Chapter 6 Speech acts and events
Chapter 6 Pragmatics
Pragmatics
Discussion: Can you explain the meaning of “I’m tired”? Semantics or syntax: describe the speaker’s physical state (feeling weak and lacking power in the body or mind; needing rest or sleep)
6.2.2 Searle’s classification of speech acts
Speech acts: five categories (share the same illocutionary point, differ in strength) representatives/assertives directives John Searle, commissives American expressives philosopher declarations and linguist
Groom:
I do.
What are the features of performatives? First person singular Speech act verbs / performative verbs:
–The present tense
–Indicative mood
–Active voice
How to explain “It’s cold in here.” in three levels of speech acts?
Summary:
Linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act, i.e. how a speaker expresses his intention and how his intention is recognized by the hearer.
Chapter 6 Pragmatics
6.1.1 DEFINITION
1. What is pragmatics? 语用学 2. What are the two traditions in the study of pragmatics? the Anglo-American tradition美国传统 the European continental tradition欧洲大陆传统
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF CONVERSATION
5. _____ proposed the Cooperative Principle, CP for short. 6. What is Cooperative Principle and its four maxims? 7. Only when a maxim is ______, to use Grice’s term, does conversational implicature occur. .(炫弄或蔑视某个准则)
1. Speech Act Theory (言语行为理论) was proposed by the British Philosopher ______. 奥斯汀
2. John Austin made a distinction of statements between ______ and ______.
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF CONVERSATION
(完整word版)语言学第六章之后
Chapter 6 Language and Cognitionl.语言与认知6.1. What is Cog nitio n 认知？а.Mental processes, information processing b.Mental process or faculty ofknowin g,i ncludi ng aware ness,percepti on, reas oning, and judgme nt.2. The formal approach:形式法structural patter ns, in cludi ng the study of morphological, syn tactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach 心理法：Ianguage from the view of general systems ranging from percepti on, memory, atte nti on, and reas oning.The conceptual approach认知法：how Ianguage structures (processes& patterns) con ceptual content.6.2. Psycholi nguistics 心理语言学The study of the relati on ships betwee n lin guistic behavior and men tal activity.б.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得① Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Twoword stage 双词句阶段Stage of three-word uttera nces 三词句阶段④ Flue ntgrammatical conv ersati on stage6.2.2 Lan guage comprehe nsior理解Mental lexicon (心智词库)：information about the properties of words, retrievable whe n un dersta nding Ian guage For example, we may use morphological rules to decomposea complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that freque ncy of exposure determ ines our ability to recall stored in sta nces Connectionism (连结主义)：readers use the same system of links between spelling un its and sound un its to gen erate the pronun ciatio ns of writte n words like tove and to access the pronun ciati ons of familiar words like stove, or words that are excepti ons to these patter ns, like love.Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehendingIan guage, with the no vel items being processed based on their similarity to the known onesWord recognition 单词识另廿:recognition of spoken words and printed ones.Cohort theory:集群模型Marsle n-Wilson & Welsh (1978)The first few pho nemes of a spoke n word activate a set of word can didates that are con siste nt with the in put. Eg. To an in structi on pick up the can dle ” liste ners sometimes gla nces first at a picture of a can dy.In teractive model:交互模型Higher process ing levels have a direct, -down” inftue nee on lower levels. Lexicalkno wledge can affect the percepti on of phon emes. eg.ln certa in cases, liste ners 'knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, liste ners con ti nue to “ hear ” phon emes that have bee n removed from the speech sig nal and replaced by no ise. Race mode I竞争模型Pre-lexical route: computes phono logical in formati on from the acoustic sig nalLexical route: the phono logical in formatio n associated with a word becomes available whe n the word itself is accessed eg.l iste ners use phono tactic in formatio n such as the fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boun daries.Factors invo Ived in word recog niti on: ?Freque ncy effect: the ease with which a word is accesseddue to its more freque nt usage in the L.Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurre nee in the discourse or con text.Cotext: We recog nize a word more readily whe n the precedi ng words provide an appropriate con text for it.Lexical ambiguity 词法多义性eg.My friend drove me to the bank.Comprehe nsion of sen te nee句子的理解Serial models 串行模型:the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a Ianguage' grammar. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of in formatio n that is guara nteed to be releva nt to its in terpretati on, primarily grammatical in formati on.Parallel models:并行模型emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of in formati on, in clud ing grammatical, lexical, and con textual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how theprocessor uses all releva nt in formati on to quickly evaluate the full range of possible in terpretati ons of a senten ce.Structural factors in comprehe nsio n 理解中的结构因素Comprehe nsion of writte nand spoken Ianguage can be difficult becauseit is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Minimal attachment 最小配属:the“ structurally simp-etructuralsimplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Eg. The second wife will claim the in herita nee bel ongs to her.Garden path sentenee花园小径eg The horse raced past the barn fell. Fat people eat accumulates. Lexical factors in comprehe nsio n 词汇因素The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexic on. eg.The salesma n gla need at a/the customer with suspici on/ripped jea ns.Syntactic ambiguity 句法歧义Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases. Ambiguous category of some of the words in the senten ce. Eg. Joh n pain ted the car in the garage. Comprehension of text 语篇理解Resonance model:共振模型information in Iong-term memory is automaticallyactivated by the presenee of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.Discourse interpretation 语篇理解Schemata and drawing inferencesSchema图式a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the no rmal expected patter ns of thin gs. eg.The customer en ters a restaura nt, looks for atable, decides where to sit, walks to the table …6.2.3. La nguage product ion 语言的生成(1) Access to words语言提取：步骤1.Conceptualization: what to express Word select ion: a competitive process 2.：select a word that corresp onds to the chose n concept. 3.:Morpho-phonological encoding: begins with the retrieval of all competitors.(2) Gen eratio n of sentence句子的生成1. Conceptual preparation®念准备:deciding what to say -a global plan is needed2. Word retrieval and applicati on of syn tactic kno wledge3. Processes of sentence gen erati on4. Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positi ons foreach unit(3) Writte n Ian guage producti on:similar to those in the producti on of spoke n Ian guage. A major differe nt is that, once a syntactic lexicon unit and its morphological representation have been accessed, it is the orthographic rather tha n the phono logical form that must be retrieved and produced.6.3 Cognitive Linguistics 认知语言学Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of therelatio n betwee n the way we com muni cate and the way we thi nk.6.3.1 Con strual and con strual operatio n识解及操作Construal 识解:the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways(1) Attention / salience 注意力，突显:the operations grouped under salience have to do with our direct ion of atte ntio n towards someth ing that is salie nt to us. eg. We drove along the road.(2) Judgment / Comparison 判断，对比:the construal operations of it have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. eg.There ' s a cat[figure] on the mat[gro und](3) . Perspective/ situatedness 视点，观察者位置:we view a scenein terms of our situatedness.It depends on two things : 1. Where we are situated in relation to the scene we ' re viewing. 2. How the scene is arranged in relation to our situatednessMy bike is in front of the car.6.3.2 Categorization 范畴化The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on com mon alities and differe nces.Three levels: basic level superordi nate level subord in ate level.6.3.3 Image Schema意象图式Johnson, Mark.An image-schema is a “ skeletal mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kin esthetic) experie nce.1. A cen ter-periphery schema 中心-边缘图式The structure of an apple2. A containment schema 容器图示huma n bodies as containers3. A Cycle schema 循环图示Days Weeks4. A Force schema 力图示Physical: Wind, Gravity5. A link schema 连接图式6. A part-whole schema 部分-整体图式7. A path schema 路径图式8. A scale schema标量图式9. A verticality schema 垂直图式634 Metaphor 隐喻George Lakoff and Mark Joh nsonMetaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.Target domain 目标域-what is actually being talked about.Source doma in 源域-the doma in used as a basis for un dersta nding targetEg Time is money. The target domain,time,is conceptualized in terms of the source doma in of mon ey.1. Ontological metaphors实体隐喻means that human experienceswith physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events,activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Eg. Inflation is lowering our standard of living2. Structural Metaphor 结构隐喻Provides rich highly structured, clearly deli neated source domai n to structure target doma in. eg.He attacked every weak point in my argume nt.3. Orientational Metaphor 方位隐喻Gives a concept a spatial orientation eg MORE IS UPaddi ng more of a substa nee, and percei ving the level of the substa nee rise.6.3.5 Metonymy 转喻is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by LakoffOn the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories:the world of “ concepttie world of “ fornth” world of “ things ” and “ events ”(1) Whole ICM and its part(s)整体与部分间的转喻：(i) Thing-and-Part ICM 事物及部分转喻eg. America for “ United StatesSca’IeICM 标量转喻eg, How old are you? for “what is your(agj e?bnstitution ICM.构成转喻eg.: wood for “ forest (旳)Eve nt ICM.事件转喻Eg.Bill smokedmarijuana. (v) Category-and-Member ICM.范畴及范畴成员转喻Eg .the pill for“ birthcontrol pill ”(vi)Cateeond-Property ICM.范畴及属性转喻Eg. blacks for“ black people ” (vii) Reduction I压缩转喻eg.crudefor “crude oil ”⑵Parts of an ICM部分与部分间的转喻(i) Action ICM.行为转喻eg.o author anew book (ii) Perception ICM.知觉转喻eg.sight for “thing seen (iii) Causation ICM.因果转喻eg.slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road (iv)Production ICM.生产转喻eg.I ' ve got a Ford for “car ” (v) Control ICM 控制转喻eg.The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) PossessionICM 领属转喻eg.He married money for “ pers on with mon ey" (vii) containment ICM 容器转喻(viii)Location ICMs 地点转喻(ix)Sign and Referenee ICMs符号和指代转喻6.3.6 Blending Theory 整合理论I.Cross-Space Map p ing跨空间映射 2.Ge nericSpace 类属空间3.Blend 整合4.Emergent Structure®创结构Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society7.1 Lan guage and culture语言和文化7.1.1 How does lang uage relate to cultureIn 20th century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology(the study of huma nity ), en compass ing all huma n phe nomena that are not purely results of huma n gen eticsLon don School 伦敦学派：Mali no wski 马林诺夫斯基:The meaning of a word greatly depe nds upon its occurre nee in a give n con textEth no graphy of com muni cati on 交际民族学：l.speech com mun ity 言语社团2. situatio n, eve nt and act 场景，事件，行为3.SPEAKING(situatio n,participa nts,e nds,act,seque nce,key,i nstrume ntalities, no rms,ge nres) Speech community言语社团:a group of people who form a community, and share the same Ian guage or a particular variety of Ian guageTheory of the con text of situatio n情景语境理论J. R. Firth (1890-1960):A. The releva nt features of the participa nts, pers ons, pers on alities.1. The verbal 言语action of the participants2.The non-verbal action of the participa ntsB. The releva nt objects.C. The effects of the verbal acti on.“ who speaks what to whom and whe n and to what end ”Halliday: Study Ian guage from a social semiotic or in teract ional perspective Functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential Linguistic model in the study of literature7.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设:Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different Ianguages may probably express speakers ' unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism(语言决定论) Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)The stro ng versio n 强式说): The weak versi on (弱式说):7.1.3. Case studies个案研究Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. Nida(1998): Words are sometimes “ idiomgovettyed ” and “cultusaecific ”7.1.4 To which extent Do we need culture in our linguistic studyA study of linguistic issues in a cultural setting can greatly promote our understanding of motivatio n and directi on ality in lan guage cha nge.7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroon文化在语言学习中的重要作用:A. To get the students familiar with cultural differenee.B. To help the students tran sce nd their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will.C. To emphasize the in separability of un dersta nding lan guage and un dersta nding culture through various classroom practices.7.2. Lan guage and Society7.2.1 How does language relate to society? Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent scienee —元性或自治性Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性A situationally and socially variationist perspectiveA maxim in sociolinguistics: “ You are what 尔o即尔所言)”(WOMEN REGISTER女性语域LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视现象7.2.3 What should we know more about socioli nguistics 社会语言学的重要作用Sociolinguistics:社会语言学an interdisciplinary study of Ianguage use, attemptsto show the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and society.7.2.4 What implicatio ns can we get from sociolin guistics ?社会语言学的重要启示:sociolinguistics' contributions: 1. Ithas contributed Jtg a change of emphasis in the content of Ian guage teachi ng. 2.…inno vati ons in materials and activities for the classroom. 3.…a fresh look at the nature of Ianguage development and use. 4.…a more fruitful research in this field.applied socioli nguistics 应用社会语言学In Ian guage classrooms In law courts In cli nic sett ings7.3 Cross-cultural Communi cati on 跨文化交际What should we know all about cross-cultural com muni cati on? I.Try to look at thi ngs from other persons point of view 2.Try to sense their feeling to a given issue3. Try to un dersta nd their way of knowing the world7.3.2 Case studies个案研究Whe n in Rome do as the Roma ns do Put yourself in other ' s shoes One culture ' s meat is anotherculture Honpotycand sincerity are key pointsto mutual un dersta nding.Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用What is pragmatics语用学? What' s the differenee between pragmatics and semantics 语义学？Pragmatics is the study of the use of Ian guage in com muni cati on, particularly the relati on ships betwee n senten ces and the con texts and situati ons in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of: (1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depe nds on kno wledge of the real world;(2)How speakers use and un dersta nd speech acts;(3) How the structure of senten ces is in flue need by the relati on ship betwee n the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without refere nee to the users and com muni cative functions of senten ces.8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论8.1.1 Performatives and con statives施为句和叙事句1. Performative: In speech act theory an uttera nee which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warni ng).2. Con stative: An uttera nee which asserts somethi ng that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity eonditions of performatives 施为句的条件:(1) There must be a releva nt eonven ti onal procedure, and the releva nt participa nts and circumsta nces must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very ofte n, the releva nt people must have the requisite thoughts, feeli ngs and in ten ti ons, and must follow it up with acti ons as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutio nary act 会话含义理论1. What is a speech ac言语行为？A speech act is an uttera nee as a functional unit in com muni cati on. In speech act theory, uttera nces have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning)命题意义：This is the basic literal mea ning of the uttera nee which is conv eyed by the particular words and structures which the uttera nee contains. Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force) 言外之意:This is the effect the utteranee or written text has on the reader or listener.A speech act which is performed in directly is sometimes known as an in direct speech act, such as the speech act of the requesti ng above. In direct speech acts are ofte n felt to be more polite ways of perform ing certa in kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.2. Locutionary act言内行为:A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts betwee n three differe nt types of acts invo Ived in or caused by the uttera nee of a senten ce. A locuti onary act is the say ing of someth ing which is meanin gful and can be un derstood.3. Illocutionary act 言外行为:An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a fun cti on.4. Perlocutionary act言后行为:A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of say ing someth ing.8.2 The theory of eon versati onal implicature 会话含义理论8.2.1 The cooperative prin ciple 合作原贝U1. Cooperative principle refers to the “ c-operation between speakers in using the maxims during the eonversation. There are four eonversational maxim会话准贝U :(1) The maxim of quantity 数量:a. Make your eon tributio n as in formative as required.b. Don' t make your eon tributi on more in formative tha n is required.(2) The maxim of quality 质量:Try to make your eontribution one that is true.a. Don' t say what you believe to be false.b. Don' t say that for which you lack adequate evide nee(3) The maxim of relati on 关系:Say things that are releva nt.(4) The maxim of manner方式:Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expressi on.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature言外之意:The use of eonversational maxims to imply meaning during eonversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims 准则的违反1. Con versati onal implicature 言外之意In real com muni cati on, the in ten ti on of the speaker is ofte n not the literalmeaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conv ersatio nal implicature.r the speakers ' inten tio n through the words.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature含义的特征：1. Calculability 可推导性2. Cancellability / defeasibility 可取消性3. Non-detachability 不可分离性4. Non-conventionality 非常规性8.3 Post-Gricean developme nts后格莱斯时期的发展8.3.1 Releva nee theory关联理论Every act of oste nsive com muni cati on com muni cates the presumpti on of its own optimal releva nee.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principles Q原则和R 原则The Q-pri nciple is in ten ded to inv oke the first maxim of Grice ' Quan tity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricea n maxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based基于听话人)is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient 你的话要充分(cf. quantity);⑵ Say as much as you can (given Rt符合R 原则的前提下).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your con tributi on n ecessary (cf. Relati on, Quan tity-2, Mann er);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息量原则和方式原则Q-pri nciple:Speaker' maxim 准贝U: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your kno wledge of the world allows, uni ess provid ing a stron ger stateme nt would con trave ne the I-pri nciple.I-pri ncipleSpeaker' s maxim: the maxirhrainimization 最小化原贝USay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your com muni cati onal en ds.Recipie nt ' s corollary: the en richme nt ruleAmplify the in formatio nal content of the speaker ' utiera nee, by fin di ng the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker -intended point. ' s m M-pri ncipleSpeaker' nsaxim: Do not use a prolix 冗长的，obscure模糊的or marked 显著的expressi on without reas on.Recipie nt ' s corollary: If the speaker used a prolixna r ked expressi on M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U - specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.Chapter 9 Language and Literature9.1 Theoretical background 概i术1. Style: Style refers to variation in a person ' speech or writing or a particular person ' s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.2. Stylistics 文体学:According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus adopting a linguistic approach. This brings literature and linguistics closer.9.2 Some gen eral features of the literary lang uag文学语言的一些普遍特征9.2.1Foregro unding and grammatical form前景化和语法格式1. Foregrounding前景化:Foreground refers to the part of a scene nearest to the viewer, or figuratively the most noticeable position. Foregrounding means to put someth ing or some one in the most esse ntial part of the descripti on or n arrati on, other than in a backgro und positi on.2. In literary texts, the grammatical system of the Ianguage is often exploited,experime nted with, or made to “ deviate from other, more everyday, forms of Ian guage,and as a result creates in terest ing new patter ns in form and in meaning.9.2.2 Literal la nguage and figurative Ian guage字面语言和比喻语言1. Literal language: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually called literal mea ning.2. Figurative Ianguage: A. k. a. trope, which refers to Ianguage used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.We can use some figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, metonymy,syn ecdoche, etc.Simile 明喻：a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like. Metaphor 暗喻：like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.Metonymy 转喻：means a change of nameSynecdoche提喻：is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers to using then ame of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.9.2.3 The an alysis of literary Ian guage文学语言的分析9.3 The Ian guage in poetry诗歌语言9.3.1 Sou nd patterni ng 语音模式9.3.2 Differe nt forms of sound patterni ng 不同形式的语音模式1. Rhyme 押韵(end rhyme): The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of ano ther line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away (cVC).2. Alliteration 头韵:The initial consonants are identical in alliteration (Cvc).3. Ass onance 准押韵:Ass onance describes syllables with a com mon vowel (cVc).4. Consonance辅押韵:Syllables ending with the same consonants are described as hav ing consonance (cvC).5. Reverse rhyme 反韵:Reverse rhyme describes syllables shari ng the vowel andin itial consonant (CVc).6. Pararhyme 压畐寸韵: Where two syllables have the same initial and final consonan ts, but differe nt vowels, they pararhyme (CvC).7. Repetitio n 反复：A complete match of the syllable (CVC).9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterni ng重音和韵律模式1. lamb 抑扬格:An iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.2. Trochee扬抑格:A trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an un stressed syllable.3. Anapest抑抑扬格:An anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.4. Dactyl 扬抑抑格:A dactylic foot is similar to anapest, except reversed —a stressed syllable is followed by two un stressed on es.5. Spondee扬扬格:A spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables; lines of poetry rarely con sist only of spon dees.6. Pyrrhic 抑抑格:A pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables.7. Metrical patterning 韵律模式(2) Dimeter (3)Trimeter (4)Tetrameter (5)Pentameter (6) Hexameter (7)Heptameter (8)Octameter9.3.4 Conven ti onal forms of meter and sound传统的韵律模式和语音模式1. Couplets对句:Couplets are two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.2. Quatra ins 四行诗:Stan zasof four lin es, known as quatra ins, are very com mon in En glish poetry.3. Blank verse 无韵诗:Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.9.3.5The poetic fun cti ons of sound and mete 语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能：1. For aesthetic pleasure2. To conform to a conven tio n / style / form3. To express or inno vate with a form4. To dem on strate tech ni cal skill, and for in tellectual pleasure5. For emphasis or con trast6. Ono matopoeia 拟声现象9.3.6 How to an alyze poetry?如何分析诗1. Read a poem more tha n on ce.2. Keep a dictionary and use it. Other reference books will also be invaluable. A good book on mythology and a Bible.3. Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind. Poetry is writte n to be heard: its meanings are con veyed through sound as well as through print. One should read a poem as slowly as he can. Lip readi ng is a good habit.4. Always pay careful attention to what the poem is saying. One should make an effort to follow the thought continuously and to grasp the full implications and suggesti ons.5. As aids to the un dersta nding of a poem, we may ask some questi ons about.(1) Who is the speaker and what kind of person is he?(2) To whom is he speaking? What kind of person is he?⑶ What is the occasion?(4) What is the sett ing in time (time of day, seas on, cen tury)?(5) What is the setting in place (in doors or out, city or country, nation)?(6) What is the central purpose of the poem?9.4 The lang uage in fiction 小说中的语言941 Ficti onal prose and point of view 小说与视角1. First-person narrator (I-narrator叙述者：The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relat ing the story after the eve nt. I n this case, the critics call the n arrator a first-pers on n arrator or an l-n arrator because whe n the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun “I i” used.2. Third-person narrator第三人称叙述者:If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-pers on pronouns, he, she, it or they.3. schema-orie nted Ian guag图式语言4. Deixis 指示功能:A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance toa time, place, or a pers on.942 Speech and thought prese ntatio 言语和思维的表达1. Speech prese ntatior言语的表达：(1) Direct speech (DS)直接弓I语:A kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.(2) In direct speech (IS)间接弓I语:A kind of speech prese ntati on in which the speaker ' s words are not reported as they were actually said.(3) Free in direct speech (FIS)自由间接引语:A further category which is an amalgam of direct and in direct speech features.(4) Narrator 'representation of speech acts (NRSA)叙述者对言语行为的表达：A mini malist kind of prese ntati on in which a part of passage can be see n as a summary of a Ion ger piece of discourse, and therefore eve n more back-gro un ded tha n in direct represe ntati on would be.(5) Narrator ' s representation of spe(NRS)叙述者对言语的表达：A possibility ofspeech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator ' s representation of speec acts, n amely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not eve n specify the speech acts invo Ived.。
Chapter5 Speech Acts
Rudolf Carnap is a leading member of the Vienna Circle and prominent advocate of logical positivism（逻辑实证主义）, also called logical empiricism or Neo-positivism. Much of the semantic work done by philosophers of language during this period rested upon the “truth-functional”（真值函数 的）definitions of semantics in the Carnapian tradition. Philosophers working in the truth-functional tradition restrict themselves to “propositions” （命题）.
eg. It’s cold here.
An illocutionary act（行事行为/言外行为）: an act performed in saying something. To say sth is to do sth.
In saying X, I was doing Y. In saying “I will come tomorrow”, I was making a promise.
Austin’s Distinction Between Perfoematives and Constatives （施为句和表述句）
Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg:
chapter 6 Pragmatics
Chapter 6 Pragmatics6.1 Some basic notions6.1.1 Definition●—the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.●—the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication.Introduction●“Y ou are a fool.”●“What do you mean?”●Here are three aspects of the meaning of the sentences:SPEAKER’S MEANING,UTTERANCE MEANING,CONTEXTUAL MEANING●Depends more on the context●Pragmatics: The study of language in use●Pragmatics is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particularcontexts in which they are used. E.g. There is a car coming is seen as, out of context, a statement that a car is coming. But in a particular context it might be a warning to a pedestrian not to step onto a road, an expression of hope that people invited to a dinner are at last arriving, and so on.语用学的开端语用学这个术语，是美国哲学家查尔斯·莫里斯首先使用的。
胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结
Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too muchabout it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books”: “book”in English, 书in Chinese, “check”in Korean.It is symbolic,because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”.The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrarinessis the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.There seems to be different levels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguisticforms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructedaccording to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say thatthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to whichthe members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules forthe correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once andfor all.For example, “Don’t say X.”is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.”is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive becausethe nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study ofthe features oftheEnglish used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study ofthe changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is thatunlessthe various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence ofthe speaker andthe actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass ofconfused facts, i.e. to discover theregularities governing all instances of parole and make themthe subject of linguistics.petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, andthe actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychologicaland social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomskybelievesthat linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)eticsvs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction betweenthe material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable andarticulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics? Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences betweenAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you canfind.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shar ed by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: wh en we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。
新编语言学教程chapter 6 pragmatics (课堂PPT)
11
Direct anaphora (direct relation between the antecedent and the anaphor):
18
3.2 Constatives and performatives
• Constatives: statements, assertions and utterances like them; an utterance is used to state a fact or what the speaker believes to be a fact, or to describe state of affairs. e.g: She is a waitress. The characteristic property of a constative is that it can be assessed in terms of truth value.
the rest of social sience was/ wasn’t asleep. >> Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics. • Cleft sentences It was/ wasn’t Henry that kissed Rosie. >> Somenone kissed Rosie. • Comparisons and contrasts Carol is/ isn’t a better linguist than Barbara. >> Barbara is a linguist.
胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结-推荐下载
Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books” : “book” in English, 书in Chinese, “check” in Korean.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”. The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrariness is the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There seems to be different levels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You mayobjectto this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words thatsound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructed according to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12 important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemicsanalyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics? Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics simply.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive DescriptiveOver-emphasize written words Spoken language is primaryForce languages into a Latin-based frameworkDo not judge one language by standards of anotherAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you can find.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, orthe realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: when we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。
chapter 6Pragmatics(1)
3. Host: Would you like a cocktail? It’s my own invention. Guest: Well, mmm uh it’s not that we don’t not drink. 4. Student A: How are you? Student B: I’m dead.
6.2.1
• Linguistic context e.g. bank
He got to bank to cash a check. The bank is steep and slippery.
• Physical context/situational context
bank
6.2.2
The expressions which depend for their interpretation on the immediate physical context in which they are uttered are known as deixis. (指示语 ) • Person deixis: I you he me you him them • Place deixis: there here • Time diexis: now then tonight last week
6.2 Micro-pragmatics
Studies of the meaning of language phenomena in smaller scale is known as micro-pragmatics • 6.2.1 context • 6.2.2 deixis • 6.2.3 reference • 6.2.4 anaphora • 6.2.5 presuppositon
胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结-推荐下载
Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books” : “book” in English, 书in Chinese, “check” in Korean.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”. The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrariness is the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There seems to be different levels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You mayobjectto this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words thatsound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructed according to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12 important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemicsanalyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics? Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics simply.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive DescriptiveOver-emphasize written words Spoken language is primaryForce languages into a Latin-based frameworkDo not judge one language by standards of anotherAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you can find.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, orthe realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: when we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。