CVc).6. Pararhyme 压畐寸韵: Where two syllables have the same initial and final consonan ts, but differe nt vowels, they pararhyme (CvC).7. Repetitio n 反复：A complete match of the syllable (CVC).9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterni ng重音和韵律模式1. lamb 抑扬格:An iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.2. Trochee扬抑格:A trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an un stressed syllable.3. Anapest抑抑扬格:An anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.4. Dactyl 扬抑抑格:A dactylic foot is similar to anapest, except reversed —a stressed syllable is followed by two un stressed on es.5. Spondee扬扬格:A spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables; lines of poetry rarely con sist only of spon dees.6. Pyrrhic 抑抑格:A pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables.7. Metrical patterning 韵律模式(2) Dimeter (3)Trimeter (4)Tetrameter (5)Pentameter (6) Hexameter (7)Heptameter (8)Octameter9.3.4 Conven ti onal forms of meter and sound传统的韵律模式和语音模式1. Couplets对句:Couplets are two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.2. Quatra ins 四行诗:Stan zasof four lin es, known as quatra ins, are very com mon in En glish poetry.3. Blank verse 无韵诗:Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.9.3.5The poetic fun cti ons of sound and mete 语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能：1. For aesthetic pleasure2. To conform to a conven tio n / style / form3. To express or inno vate with a form4. To dem on strate tech ni cal skill, and for in tellectual pleasure5. For emphasis or con trast6. Ono matopoeia 拟声现象9.3.6 How to an alyze poetry?如何分析诗1. Read a poem more tha n on ce.2. Keep a dictionary and use it. Other reference books will also be invaluable. A good book on mythology and a Bible.3. Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind. Poetry is writte n to be heard: its meanings are con veyed through sound as well as through print. One should read a poem as slowly as he can. Lip readi ng is a good habit.4. Always pay careful attention to what the poem is saying. One should make an effort to follow the thought continuously and to grasp the full implications and suggesti ons.5. As aids to the un dersta nding of a poem, we may ask some questi ons about.(1) Who is the speaker and what kind of person is he?(2) To whom is he speaking? What kind of person is he?⑶ What is the occasion?(4) What is the sett ing in time (time of day, seas on, cen tury)?(5) What is the setting in place (in doors or out, city or country, nation)?(6) What is the central purpose of the poem?9.4 The lang uage in fiction 小说中的语言941 Ficti onal prose and point of view 小说与视角1. First-person narrator (I-narrator叙述者：The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relat ing the story after the eve nt. I n this case, the critics call the n arrator a first-pers on n arrator or an l-n arrator because whe n the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun “I i” used.2. Third-person narrator第三人称叙述者:If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-pers on pronouns, he, she, it or they.3. schema-orie nted Ian guag图式语言4. Deixis 指示功能:A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance toa time, place, or a pers on.942 Speech and thought prese ntatio 言语和思维的表达1. Speech prese ntatior言语的表达：(1) Direct speech (DS)直接弓I语:A kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.(2) In direct speech (IS)间接弓I语:A kind of speech prese ntati on in which the speaker ' s words are not reported as they were actually said.(3) Free in direct speech (FIS)自由间接引语:A further category which is an amalgam of direct and in direct speech features.(4) Narrator 'representation of speech acts (NRSA)叙述者对言语行为的表达：A mini malist kind of prese ntati on in which a part of passage can be see n as a summary of a Ion ger piece of discourse, and therefore eve n more back-gro un ded tha n in direct represe ntati on would be.(5) Narrator ' s representation of spe(NRS)叙述者对言语的表达：A possibility ofspeech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator ' s representation of speec acts, n amely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not eve n specify the speech acts invo Ived.。

语言学中文版

1．3．2 共时性和历时性
对语言的研究分为共时研究和历时研究。共时研究是对语言的静态特征的研究。它主要对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述。历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究。现代语言学研究主要是共时性研究。
1．3．3 口头语和书面语
现代语言学把书面语看作是口头语的记录，认为口头语是第一性的，是语言交际最基本的方式。这是因为从人类社会交际的发展来看，口头语先于笔头语，笔头语是对口头语的
第二章音系学
1．
语言的声音媒介
语言的形式有声音和文字。在这两种媒介中，声音是语言最基本的媒介，是第一性的。这是因为在语言的发展过程中，声音媒介早于文字。文字是对声音的记录。在日常交际中，大量信息是通过口头交际来完成的，只有在无法进行口头交际的情况下人们才使用文字形式。除此之外，人们是通过声音媒介来习得自己的母语的。
4）齿龈音：舌尖与上齿龈隆骨接触使气流受阻，如：[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]
5）腭音:受阻部位发生在舌根与硬腭之间，如：[∫], [ ],[ t∫ ], [d ], [j]
6）软腭音:舌根与软腭接触使气流受阻，如： [k], [g], [ ]
7）喉音:声带短时接触使气流受阻，如：[h]
1．3．5 能力和运用
能力和运用的区别由乔姆斯基在 20 世纪 50 年代后期提出的。“能力”指一个理想的语言使用者所具有的语言规则的知识，它是一整套内在化语言使用者脑海中的语言规则。 “使用”是“能力”的具体使用，是在交际活动中语言知识具体的体现。乔姆斯基认为，语言学家应该研究“能力”，揭示人脑中已经内在化的语言规则，而不是研究“使用”，因为 “使用”会受到各种偶然因素的影响，如口误等，因而是不体系的。
3）塞擦音:发塞擦音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后气流从狭窄通道缓慢释放，并伴有摩擦发生，如：[t∫], [d ]

《语言学概要》(叶蜚声)版导言(思维导图)

导言一、语言学的对象和学科性质语言学的对象语言学，是研究语言的科学。

语言学的研究对象：语言。

传统语文学的研究对象：书面语。

语言学的任务：研究语言的规律。

语言学三大发源地中国：中国的传统语文学统称为“小学”，由训诂学（解释字义）、文字学（分析字形）、音韵学（研究字音）三部分组成。

印度：记载宗教典籍的梵语成为研究对象。

希腊——罗马：古希腊学者对《荷马史诗》进行编辑和整理；古罗马学者研究拉丁语。

传统语文学：又叫传统语言学，是19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究。

研究对象是古代书面语。

语言学的发展历程19世纪初：历史比较语言学。

19世纪中，普通语言学。

洪堡特（普通语言学奠基者）《论人类语言结构的差异》1828。

20世纪30年代，结构主义语言学。

索绪尔（普通语言学之父）《普通语言学教程》1916。

布拉格学派；哥本哈根学派；美国结构语言学派：布龙菲尔德《语言论》1933。

20世纪50年代，转化生成语言学。

乔姆斯基《句法结构》1957。

20世纪后期，交叉语言学。

语言学分类理论语言学：以侧重探索语言本身的特点和规律为目的的语言学分支学科。

应用语言学：侧重于利用理论语言学的原理来解决现实中与语言有关的各种实际问题。

应用语言学有广义和狭义之分。

广义：指语言学与其他学科的交叉融合所创立的新的语言学科。

狭义：指语言教学。

普通语言学：也叫一般语言学，以人类所有的语言为研究对象，是语言学的重要理论部分。

专语语言学：也叫具体语言学，个别语言学，一般说来是以某种特定语言为研究对象的语言学。

共时语言学：截取某一特定时期的语言横断面进行静态的描写研究。

历时语言学：又叫历史语言学，它是对语言从一个时代到另一个时代的发展过程进行纵向的历史研究。

二、语言学在科学体系中的地位语言学在科学体系中具有独特而重要的地位。

语言交际过程，用信息论的术语表示：编码—发送—传递—接收—解码。

在整个语言交际过程中，语言学关心的核心是编码和解码的过程，它涉及对语言结构本体的研究，包含形式和内容两个方面，语言形式和内容的关系，是语言研究的最根本的问题。

(完整word版)语言学第六章之后

Chapter 6 Language and Cognition1. 语言与认知6.1.What is Cognition认知?a.Mental processes, information processingb.Mental process or faculty of knowing,including awareness,perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.The formal approach:形式法structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach心理法: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.The conceptual approach:认知法：how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.6.2.Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and mental activity.6.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得①Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Two word stage双词句阶段Stage of three-word utterances三词句阶段④Fluent grammatical conversation stage6.2.2 Language comprehension理解Mental lexicon（心智词库）：information about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances Connectionism（连结主义）: readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love.Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known onesWord recognition单词识别: recognition of spoken words and printed ones.Cohort theory:集群模型Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978)The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent with the input. Eg. To an instruction” pick up the candle”, listeners sometimes glances first at a picture of a candy.Interactive model:交互模型Higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. eg.In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, list eners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.Race model:竞争模型Pre-lexical route: computes phonological information from the acoustic signal Lexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed eg.listeners use phonotactic information such asthe fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boundaries.Factors involved in word recognition: ?Frequency effect: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L.Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.Cotext: We recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.Lexical ambiguity词法多义性eg.My friend drove me to the bank. Comprehension of sentences句子的理解Serial models串行模型: the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a langu age’s grammar. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information.Parallel models:并行模型emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence.Structural factors in comprehension理解中的结构因素Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Minimal attachment最小配属: the “structurally simpler”--structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Eg. The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her.Garden path sentences花园小径eg The horse raced past the barn fell. Fat people eat accumulates.Lexical factors in comprehension词汇因素The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon. eg.The salesman glanced at a/the customer with suspicion/ripped jeans.Syntactic ambiguity句法歧义Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases.Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence. Eg. John painted the car in the garage.Comprehension of text语篇理解Resonance model:共振模型information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.Discourse interpretation 语篇理解Schemata and drawing inferencesSchema:图式a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the normal expected patterns of things. eg.The customer enters a restaurant, looks for atable, decides where to sit, walks to the table…nguage production语言的生成（1）Access to words语言提取：步骤1.Conceptualization: what to express Word selection: a competitive process 2.：select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. 3.: Morpho-phonological encoding: begins with the retrieval of all competitors.（2）Generation of sentences句子的生成1.Conceptual preparation概念准备: deciding what to say – a global plan is needed2.Word retrieval and application of syntactic knowledge3.Processes of sentence generation4.Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positions for each unit(3) Written language production:similar to those in the production of spoken language. A major different is that, once a syntactic lexicon unit and its morphological representation have been accessed, it is the orthographic rather than the phonological form that must be retrieved and produced.6.3 Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.6.3.1 Construal and construal operations识解及操作Construal识解: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways(1) Attention / salience 注意力，突显: the operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that is salient to us. eg. We drove along the road.(2)Judgment / Comparison 判断，对比: the construal operations of it have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. eg.There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground](3). Perspective/ situatedness 视点，观察者位置: we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It depends on two things : 1. Where we are situated in relation to the scene we’re viewing. 2. How the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. Eg. My bike is in front of the car.6.3.2 Categorization范畴化The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.Three levels: basic level superordinate level subordinate level.6.3.3 Image Schema意象图式Johnson, Mark.An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience.1.A center-periphery schema 中心-边缘图式The structure of an apple2.A containment schema 容器图示human bodies as containers3.A Cycle schema 循环图示Days Weeks4.A Force schema 力图示Physical: Wind, Gravity5. A link schema 连接图式6. A part-whole schema 部分-整体图式7. A path schema 路径图式8. A scale schema 标量图式9. A verticality schema 垂直图式6.3.4 Metaphor隐喻George Lakoff and Mark JohnsonMetaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.Target domain 目标域- what is actually being talked about.Source domain 源域- the domain used as a basis for understanding targetEg Time is money. The target domain,time,is conceptualized in terms of the source domain of money.1. Ontological metaphors实体隐喻means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events,activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Eg. Inflation is lowering our standard of living2. Structural Metaphor 结构隐喻Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain. eg.He attacked every weak point in my argument.3. Orientational Metaphor方位隐喻Gives a concept a spatial orientation eg MORE IS UPadding more of a substance, and perceiving the level of the substance rise.6.3.5 Metonymy转喻is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by LakoffOn the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories:the w orld of “concept” the world of “form” the world of “things” and “events”(1)Whole ICM and its part(s) 整体与部分间的转喻：(i) Thing-and-Part ICM事物及部分转喻eg. America for “United States” (ii) Scale ICM标量转喻eg, How old are you? for “what is your age? (iii) Constitution ICM. 构成转喻eg.: wood for “forest” (iv) Event ICM. 事件转喻Eg.Bill smoked marijuana. (v) Category-and-Member ICM. 范畴及范畴成员转喻Eg .the pill for “birth control pill”(vi)Cateory-and-Property ICM.范畴及属性转喻Eg. blacks for “black people”(vii) Reduction ICM 压缩转喻eg.crude for “crude oil”(2) Parts of an ICM 部分与部分间的转喻(i) Action ICM. 行为转喻eg.o author a new book (ii) Perception ICM.知觉转喻eg.sight for “thing seen (iii) Causation ICM. 因果转喻eg.slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road (iv)Production ICM.生产转喻eg.I’ve got a Ford for “car” (v) Control ICM控制转喻eg.The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) Possession ICM 领属转喻eg.He married money for “person with money”(vii) containment ICM容器转喻(viii)Location ICMs 地点转喻(ix)Sign and Reference ICMs符号和指代转喻6.3.6 Blending Theory整合理论 1.Cross-Space Mapping跨空间映射 2.Generic Space 类属空间3.Blend整合 4.Emergent Structure层创结构Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society7.1 Language and culture语言和文化7.1.1 How does language relate to cultureIn 20th century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology (the study of humanity ), encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human geneticsLondon School伦敦学派:Malinowski马林诺夫斯基: The meaning of a word greatly depends upon its occurrence in a given contextEthnography of communication交际民族学：1.speech community言语社团2.situation, event and act 场景，事件，行为3.SPEAKING(situation,participants,ends,act,sequence,key,instrumentalities,norms,ge nres)Speech community言语社团: a group of people who form a community, and share the same language or a particular variety of languageTheory of the context of situation(情景语境理论)J. R. Firth (1890-1960):A.The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.1.The verbal言语action of the participants2.The non-verbal action of the participantsB.The relevant objects.C.The effects of the verbal action.“who speaks what to whom and when and to what end”Halliday: Study language from a social semiotic or interactional perspective Functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential Linguistic model in the study of literature7.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism(语言决定论) Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)The strong version(强式说): The weak version (弱式说):7.1.3.Case studies个案研究Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. Nida(1998): Words are sometimes “idiomatically-governed” and “culturally-specific”.7.1.4 To which extent Do we need culture in our linguistic studyA study of linguistic issues in a cultural setting can greatly promote our understanding of motivation and directionality in language change.7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom文化在语言学习中的重要作用：A. To get the students familiar with cultural difference.B. To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will.C. To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.7.2. Language and Society7.2.1 How does language relate to society? Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent science 一元性或自治性Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性A situationally and socially variationist perspectiveA maxim in sociolinguistics: “You are what you say.” (尔即尔所言)WOMEN REGISTER 女性语域LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视现象7.2.3 What should we know more about sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要作用Sociolinguistics:社会语言学an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.7.2.4 What implications can we get from sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要启示：sociolinguistics’ contributions: 1. It has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching. 2. …innovations in materials and activities for the classroom. 3.…a fresh look at the nature of language development and use. 4.…a more fruitful research in this field.applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学In language classrooms In law courts In clinic settings7.3 Cross-cultural Communication 跨文化交际What should we know all about cross-cultural communication? 1.Try to look at things from other persons’ point of view 2.Try to sense their feeling to a given issue 3.Try to understand their way of knowing the world7.3.2 Case studies 个案研究When in Rome do as the Romans do Put yourself in other’s shoesOne culture’s meat is another culture’s poison Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding.Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用What is pragmatics语用学? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics 语义学?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of ：(1) H ow the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2)How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论8.1.1 Performatives and constatives施为句和叙事句1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives施为句的条件:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act会话含义理论1. What is a speech act言语行为?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning)命题意义: This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force)言外之意: This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.2. Locutionary act言内行为: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.3. Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.4. Perlocutionary act言后行为: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature会话含义理论8.2.1 The cooperative principle合作原则1.Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims会话准则:(1) The maxim of quantity数量:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality质量: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation关系: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner方式: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature言外之意: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims准则的违反1. Conversational implicature言外之意In real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literalmeaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.r the speakers’ intention through the words.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature含义的特征：1. Calculability可推导性2.Cancellability / defeasibility可取消性3. Non-detachability不可分离性4.Non-conventionality非常规性8.3 Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展8.3.1 Relevance theory关联理论Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principles Q原则和R原则The Q-principle is intended to invoke t he first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based基于听话人) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient 你的话要充分(cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R在符合R原则的前提下).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息量原则和方式原则Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim准则: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-principle.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim o f minimization最小化原则Say as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by fin ding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix冗长的, obscure模糊的or marked显著的expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.Chapter 9 Language and Literature9.1 Theoretical background概述1. Style: Style refers to variation in a person’s speech or writing or a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.2. Stylistics文体学: According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus adopting a linguistic approach. This brings literature and linguistics closer.9.2 Some general features of the literary language文学语言的一些普遍特征9.2.1Foregrounding and grammatical form前景化和语法格式1. Foregrounding前景化: Foreground refers to the part of a scene nearest to the viewer, or figuratively the most noticeable position. Foregrounding means to put something or someone in the most essential part of the description or narration, other than in a background position.2. In literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often exploited, experimented with, or made to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning.9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language字面语言和比喻语言1. Literal language: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually called literal meaning.2. Figurative language: A. k. a. trope, which refers to language used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.We can use some figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.Simile明喻：a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like.Metaphor暗喻：like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.Metonymy转喻：means a change of nameSynecdoche提喻：is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.9.2.3 The analysis of literary language文学语言的分析9.3 The language in poetry诗歌语言9.3.1 Sound patterning语音模式9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning不同形式的语音模式1. Rhyme押韵(end rhyme): The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of another line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away (cVC).2. Alliteration头韵: The initial consonants are identical in alliteration (Cvc).3. Assonance准押韵: Assonance describes syllables with a common vowel (cVc).4. Consonance辅押韵: Syllables ending with the same consonants are described as having consonance (cvC).5. Reverse rhyme反韵: Reverse rhyme describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant (CVc).6. Pararhyme压副韵: Where two syllables have the same initial and final consonants, but different vowels, they pararhyme (CvC).7. Repetition反复: A complete match of the syllable (CVC).9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterning重音和韵律模式1. Iamb抑扬格: An iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.2. Trochee扬抑格: A trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an unstressed syllable.3. Anapest抑抑扬格: An anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.4. Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot is similar to anapest, except reversed –a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed ones.5. Spondee扬扬格: A spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables; lines of poetry rarely consist only of spondees.6. Pyrrhic抑抑格: A pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables.7. Metrical patterning韵律模式(2) Dimeter (3)Trimeter (4)Tetrameter (5)Pentameter (6) Hexameter(7)Heptameter (8)Octameter9.3.4 Conventional forms of meter and sound传统的韵律模式和语音模式1.Couplets对句: Couplets are two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.2.Quatrains四行诗: Stanzas of four lines, known as quatrains, are very common in English poetry.3.Blank verse无韵诗: Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.9.3.5The poetic functions of sound and meter语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能：1. For aesthetic pleasure2. To conform to a convention / style / form3. To express or innovate with a form4. To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure5. For emphasis or contrast6. Onomatopoeia拟声现象9.3.6 How to analyze poetry?如何分析诗1. Read a poem more than once.2. Keep a dictionary and use it. Other reference books will also be invaluable. A good book on mythology and a Bible.3. Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind. Poetry is written to be heard: its meanings are conveyed through sound as well as through print. One should read a poem as slowly as he can. Lip reading is a good habit.4. Always pay careful attention to what the poem is saying. One should make an effort to follow the thought continuously and to grasp the full implications and suggestions.5. As aids to the understanding of a poem, we may ask some questions about.(1) Who is the speaker and what kind of person is he?(2) To whom is he speaking? What kind of person is he?(3) What is the occasion?(4) What is the setting in time (time of day, season, century)?(5) What is the setting in place (in doors or out, city or country, nation)?(6) What is the central purpose of the poem?9.4 The language in fiction小说中的语言9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view小说与视角1.First-person narrator (I-narrator)叙述者: The person who tells the story may also bea character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this case, the critics call the narrator a first-person narrator or an I-narrator because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun “I” is used.2.Third-person narrator第三人称叙述者: If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-person pronouns, he, she, it or they.3.schema-oriented language图式语言4.Deixis指示功能: A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance toa time, place, or a person.9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation言语和思维的表达1. Speech presentation言语的表达：(1) Direct speech (DS)直接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.(2) Indirect speech (IS)间接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the speaker’s words are not reported as they were actually said.(3) Free indirect speech (FIS)自由间接引语: A further category which is an amalgam of direct and indirect speech features.(4) Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA)叙述者对言语行为的表达: A minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summary of a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more back-grounded than indirect representation would be.(5) Narrator’s representation of spee ch (NRS)叙述者对言语的表达: A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify the speech acts involved.2.Thought presentation思维的表达(1) Direct thought (DT)直接思维: Direct thought tends to be used for presenting conscious, deliberative thought. E.g. “He will be late,” she thought.(2) Indirect thought (IT)间接思维: A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. E.g. She thought that he would be late.(3) Free indirect thought (FIT)自由间接思维: A kind of mixture of direct and indirect features. E.g. He was bound to be late!(4) Narrator’s rep resentation of thought acts (NRTA): A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters is exactly as that used to present speech acts. E.g. She considered his unpunctuality.(5) Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify。

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

(完整word版)语言学第六章之后

Chapter 6 Language and Cognition1。

语言与认知6。

1.What is Cognition认知？a。

Mental processes，information processing b。

Mental process or faculty of knowing，including awareness,perception，reasoning, and judgment.2。

The formal approach:形式法structural patterns，including the study of morphological，syntactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach心理法: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception，memory，attention，and reasoning.The conceptual approach:认知法:how language structures (processes ＆patterns）conceptual content。

6。

2.Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and mental activity.6.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得① Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Two word stage双词句阶段 Stage of three—word utterances三词句阶段④ Fluent grammatical conversation stage6.2.2 Language comprehension理解Mental lexicon（心智词库）：information about the properties of words，retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word。

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语言学终极权威版 1 Q1：Give an elaborate account of the evolution of the models of the spoken language structure KEY: Model 1: language

Form meaning 1) Language is divided into form and meaning. In the 19th century or earlier, pay greater attention to form, in the late 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, there is a sharp change in focus- meaning oriented. 2) Form is a channel, meaning is expressed, and meaning obviously refers to the thoughts, ideas that one intend to express. 3) At the earliest period of language study, people deemed form it meaning the most important things to study. Model 2: language

pronunciation grammar meaning (phonology) (syntax) (semantics)

The structure of sentences Pronunciation: sound image, certainly sounds combine in some different ways. Grammar: structure of sentences, is always rule- governed by grammatical rules. E.g. A drunken man can say without making grammatical mistakes. Meaning: ideas, information, messages. Model 3 Language

Structure…..pragmatics……use medium of transmission grammar meaning(semantics) Phonetics phonology morphology syntax lexicon discourse In first level One end is structure, the other use, and in the middle pragmatics. Put structure into actual use (daily social activities) you should play the game by the rules (pragmatical rules) not just grammatical correction, but pragmatical perfection. Meaning intended---- what you want to say Meaning realized---- what you actually say. If meaning realized matches meaning intended, you succeed in expressing your meaning. The present model shows the complexity of the language. We can see from the model how many different levels can be set up to explain the way the spoken language structure is organized.

Q2：Define the following terms-terms of all branches of language 1. Pragmatics: is the study of the factors which influence a person‟s choice of language or the study of meaning in context. 2. phonetics is the science of speech sounds (including vowels, consonants, semi-vowels), esp. 语言学终极权威版 2 their production, transmission and reception productive sounds manner of articulation, places of articulation 3. phonology is the study of the sound system of language. Phonetics studies individual sounds while phonology examines the sound system and the interrelationship between sounds. /m/ bilabial, nasal-> nasalization (assimilation) ambiguous, ambiguity E.g. Flying plane can play dangers 4. morphology: the study of word structure, esp. in terms of morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language which can‟t be further divided without losing meaning. 5. syntax: the study of sentence structure 6. semantics: the study of linguistics meaning 7. lexicon: the vocabulary of a language, esp. in dictionary form. Lexicology: the study of lexicon of a language 8. discourse: a continuous stretch of language(esp. spoken language) larger than a sentence. 9. comparative philology also named as historical and comparative linguistics, comparative and historical linguistics.通过比较一种语言的前期形式和后期形式，也通过比较不同的语音，现已查明某些语言是有亲属关系的，例如印欧语系中有梵语、希腊语、拉丁语。王宗炎: the aim of the study is to find out the genetic relationships between them. The 19century comparative philology focuses on written records and showed great Internet in historical analysis and interpretation. 10. structuralism：an approach that analyses a language or any human institution r behavior into a set of structures. 11. structural linguistics: the study of a language system of a formal patterning rather than of the meaning patterns convey. In other words, structural linguistics pays more attention to the form than to the meaning or they give priority to the study of forms/structure. 12. structural semantics: the study of the sense/meaning relations between words as identified by synonyms, near-synonyms, hyponyms, etc. 13. behaviorism: the study of observable and measurable behavior. Here of linguistics, it refers to stimulus-response made by the participants in speech situations. 14. lexical item: any single word, phrase or expression used in a language. 15. pragmatic failure: It means saying sth that you didn‟t want to say；the big gap between the meaning intended and the meaning realized. 16. Tone: pitch variations caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Or contrastive pitch of syllables in languages where two words may be identical except for such difference in pitch. 17. Intonation: the rise and fall of the voice in speaking, esp. as this affects the meaning of what is being said. 18. dialect: special forms and features peculiar to region. 19. realism/naturalism: a view(dating from ancient Greek philosophy) that there is a close natural connection between words and things. 20. nominalism/conventionalism: the view that there is a relationship of arbitrariness between words and things. 21. empirical study: sth based on direct observation and scientific experiments and future

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