Internal and External Micro Environment

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topic4

person holds about something.
Attitude: A person’s relatively consistent
evaluations, feelings and tendencies towards an object or an idea. Learning: Changes in an individual’s behavior
Autonomic decisions Wife-dominant decisions Husband-dominant decisions Syncratic decisions
Pester power
Family life cycle
Family consumption decisions
4.1.1.3 Individual influences
Individualism (IDV)
Masculinity (MAS)
Long-term orientation (LTO)
Cultural factors Subcultures (p107): A group of individuals who share common attitudes, values and behaviours that distinguish them from the broader culture in which they are immersed.
4.1.2 The consumer decision-making process
initiators users influencers
buyers
deciders
Roles in the buying process

企业环境分析

Why should we analyze business
environment？
Aims of analyzing business environment: 企业分析外部环境的目的： Understand what development opportunities the business are facing;
• Meso affecting factors: Industry characteristics, Industry structure • 中观影响因素：行业特征、市场结构
Micro affecting factors: suppliers, competitors, consumers 微观影响因素：供应商、竞争对手、消费者等。 Back
external affecting factors
政治法律环境（political) 行业竞争结构
经济环境
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ消费者
技术环境
(techn0l (techn0l ogical) ogical)
(econo (econo mic) mic)
Small Business
供应者行业寿命周期社会文化环境 (social&cultu ral)
Industry Life Cycle, Size of the industry, value chain analysis, Competition structure in the market 行业特征分析：行业生命周期行业生命周期、行业规模、行业生命周期价值链分析、市场竞争结构市场竞争结构等。市场竞争结构
– 企业需要对哪些方面做出必要的反应，以适应环境的变化？

测量设备英文对照34

千分尺类1. 测微头micrometer head2. 外径千分尺external micrometer3. 杠杆千分尺micrometer with dial comparator4. 带计数器千分尺micrometer with counter5. 电子数显外径千分尺 micrometer with electronic digital display6. 小测头千分尺small anvil micrometer7. 尖头千分尺point micrometer8. 板厚千分尺sheet metal micrometer9. 壁厚千分尺tube micrometer10. 叶片千分尺blade micrometer11. 奇数沟千分尺odd fluted micrometer12. 深度千分尺depth micrometer13. 内径千分尺internal micrometer14. 单杆式内径千分尺 single-body internal micrometer15. 表式内径千分尺 dail internal micrometer16. 三爪式内径千分尺three point internal micrometer17. 电子数显三爪式内径千分尺three point internal micrometer18. 内测千分尺inside micrometer指示表类1. 指示表dial indicator2. 深度只是表depth dial indicator3. 杠杆指示表dial test indicator4. 内径指示表bore dial indicator5. 涨弹簧式指示表expanding head bore dial indicator6. 钢球式内径指示表ball type bore dial indicator7. 电子数显指示表dial indicator with electronic digital display8. 杠杆卡规indicating snap gauge9. 带表卡规dial snap gauge10. 带表外卡规outside dial snap gauge11. 带表内卡规inside dial snap gauge12. 测厚规thickness gauge13. 扭簧比较仪microcator14. 杠杆齿轮比较仪mechanical dial comparator15. 电子量规electronic gauge16. 电感式传感器inductance type transducer17. 指示装置indicating device18. 电感测微仪inductance micrometer19. 峰值电感测微仪 peak inductance micrometer20. 电感内径比较仪inductance bore comparator21. 瞄准传感器aiming transducer。

Lecture_1

Integrated customer focus
Push! Push! Sell! Sell! by promotion
Sales Orientation
Short term gains in profit via sales increases
Production & assembly line refinement
Relationship Marketing
Quality
Customer
Marketing
Relationship Marketing
Transactional Marketing
Focus on single sales
Emphasis upon product features
Short timescales Low emphasis on customer retention Limited customer commitment Moderate customer contact Quality is essentially the concern of production and no one else
High customer commitment and contact that uses information to build the relationship
Quality is the concern of all - failure to recognise this create minor mistakes which lead to major problems
Develop Marketing Products and Services Market to Customers Feedback

英文文献

Materials Science and Engineering B132(2006)143–146Sustained-release of caffeine from a polymeric tablet matrix:An in vitro and pharmacokinetic studyDonna Tan a,Bin Zhao a,Shabbir Moochhala a,∗,Yi-Yan Yang ba Defence Medical&Environmental Research Institute,DSO National Laboratories(Kent Ridge),27Medical Drive,#12-00,Singapore117597,Republic of Singaporeb Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology,31Biopolis Way,#04-01,The Nanos,Singapore138669,Republic of SingaporeAbstractCaffeine is utilized as a stimulant to impart a desired level of alertness during certain working ually,a single dose of caffeine induces 2–3h of alertness coupled with side effects whereas a longer effect of8–12h is very useful for both daily life and military action.Thus,there is a need to deliver the stimulant continuously to an individual at one time to impart an increased level of alertness for the period stated after administration. This study aimed to design a polymeric microparticle system for sustained delivery of caffeine using a polymeric matrix.Poly(ethylene oxide)(PEO) was used as the erodible matrix material and the caffeine polymeric tablets were fabricated by compression using a Graseby Specac hydraulic press.In vitro release proﬁles as well as the pharmacokinetics studies data were obtained.Caffeine tablets fabricated using various polymers showed a high initial burst release type proﬁle as compared to the caffeine-PEO-tablet.The PK studies showed sustained delivery of caffeine resulted in two expected phenomena:a reduction in the initial high rate of caffeine release(burst release)as well as a reduction in the change in caffeine concentration in the systemic circulation.A simple two-component system for sustained-release caffeine formulation therefore has been achieved.©2006Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.Keywords:Pharmacokinetics;Sustained-release;Caffeine;Tablet1.IntroductionMilitary personnel involved in sustained and continuous oper-ations as well as civilian shift-workers will experience situations in which long-period of alertness is required.The use of caffeine could help alleviate cognitive performance degradation during extended wakefulness[1,2].Caffeine is a well-known and widely used stimulant for cen-tral nervous system from the group of xanthine derivatives and can be used to impart a desired level of increased alertness[2]. It is safe as a component of food at doses required to over-come sleep deprivation and has been included in diets in coffee and many soft drinks.However,a single dose of caffeine usually induces2–3h of alertness coupled with side effects.An extended duration of action of8–12h is very useful for both daily life and military action[1–3].As coffee might not be readily available to soldiers and shift-workers in such situations,therefore there is a need to develop a polymeric system to achieve a sustained-release of caffeine and prolong the stimulant action.∗Corresponding author.Tel.:+6564857201;fax:+6564857226.E-mail address:mshabbir@.sg(S.Moochhala).Tablets are among the simplest drug delivery systems and hence,the obvious choice for oral delivery of drugs.For this reason,a tablet system is being optimised for the oral sustained delivery of caffeine in the gastro-intestinal tract.Poly(ethylene)oxide(PEO)is the polymeric device used to sustain the delivery of caffeine.Its advantages as a polymer of choice are mainly because of its non-toxicity,high water-solubility,insensitivity to the pH of the biological medium[4–7], and it is safe for use in humans[5].This paper describes the fabrication method as well as in vitro and in vivo animal release proﬁles of the polymeric-caffeine-tablet.This study aimed to design a polymeric microparticle system for sustained delivery of caffeine using a polymeric matrix.2.Materials and methods2.1.MaterialsPolymers,poly(ethylene oxide)with M w of8×106and 4×106;poly(ethylene glycol)(PEG)with M w8×103; poly(vinyl alcohol)(PV A)M w 3.1–5×104(87–89%0921-5107/$–see front matter©2006Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.mseb.2006.02.031144 D.Tan et al./Materials Science and Engineering B132(2006)143–146hydrolyzed);ethyl cellulose(EC)(ethyl48%,viscosity 46cP);were purchased from Aldrich(Milwaukee,USA). Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)(PVP)M w4×104;poly(dl-lactide-co-glycolide)(PLGA50:50)M w4–7.5×104;were purchased from Sigma(St Louis,USA).Poly(dl-lactic acid)(PLA)M w 1.5–2.5×104was purchased from Polyscience(Warrington, USA).As the original PLGA was not aﬁne power,it was micro-nised with a freeze mill(SPEX6800freeze/mill,Metuchen, USA)to facilitate tablet fabrication.Poly(ethylene oxide)with M w of8×106and4×106(Aldrich waukee,USA).2.2.Tablet fabricationThe polymer,used as the dissoluble matrix material,was mixed thoroughly with caffeine powder(Sigma,St.Louis,USA) by manually grinding in a stone mortar.The resultant powder mixture is then compressed with a laboratory hydraulic press (Graseby Specac)under a pressure of38MPa for1min using two tablet punches in10-or5-mm diameter,which have convex surfaces.The total mass of each10-mm diameter tablet was maintained at360mg with different loadings of caffeine while that of the5-mm diameter tablet was kept at35mg.2.3.In vitro release studyApparatus2of the USP dissolution test(VK7000,VanKel Technology Group,Weston Parkway,USA)was employed for in vitro drug release studies.Simulated intestinalﬂuid(SIF, without pancreatin),which is prepared using monobasic potas-sium phosphate and sodium hydroxide(Merck,Darmstadt,Ger-many),is used as a release medium.The dissolution tests are performed in1000mL of recep-tor medium with an agitation rate of110rpm.Samples of1mL, which are replaced by an equal volume of fresh receptor medium, are periodically taken.All samples areﬁltered with0.2-␮m syringeﬁlters(Whatman,Clifton,USA)before being analysed with high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC).2.4.In vivo animal experimentsPharmacological evaluation was carried out using20male Sprague–Dawley rats weighing between220and250g.Ani-mals were catheterised via the left iliac vein and were allowed a post surgical recovery period of at least24h.They were fasted overnight with free access to water prior to dosing.Subjects were administered a single dose of either the polymeric-tablet-formulation(n=11)or the control-tablets(n=9)orally.Blood samples for measurement of plasma Caffeine concentrations were obtained predose,1–8,10,12,24,30,36and48h fol-lowing oral dosing.Plasma were immediately separated from the blood samples and frozen at−70◦C until assayed.Before the samples can be analysed for caffeine quan-tities,caffeine has to be extracted.One hundred andﬁfty microlitres of an internal standard(I.S.,500␮g mL−1N-acetyl-p-aminophenol in water),and an additional3mL of dichloromethane–isopropanol(88:12,v/v)were added to 150␮L of plasma.It was vortex-mixed and shaken for45min.Table1HPLC Gradient used for detection of caffeineTime(min)Flowrate(mL/min)SolventA(%)Solvent B(%)Solvent C(%)0 1.00100005 1.00950522 1.00950524 1.00095535 1.00095545 1.000604050 1.000604051 1.001000056 1.0010000 Solvent A:0.05%acetic acid;solvent B:50mM ammonium acetate;solvent C: methanol.After centrifugation for10min at11×g,the organic phase was separated and evaporated to dryness under a gentle stream of nitrogen.The extract was reconstituted with200␮L of0.05% acetic acid–methanol solution(92:8,v/v).2.5.HPLC analysisThe reconstituted sample of caffeine was analysed for caf-feine quantity using a chromatographic HPLC system(Waters 2690Separation Module)consisting of a600E multi-solvent delivery system pump,Ultra WISP715auto-injector and a UV–Vis996photodiode array detector,all were obtained from Waters Asia Ltd.An injection volume of50␮L was used.The detector was operated at a wavelength of254nm.The caffeine metabolites were separated on a SymmetryShield TM Cartridge Column RP18(250mm×4.6mm i.d.;particle size,5␮m)from Waters Asia Ltd.at22◦C and aﬂow rate of1mL min−1.A mobile phase comprising0.05%acetic acid,50mM ammonium acetate and methanol was used.The mobile phase consisted of 0.05%acetic acid,50mM ammonium acetate and methanol according to the following gradient program as listed in Table1.3.Results and discussion3.1.In vitro release proﬁles for sustained-release ofcaffeineA polymeric matrix is used to impede the diffusion of caffeine into the external environment.The efﬁciency of this impedance is dependent upon a variety of parameters,including polymer type,molecular weight and concentration.In the same manner, caffeine release is also effected by erosion of the tablets,which frees the caffeine from the matrices.The effect of various poly-mers on caffeine release proﬁle was studied.Fig.1shows that PEG,PVP,PV A and EC as well as PLGA exert only a slight retardance on caffeine release.As PEG and PVP used were of low molecular weight,they would be expected to dissolve very quickly in an aqueous phase, thus removing their effects from the system.PV A and EC’s dis-solution may have caused the disintegration of the tablet(resultsD.Tan et al./Materials Science and Engineering B 132(2006)143–146145Fig.1.Cumulative caffeine release proﬁles of tablets containing various poly-mers:( )PEG M w 1×104;(᭹)PVP M w 4×104;( )PV A M w 3.1–5×104;( )EC,viscosity of 46cP;( )PLGA 50:50M w 4–7.5×104.The dotted line represents the release proﬁle of pure caffeine tablets for comparison.not shown).PLGA tablets showed no satisfactory retardance although the tablet structure was maintained.This may be due to the hydrophilicity of the PGA chain segment,which would not retard the penetration of the aqueous phase.Thus,caffeine would still be able to solubilise and diffuse with ease in the presence of PLGA.Figs.2and 3show the release proﬁles of PEO tablets of M w of 8×106and 4×106with various percentage caffeine loading.Caffeine at 8.3%,16.7%,33.3%,50%,80%and 90%loading were fabricated with PEO as the dissoluble matrix [8].The ﬁgures show the release of caffeine from both tablets is nearly linear in the ﬁrst 20h suggesting an almost constant rate of caffeine release during this period.The tablets had similar release proﬁles,despite differing caffeine contents.The trend is similar for the two different molecular weight PEO tablets.The tablets retained their characteristic capabilities to retard caffeine release from their matrices despite the use of varying proportions of caffeine,up to caffeine content of 80%.It can also be observed that the release of caffeine from tablets of the higher molecular weight PEO tends to be more gradual (lower rate)compared to the release rate in PEO of lowermolec-Fig.2.Release proﬁles of PEO M w 4×106tablets with various percentage caffeine loading:( )8.3%;( )16.7%;( )33.3%;(+)50%;(−)80%;( )90%.Fig.3.Release proﬁles of PEO M w 8×106tablets with various percentage caffeine loading:( )8.3%;(×)16.7%;(᭹)33.3%;( )80%;( )90%.ular weight.This is probably due to the slower dissolution and erosion,and hence release of caffeine,of the higher molecular weight polymer.The sole exceptions to the release proﬁles of the tablets were those with 90%caffeine-loading.These tablets tended to release their caffeine load faster than the trends of the other tablets pre-dicted.This may be explained by the dominance of the diffusion gradient created by the high caffeine content,over the retardation effect of the reduced polymer content.Since the release rates of caffeine are not signiﬁcantly altered by changes in loading (up to percentage loading of 80%),it is possible to choose the most suitable percentage loading amount based upon usage of the tablet and desired overall caffeine released.3.2.In vivo tablet release proﬁles and pharmacokinetics analysisIt was necessary to use 5-mm diameter tablets instead of the 10-mm diameter ones studied in vitro previously because the larger tablets were too difﬁcult for the rats used in the in vivo assays to swallow.An ideal caffeine content suitable for sustained-release for use in the animal models was determined to be 32%caffeine-loading in the PEO tablet.Sustained delivery of caffeine was expected to result in two phenomena:a reduction in the initial high rate of caffeine release (burst release),as well as the reduction in the change in caffeine concentration in the systemic circulation.The PK analysis was performed with WinNonlin ®Version 3.2(Pharsight Corporation,CA,USA).From Fig.4,it may be observed that the highest systemic concentration of caffeine attained within the ﬁrst hour is 5.0␮g mL −1for negative control I (8%,w/w caffeine sucrose tablets).In contrast,the 8%(w/w)caffeine poly(ethylene oxide)tablets attained a highest systemic caffeine concentration of only 0.93␮g mL −1within 6h.This indicates a 5.4-fold decrease in the burst release.The latency to the peak concentration is 1and 5h for negative control I and 8%(w/w)caffeine PEO tablets,respectively.This is a 5-fold delay in the latency to peak concentration for the PEO tablets.However,the half-life for the 8%(w/w)caffeine PEO tablets is 1.97h and that of the negative control is 1.87h.Thus,the half-146 D.Tan et al./Materials Science and Engineering B132(2006)143–146Table2Summary of pharmacokinetics(PK)parameters of the various caffeine-loaded tabletsPolymer/%caffeine loading(w/w)Peak concentration(␮g mL−1)T max(h)AUC(h␮g mL−1)Half-life(h) Negative control I Sucrose/8 5.00120.01 1.87 Negative control II Sucrose/3223.353146.73 6.72 Sustained-release PEO/80.935 5.834 1.97Sustained-release PEO/3212.23690.8534.37Fig.4.Mean(±S.E.M.)plasma concentration of caffeine following single oral dose of the following:( )32%(w/w)caffeine-loaded sucrose tablets;(᭹) 32%(w/w)caffeine-loaded PEO tablets;(♦)8%(w/w)caffeine-loaded sucrose tablets;( )8%(w/w)caffeine-loaded PEO tablets.life is not signiﬁcantly increased.Both of these tablets failed to maintain the systemic caffeine concentrations at a constant and also to sustain the release of caffeine beyond12h.In order to demonstrate the ability to maintain the systemic caffeine concentration,it is necessary to increase the amount of caffeine in the PEO tablets.In vitro studies showed that the release proﬁle of the caffeine-loaded PEO tablets was not affected by the quantity of caffeine used,so long as this quantity did not exceed80%(w/w).As such,32%(w/w)caffeine PEO tablets were used.The caffeine load was increased to four times of that previously used,with the intention of extending the half-life of caffeine.A second negative control was also used—32% (w/w)caffeine sucrose tablets.The highest systemic concentration for the32%(w/w)caf-feine PEO tablets achieved was12.23␮g mL−1.The latency to the peak concentration was achieved at6h after dosing.This is compared to the32%(w/w)caffeine sucrose tablets where the highest systemic concentration—23.35␮g mL−1was achieved at3h after dosing.A1.90-fold decrease for initial burst release and a2-fold delay in the latency to peak concentration were obtained with the32%(w/w)caffeine PEO tablets.The half-life for the32%(w/w)caffeine PEO tablets was4.37h and that for the32%(w/w)caffeine sucrose tablets was6.72h. Table2summarizes the pharmacokinetics(PK)parameters of the caffeine-loaded tablets.The32%(w/w)caffeine PEO tablets have shown to be able to maintain a systemic caffeine concentration with a2.3-fold increase in half-life,as compared to negative control I(8%,w/w caffeine sucrose tablets),yet avoiding the burst release of caf-feine that was exhibited in negative control II(32%,w/w caffeine sucrose tablets).4.ConclusionWe have achieved a sustained-release of caffeine from our 32%(w/w)caffeine polymeric PEO tablet core.The half-life of 32%(w/w)caffeine PEO was increased2.3-fold compared to negative control I.References[1]A.P.Smith,Hum.Psychopharmacol.20(2005)441–445.[2]T.M.McLellan,G.H.Kamimori,D.M.V oss,D.G.Bell,K.G.Cole,D.Johnson,Aviat.Space Environ.Med.76(2005)647–654.[3]E.De Valck,E.De Groot,R.Cluydts,Percept.Mot.Skills96(2003)67–78.[4]nger,mun.6(1980)1–48.[5]nger,N.Peppas,J.Marcomol.Sci.Rev.Macromol.Chem.Phys.C23(1983)61–126.[6]C.G.Pitt,A.Schindler,Biodegradation of polymers,in:S.D.Bruck(Ed.),Controlled Drug Delivery,vol.I,Basic Concepts,CRC Press,Boca Raton, Florida,1983,pp.53–80.[7]R.W.Baker,Controlled Release of Biologically Active Agent,John Wileyand Sons,New York,1987,pp.84–131.[8]N.Wu,L.S.Wang,D.Tan,S.M.Moochhala,Y.Y.Yang,J.ControlledRelease102(2005)569–581.。

09 SENSORY ORGAN

Part 1 Characteristics of Receptors and Sensory OrgansDefinition:1) Sensory receptorSensory receptor is the structure that detects the changes of internal and external environment.2) Sensory organSensory organ is the special organthat is composed of sensory receptor and its subsidiary structures.Classification of Receptors receptor exteroceptorinteroceptorreceptor mechanoreceptor thermoreceptor chemoreceptor electromagnetic receptorPhysiological Characteristics of Receptors1. Adequate stimulus and differentialsensitivity of receptorAdequate stimulus of receptor:Each kind of the receptors is very highly sensitive to one kind of stimulifor which it is designed.this specialstimulus is called adequate stimulusof the receptors.•D ifferential sensitivity:•Sensory threshold:•Mechanism of adequate stimulus: Special receptorSubsidiary structures2.Transduction of receptor and receptor potential Transduction of the receptor:The receptor could convert the energy of various stimuli into the action potential on the afferentneuron.Characters of receptor potential:(generator potential)•Local potential•Summation•Characteristics of stimulus is reflectedby the magnitude, duration anddirection of receptor potential.Mechanism of transduction: Stimulus ReceptorIon channel (+)R _ G -Protein _ Second Messenger(+) Permibility of receptor membrane Receptor potentialAP on afferent N CNS3. Encoding of receptor Encoding of receptor:Receptor could transfer the messages of environmental changes into the action potential sequence on afferent N.Stimulus intensity is distinguished both by the frequency of AP generated on the afferent N and by the number of the fibers transporting the messages.Encoding of stimulus intensity:Encoding of stimulus characteristics:Special receptor, Labeled line, Special CNS location.Another encoding position:Afferent pathway, Synapse, CNSReceptor potential Time Stretch stimulusDynamicperiod Static periodFig Encoding of stimulus intensityon frog muscle spindleAB C AP on afferent N4. Adaptation of receptorAdaptation of the receptor:Receptors have the abilityto reduce the frequency of APgenerated on afferent neuronin spite of a sustained stimulus strength.Fig Adaptation of the receptors F r e q u e n c y o f A P (s )muscle spindle hair cellproprioceptor pacinian corpuscleClassification according to adaptation: Rapidly adapting receptor(Phasic receptor)Slowly adapting receptor(Tonic receptor)Mechanism of adaptation:•Transduction of receptor•Ion channel state•Synaptic transmission•CNSP art 2 Visual Sense OrganAdequate stimulus:370-740nm electromagnetic waves (visible wavelengths of light)Processes of phototrasduction of eyes:•Formation of the image on the retina •Phototrasduction by the photoreceptorFig Structure of the eyeaqueous humorcornealens vitreous body retinasclera choroid pupilconjunctivaRefractive Function of the Eye1.Optical mechanism of refractive system•Focus point:on the retina•Refractive structures:cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous body2. Reduced eye and visual acuity •Reduced eye:Refractive index: 1.333Refractive effect is the same as the eye ABBn ab nb =.Bb an .Visual acuity:Visual acuity is indicated that human eye can distinguish the smallest image on the retina.Visual chart:Visual chart:3. Visual accommodationFor near vision:Reflex of accommodation:•Increase convexity of the lens•Decrease diameter of the pupil•Converge the eyeAbility of eye accommodation :Near point of vision is the nearest distance distinguished by the eye.4. Abnormality of refraction andaccommodation of the eyeCorrection AmetropiaMyopia concave lensHyperopia convex lensAstigmatism cylindrical lensPresbyopia convex lensEmmetropiaMyopiaHyperopiaAstigmatism Ametropia and CorrectionFig The structure of the retina Pigment cellPhotosensory cellBipolar cellNeuroganglion cell1.The Structure ofthe retinaPhototransduction of the Retinal Cellthe conethe rodhorizontal cellamacrinecellpigmentcellbipolar cell neuroganglion cellFig The structure of the retinasegmentthe inner segmentnucleussynaptic body Fig The structure of the rodthe position of phototranduction2.Photosensory systems on the retina The cone (photopic vision) system •Characters:Low sensitiveColor vision High acuityThe rod (scotopic vision) system •Characters:High sensitiveVision in shades of gray (no color vision)Low acuity3.Photochemistry of the rods Phototransduction of rhodopsin (opsin + 11-cis -retinal)Activation of photopigmentRhodopsinOpsin + all-trans-retinallightReceptor potential of the rod4. Production of receptor potentialRP: -30~ -40mvLight Activation of transducincGMP Closes Na+ channel in the outer segmentHyperpolarizing receptor potential(Gt)Release of transmitter by the rod Bipolar C (-) or (+)Activation of photopigmentFig Production of receptor potential on the rod5.Phototransduction by the cone and color vision•Photopigment:opsin+ 11-cis-retinal(difference) •Phototransduction:Hyperpolarizing receptor potential •Color vision:Trichromacy theory:•Tricolor theory of color detection:3 kinds of photopigment:Blue cone:blue-sensitive pigment (430nm) Green cone:green-sensitive pigment (530nm) Red cone:red-sensitive pigment (560nm) Color vision depends on the ratio of stimulation of the three kinds of cone cells.•Color blindness:Red-green color blindnessBlue cone Green cone Red coneWavelengthL i g h t a b s o r p t i o nFig Curve for light absorption of the conesrmation m odification of the retinaHyperpolarizing receptorpotential on the rod and the coneHyperpolarization orderpolarization on bipolar cellLocal potential( horizontal cell, amacrine cell )AP of neuroganglion cell4. Phenomenon relation to vision1) Dark adaptation and light adaptation •Dark adaptation:The sensitivity of eyes to light graduallyincreases so that you could begin to see the bodies in the darkened surroundings.•Light adaptation:When you go from the dark into brightsunlight, the sensitivity of the eyes tolight is correspondingly reduced.Dark adaptation:Photopigmentreformation(rhodopsinreformation)Fig Dark adaptation2) Pupillary light reflexCharacter:consensual light reflex3) Visual fieldThe field of the view that can be seen without moving the head is known as the visual field.V isual field:White > yellow, blue > red > green4) Binocular vision and stereopsisPart 3 Auditory Sense Organ Hearing:ear,auditory N,auditory center Adequate stimulus:Frequency:20 -20000HzSound waves Intensity:most sensitive frequency1000-3000HzFig The structure of earHearing threshold and h earing range •Hearing threshold:Hearing threshold is the lowestintensity that the faintest sound could be heard.•The range of hearing:The range of frequency and intensity of the sound waves couldbe detected by human ear.Frequency of soundFig The range of hearing of human i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s o u n dFunction of external and middle ear 1. External earpinna, external auditory meatusFunction:•Collect sound waves•Conduct sound waves•Sound localization•Resonant phenomenon2. Middle eartympanic membrane,ossicular chain, eustachain tube Function:•Conduct sound waves•Amplify the pressure•Protect auditory organ in inner ear •Equilibrate the pressureboth sides of tympanic membraneOval windowincusstapesmalleusvestibular membranebasilar membraneround windowFig The structure of earFig Vibration of the tympanic membrane and ossicular chain3. Sound Conduction•Bone conduction:sound waves cranial bone cochlea sound waves external auditory meatus tympanic membrane ossicular chain the oval window cochlea •Air conduction:tympanum the round windowFig Sound conduction。

【精品】星巴克营销策略分析

摘要作为一家倍受欢迎的全球性咖啡公司，星巴克在中国发展越来越快。

本文对星巴克在中国成功的营销策略进行了分析，采用理论结合实际的研究方法，根据行业分析理论，SWOT分析理论，体验营销理论，针对当前星巴克营销的宏观环境、微观环境，行业环境和内部环境以及企业营销策略进行了分析，并总结了其成功的营销经验的启示。

本文共分为五个部分：第一章总结了本课题的课题的背景、研究意义、国内外研究现状及相关理论基础。

第二章简单的介绍了星巴克在中国市场的发展。

第三章，从宏观环境、微观环境、产业环境和内部环境的角度来看，星巴克在中国的营销环境中已经了解了中国市场的营销现状。

第四章，从目标市场、产品、价格、渠道、促销和经验营销策略，对星巴克中国营销策略进行详细的总结和分析。

最后，在上述分析和讨论的基础上，总结了星巴克在中国营销的一些经验和启示。

关键词：星巴克；营销策略；体验营销AbstractAs a popular global coffee company, Starbucks is growing faster and faster in China.In this paper the marketing strategy of Starbucks' success in China was analyzed, and by the method of theory combining with the actual, according to the theory of industry analysis, SWOT analysis theory, experiencemarketing theory, in view of the current Starbucks marketing macroenvironment, micro environment, industry environment and internal environment and enterprise marketing strategy are analyzed, and summarizes its successful marketing experience of enlightenment.This paper is divided into five parts：the first chapter summarizes the background, research significance, domestic and foreign research status and relevant theoretical basis of this topic.The second chapter briefly introduces the development of Starbucks in China market.In the third chapter, from the perspective of macro —environment, micro—environment, industrial environment and internal environment, Starbucks has understood the marketing status of China market in the marketing environment of China.The fourth chapter, from the target market, product, price, channel, promotion and experience marketing strategy, carries on the detailed summary and analysis to Starbucks China marketing strategy.Finally, on the basis of the above analysis and discussion, this paper summarizes some experience and enlightenment of Starbucks marketing inChina.Keywords：Starbucks Marketing strategy;Experience marketing目录摘要 IAbstract II目录 III第１章绪论１１．１课题背景及研究的目的和意义１１．１．１课题背景１１．１．２课题目的２１．１．３研究意义３１．２国内外研究现状３１．３研究方法５１．４研究内容５第２章星巴克在中国的营销环境分析９２．１星巴克概况６２．１．１星巴克的成立与发展６２．１．２星巴克在中国的发展２．２星巴克在中国的宏观环境分析６２．３星巴克在中国的行业竞争环境分析１０２．３．１行业内竞争者１０２．３．２潜在进入者的威胁１１２．３．３替代品的威胁１２２．４星巴克在中国的核心竞争力及SWOT分析１２２．４．１核心竞争力１０２．４．２星巴克在中国的优势与劣势１１２．４．３星巴克在中国面临的机会与威胁１０第３章星巴克营销策略分析１５３．１星巴克在中国的目标市场定位１５３．１．１市场细分１５３．１．２目标市场１５３．１．３市场定位１５３．２星巴克营销策略４P分析１６３．３星巴克的体验营销策略１６第４章星巴克营销策略存在的问题１９４．１基于营销理念的问题１９４．１．１品牌定位不够准确１９４．１．２营销流程不够科学１９４．２基于营销渠道的问题２０４．２．１线上线下不同渠道利益分配２０４．２．２线上线下业务结合度低２０４．３基于用户体验的问题２１４．３．１零售的便利性欠佳２１４．３．２与消费者的有效互动少２１第５章解决对策２２５．１明确品牌定位，加强品牌风格２２５．２打破渠道壁垒，促进线上线下融合２３５．３优化交流互动，挖掘顾客需求２３５．４完善供应链体系，提高反应速度２４５．５充分利用科学技术，提升消费体验２５结论２２参考文献２２第１章绪论１．１课题背景及研究的目的和意义１．１．１课题背景（１）行业背景：咖啡餐饮行业的迅速发展１９９９年１月，一个看似微不足道的日子，中国咖啡市场可以记住一件事：星巴克在北京中国国际贸易中心在中国大陆开设了第一家店。

重庆长安汽车股份有限公司财务风险管理研究-会计-毕业论文

摘要随着收入的增长和消费观念的改变，人们对汽车的需求日益增加。

国内汽车品牌之间竞争激烈，而国外汽车知名品牌也占领了一部分市场份额。

面对日益增长的需求和紧张的竞争态势，要想在汽车市场上占领一席之地，成为佼佼者之一，企业必须要树立风险管理意识，尤其是要注重对自身的财务风险进行防范和控制。

本文运用案例分析法对重庆长安汽车股份有限公司的财务风险状况进行了详尽的研究。

首先介绍了公司的自身发展情况及所处的行业背景、国内外宏微观市场状况，进行内外部环境分析，并将重庆长安汽车股份有限公司的财务状况与同行业内的优秀竞争对手——东风汽车集团有限公司进行对比分析，对企业的偿债能力、运营能力进行了全面而细致的评价。

接着指出了长安汽车主要存在的财务风险问题，同时从内部环境和外部环境两个方面分析了财务风险产生的原因，最后有针对性地提出了对企业现有财务风险及时进行预防和控制的建议、保障性措施和根本解决之道。

对长安汽车的发展及国内众多汽车品牌的健康快速发展具有比较重要的借鉴意义。

关键词：财务风险风险分析长安股份有限公司风险控制Research on financial risk management of Chongqing Changan Automobile Company LimitedAbstractWith the growth of income and the change of consumption concept, people's demand for cars is increasing day by day. There is fierce competition among domestic car brands, while well-known foreign car brands also occupy a part of the market share. In the face of growing demand and tight competitive situation, in order to occupy a place in the automotive market, to become one of the best, enterprises must establish a sense of risk management, especially to pay attention to their own financial risks to prevent and control.This paper makes a detailed study on the financial risk situation of Chongqing Changan Automobile Co., Ltd. by using case analysis method. Firstly, it introduces the company's own development situation and the industry background, the macro and micro market situation at home and abroad, carries on the internal and external environment analysis, and will Chongqing Changan Automobile Co., Ltd. 's financial situation and the industry's outstanding competitor-Dongfeng Automobile Group Co., Ltd. to carry on the comparative analysis, to the enterprise's debt repayment ability, The operational capability was evaluated in a comprehensive and detailed manner. Then it points out the main financial risk problems of Changan automobile, analyzes the causes of financial risk from two aspects of internal environment and external environment, and finally puts forward some suggestions, safeguard measures and fundamental solutions for the timely prevention and control of the existing financial risks of enterprises.It has more important reference significance for the development of Changan automobile and the healthy and rapid development of many domestic automobile brands.Keywords: financial risk Risk analysis Chongqing Changan Automobile Co., Ltd. Risk control目录第一章绪论 (1)1.1研究背景及意义 (1)1.2国内外研究现状 (2)1.3 本文研究思路及方法 (3)第二章财务风险管理基本理论 (5)2.1 财务分析相关概念 (5)2.2 风险管理理论 (5)2.3 财务风险的分析方法 (6)第三章重庆长安汽车股份有限公司财务风险分析 (8)3.1 重庆长安汽车股份有限公司简介 (8)3.2 重庆长安汽车股份有限公司风险管理现状 (8)3.3 长安汽车财务风险管理问题和原因分析 (13)第四章长安汽车财务风险应对措施 (15)4.1 提升长安汽车财务风险控制能力的对策 (15)4.2 提升长安股份有限公司财务风险控制能力的保障性措施 (16)4.3 根本解决之道——提高企业盈利能力 (16)第五章结论 (18)附录................................................. 错误!未定义书签。

基于内部控制的企业财务舞弊毕业论文

毕业论文题目基于内部控制的企业财务舞弊独立完成与诚信声明本人郑重声明：所提交的毕业设计（论文）是本人在指导教师的指导下，独立工作所取得的成果并撰写完成的，郑重确认没有剽窃、抄袭等违反学术道德、学术规范的侵权行为。

文中除已经标注引用的内容外，不包含其他人或集体已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。

对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中作了明确的说明并表示了谢意。

本人完全意识到本声明的法律后果由本人承担。

毕业设计（论文）作者签名：指导导师签名：签字日期：签字日期：毕业设计（论文）版权使用授权书本人完全了解华北水利水电大学有关保管、使用毕业设计（论文）的规定。

特授权华北水利水电大学可以将毕业设计（论文）的全部或部分内容公开和编入有关数据库提供检索，并采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段复制、保存、汇编以供查阅和借阅。

同意学校向国家有关部门或机构送交毕业设计（论文）原件或复印件和电子文档（涉密的成果在解密后应遵守此规定）。

毕业设计（论文）作者签名：导师签名：签字日期：签字日期：目录摘要 (III)ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. I V 第1章绪论 (1)1.1研究背景 (1)1.2选题的目的和意义 (1)1.3国内外研究现状 (2)1.3.1关于企业内部控制制度的相关研究 (2)1.3.2关于企业财务舞弊治理的相关研究 (3)1.4研究内容和研究方法 (3)1.4.1主要研究内容 (3)1.4.2研究方法 (4)第2章基于内部控制的企业财务舞弊治理机制理论基础 (5)2.1基本概念理论界定 (5)2.1.1内部控制的概念及内涵 (5)2.1.2财务舞弊的概念与内涵............................................................ 错误!未定义书签。

types of communication

Types of CommunicationCommunication is a process that involves an exchange of information, thoughts, ideas and emotions. The components of a communication process are: a sender who encodes and sends the message, the channel through which the message is sent, and the receiver who decodes the message, processes the information and sends an appropriate reply via the same channel back to the sender. Communication can occur via various processes and methods, and depending on the channel used and the style, there can be various types.Communication ChannelsBased on the channels used for communicating, the process of communication can be broadly classified as verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication includes written and oral communication whereas non-verbal communication includes body language, facial expressions and visuals diagrams or pictures.VerbalIt is further divided into oral and written communication.∙Oral communication refers to the spoken words in the communication process. It can either be face-to-face or a conversation over the phone or on the voice chat over the Internet. Spoken conversations or dialogs are influenced by voice modulation,pitch, volume and even the speed and clarity of speaking.∙The other type of verbal communication is written communication. It can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness of written communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity and precision of language.NonverbalNon-verbal communication includes the overall body language of the person who is speaking, which will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and the overall body movements. Facial expressions also play a major role in communication. Even expressions on a person's face say a lot about his/her mood. Also, gestures like a handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey emotions and do not need to be accompanied by words. Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations, signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings.Communication Based on Style and PurposeBased on the style of communication, there can be two broad categories: formal and informal communication, that have their own set of characteristic features.FormalIt includes all the instances where communication has to occur in a set formal format. Typically this can include all sorts of business or corporate communication. The style ofcommunication in this form is very formal and official. Official conferences, meetings and written memos and corporate letters are used for this form of communication. It can also occur between two strangers when they meet for the first time. Hence, formal communication is straightforward, official and always precise and has a stringent and rigid tone to it.InformalInformal communication includes instances of free and unrestrained conversation between people who share a casual rapport with each other. It requires two people to have a similar wavelength and hence occurs between friends and family. It does not have any rigid rules and guidelines. The conversations need not necessarily have boundaries of time, place or even subjects for that matter since we all know that friendly chats with our loved ones can simply go on and on.Even though the whole process of communication may seem so simple, the effectiveness of each type depends to a great extent on certain internal and external environmental factors and also the communicator's ability to send, receive, decode and send a response. This is why the field of communication has been and continues to be widely studied and is given a place of importance in any walk of life.Dealing With the Endless Types of Nonverbal Communication Through micro expressions and body language, people are always communicating. Understanding how nonverbal communication affects the spoken message can help everyone. Indeed, most communication actually is nonverbal. For this reason, it's important to understand the different types of nonverbal communication in order to communicate and understand messages more effectively.What is Nonverbal Communication?Nonverbal communications includes everything from facial expressions to posture to gestures to stance. It is everything that is not spoken but which gives an indication of the speaker's meaning, both actual and implied.What are the Most Common Types of Nonverbal Communication?The two most common and important types of nonverbal communication to understand are facial expressions and body language, though within these the subcategories are seemingly endless types.Facial expressions extend to both macro and micro expressions. Macro expressions are the ones which people show intentionally whereas micro are the briefer unintentional expressions. While macro expressions are more easily faked, microexpressions typically reveal more about the speaker than realized.Body language is expressed in everything from posture to stance to the distance between the speakers. In some cases, it is as subtle as a hand placed across the neck or as overt as arms crossed and legs splayed in an aggressive posture. Body language is harder to mask than facial expressions. This category also includes gestures, though not gestures intended to replace words. Instead, it's important to look for the unintentional ones such as the half raised hand or the head tilted to the side.How do People Master Nonverbal Communication?Mastering nonverbal communication requires extensive observational studies in body language and communication style courses. Most of these courses instruct students to detect the clues and piece together a fuller picture. The only way to truly master the technique though is to practice in every situation possible and increase observational skills.Is it Really Possible to Tell if Someone is Lying?Yes, it's possible to tell whether someone is being deceptive, uncomfortable, or even hiding something. While the accuracy of these observations depends primarily on the observer, such strategies have assisted professionals for years. Typically the conclusion will be confirmed by multiple signs. Professionals are wary of making an assertion based on just a single nonverbal communication.Communication plays a vital role in life. Nonverbal communication is even more important because it reveals other subtle messages that can assist people in determining the accuracy or veracity of the speaker. Learning the various cues and their interconnections can go a long way to assessing the truth of a situation and a message.。

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Internal and External Micro Environment Marketing Environment of Nestle Internal Environment Nestle has a rich working culture which motivates its employees to serve best to its customers with the help of the variety present in their product range.

Nestle has included the benefits of the employees in the goal statement of the organization as the management of the company strongly believe that the productivity, quality and the dependability will reflect on the product only if the employees will take care of all these factors.

Different departments of the company work to contribute in the growth of the organization and these departments not only keep the customer's needs and demand in mind but also keep the same type of attention for the internal customers of Nestle.

The company believes if the internal market of the company is fully satisfied than only the internal market will be able to serve to its customers and able to understand their needs and able to manufacture the products which can fulfill these needs.

Nestle has a strong top management team which runs on strong values and principles of the company. The values of the company give strong focus to integrity, loyalty and team work. The efficient top management of the company is able to run finance, operation, marketing, logistics, sales, and research and development departments with great success which ultimately leads to the fulfillment of the goal of the organization.

Micro Environment The micro environment of Nestle includes three divisions: a) Suppliers Suppliers provide the raw material resources, unfinished goods and labors to the company in order to produce goods and services. The effectiveness of suppliers determines the efficiency of the company in terms of producing the goods. In addition to that the quality of the finished product has a strong with the suppliers of the firm especially in case of food products. As the presence of the company is in more than hundred companies, it is a challenge for the company to maintain its standard all over the world and provide the consistency to its customers in the taste and quality of the product. Further we can divide the supplier of Nestle into two parts: Labor suppliers and material suppliers. Labor suppliers deal with the quantity of labor is required at the optimum level in order to prevent the loss of labor force and prevent the company from the shortage of labor which again can lead building of inventory as a cost for the company. The skills of labor is again maintained by the labor suppliers, wherein the labors of different skills are managed in such a way that the operation of the firm can run smoothly. Labor strikes and labor relations are other factors which we cannot ignore in the current scenario as the efficiency of the business depends largely on the factors like attrition and employee satisfaction.

Material supplies handle all the material required by the firm in order to manufacture the finished product for sale. Nestle is in the food and quality markets and the quality of such item plays an major role in its success in the market.

Nestle has maintained a high quality efficiency in handling the quality and quantity of the two different supplies i.e. labor supplies and material supplies and hence the company has been able to run its business smoothly for more than 100 years in spite of the different business trends in the world market.

b) Marketing Intermediaries The market intermediaries of the company help to advertize, sell and distribute its product to the end customers. The physical distribution network of the company decides the medium by which the finished product is delivered to the end customer on time and with safety. This department also ensures the proper storage of the firm that prevents the product from getting any king of damage.

The marketing service department of the firm helps in the promotion of the product and acts as a communication channel between the company and customers. It not only communicates the features of the product to its customers but also get the feedback with the help of survey, which helps the research and development department to develop a product according to the need of the customers.

The other intermediaries of the company like banks help to provide the funds to the companies and play an important role in the continuity of the business. Insurance companies insure the property and the goods of the company against the risk involved in various operations, buying and selling of the product.