英语思维与汉语思维
英语思维与汉语思维
翻译：我已经结婚了，去年结婚的，到现在结婚一年多了。
I am married. I got married last year. I’ve been married for over a year.
英文中有“动作action”与“状态state”的区分。
以及时态方面的问题。
英语的静态特征
“静态与动态”，英语倾向于多用名词，因此呈静态，汉语倾向于多用动词，因而呈动态。英语的静态特征具体说来有四点。
第一，名词化是英语常见的现象。
“他很不开心，引起大家也不开心”
He was unhappy, so others felt unhappy too.
His unhappiness made/infected others unhappy.
He arrived so early, and I was quite surprised. → His early arrival surprised me. 同时汉语常用人作主语而英语多用物作主语。
比如一篇六级模拟题范文中有这样一句话： Video games could do us harm without our knowing it，If proper attention is not paid to their side effects.
“他最终失败了”
At last he failed.
At last all his efforts were in vain.
He was outstanding among his colleagues because he worked very hard.
→ His hard work/ efforts made him outstanding among his colleagues.
第二，用名词表示作动作的发出者（施事者），以代替动词。
“他七十多了，但能吃能睡。”
He still could eat and sleep.
He was still a good eater and a good sleeper.
“这位老师上课上得不好，我们都盼着早点下课。”
This teacher is not a good one, so we are eager to finish his class as earlier as possible.
In this teacher’s class, we are all clock-watchers.
所以下次你要夸别人篮球打得好，记着可以怎么写： He is a good/professional basketball player.
第三，名词的优势造成介词的优势。
“有人给他撑腰。”
Someone supports him.
He has someone behind him.
“说完这些话，她就走开了。”
After she finished her words, she went away.
With these words she went away.
“这本书太难了，我看不懂”
“This book is too difficult for me to understand it
“The book is totally beyond/above me .”
第四，动词的弱化与虚化。我们可用一些虚化动词（have, make, take, do）加上它的名词意义。
比如 look→ have a look, take a look
walk→have a walk, take a walk
visit→ pay a visit to
attempt→ make attempts
damage→ do some damages to
比如：“Tom与老板吵架之后，就辞职了。”
After Tom had a quarrel with his boss, Jack quit.
After Tom quarreled with his boss, Jack quit.
喜用名词，是现代英文固有现象。但千万切记，名词的使用要适当，并非所有地方名词优于动词，万不可滥用。况且，近年来英美不少学者认为名词的滥用造成英语缺乏生气。如果考生能够把握分寸，适当使用名词确也不失为写作之上策。
思维方式制约着表达习惯。思维是写作活动的基础；写作不仅是语言活动，而且是思维活动（Kelly，1963）。汉式思维模式是形象的、直观的，在语言上，汉语用词倾向于具体，常常以实的形式表达虚的概念，以具体的形象表达抽象的内容，而英式思维则是概括的、抽象的（连淑能，1993）。汉语较少使用表示抽象概念的名词，而较多地使用具有实指意义的具体名词，如“望梅止渴”中的“梅”与“渴”；英语常常使用抽象名词来表达复杂的理性概念。
具体词汇与概括词汇的问题
英语倾向于使用表达同类事物的整体词语来表达具体事物或现象，用词具体细腻；汉语多用表示整体概念的词，用词概括模糊。
学生受汉语的影响，通常用表示概括的词加上各种副词的方式，构成“动词+副词（ly）”结构，
比如，“走得很快”
“walk quickly”；
“跑得很快”
“run quickly”。
英语中表示各种走姿的词汇很丰富，例如，stroll, trudge, plod, march, stalk, toddle, stagger等。
例如：That was a very wonderful movie.
instructive或者moving等较为具体的词汇更符合英语表达习惯。
词语搭配问题
“我们在学校里学习各种知识”
learn knowledge
acquire, gain, obtain, gather等词汇与knowledge搭配；learn只能与something或某一学科搭配使用。
吃苹果，吃食堂，吃现成饭
(to eat an apple)，(to have one’s meal in the dining hall)， (to lead an idle life)
例如：“Mary won Jane in the speech contest.”
“win"和“beat"都可表示“赢”，但“赢了一场比赛”应用“win"，而“赢了某人”则应用“beat"。
句法方面
英语动词的时体范畴极为丰富。英语句子的人称、数量、时态、语态、情态均受制于时空，在句子结构上有比较严格的规则、次序，而且要求形式一致；而汉语语言形式是根据表达的需要来建构句式，要求并不严格（熊沐清，2001）。
Ted: Where did you learn to Rollerblade(轮滑）?
Anna: Here in the park. This is only my second time.
Ted: Well, it’s my first time. Can you give me some lesson?
Anna: Sure. Just follow me.
(after a while)
Ted: Hey, that was fun. Thanks for the lesson!
连接词的问题
英语重形合，即注重运用各种有形的连接手段达到语言形式的完整，句法功能呈外现形；
而汉语重意合，即语言表现形式由意念引导，句法功能呈隐含形式。
在英语和大多数印欧语言中，句子的从属关系大多是用连接词if，because，although，while等明确表达出来。
例如，People learn English to use it. Some learn it to study or work abroad. Others learn it to read books and magazines in English or have something to do with English-speaking foreigners.
则改进为：People learn English for practical purposes: some learn it to study or work abroad, while others learn it to read or communicate in English.文章读起来就通顺很多。
Li & Thompson（1976）认为，形合的英语是主语突出（subject-prominence）的语言，主题往往就是句子的主语，英语句子的主语通常指人或事物，由名词、代词或名词词组来担任；而汉语是主题突出（topic-prominence）的语言，句子的主语则大不相同，它们可以各种形式出现。除人或事物外，地点、时间、行为方式都可以作主语。在词性方面，除名词、名词词组和代词外，动词短语、介词短语，甚至句子都可以作主语。
如“天空万里无云”就是典型的主题句。按照汉语思维，“天空”是主题，后面是评论主题如何。受此影响，学生往往把汉语的主题当成是英语的主语，造出“The sky has no clouds.”这样的句子来。
在英语中这句话的主语是“万里无云”，天空只能作地点状语或用形式主语it来代替。因此，我们可以说“It’s cloudless”，或者“There is no cloud in the sky”。
再比如，（1）读书可以增长知识。
（1a）Reading books can acquire knowledge.
（1b） One can acquire knowledge through reading books.
（2）自从1978年以来，由于中国人民的努力，中国发生了巨大的变化。
（2a）Since 1978, China have taken place great changes with the efforts of the Chinese people.
（2b） Since 1978, great changes have taken place in China with the efforts of the Chinese people.
句式主、客观倾向问题
英语民族的思维注重客观事物对人的作用和影响，因而他们对主体与客体有着严格的区分；而汉语民族的思维往往以“人”为中心，形成了以人为中心来思考事物的思维模式（张海涛，1999）。
表现在语言上，英语物称倾向比较普遍，常使用不主动发出动作的词或无生命名词充当主语。汉语里，采用有生命的人或物作主语总是占绝对优势。
受此影响，学生英语作文中常常出现“I think”，“we must”，“someone says”，“you should”，“let’s” 等主观倾向明显的表达，
少用“It can be argued that”，“It is estimated that” 等句型结构。
例如，“American education owes a great debt to Thomas Jefferson.”
用汉语表达则为“托马斯·杰斐逊对美国教育事业做出了巨大贡献。”
在英语写作中，善于用非人称主语句，可有效地减少汉语腔。
再比如，“不同的人对考试有不同的态度”。
(a)Different people have different attitudes towards examination.
(b) Attitudes towards examination vary from person to person.
Kaplan（1966）认为东、西方语言具有不同的思维方式：
汉语的人的思维方式是螺旋型（spirality）的，而操英语的人的思维方式是直线型（linearization）。
根据Scollon（1991）的观点，亚洲人在谈话时一般延迟话题的介绍，采用一种“亚洲归纳”式思维模式，而西方人一般在谈话开始就引出话题，采用的是“演绎模式”。
Kaplan（1972）也曾指出，英语段落的发展是趋向于直线性，推理性的；而在一些东方语言中，段落组织的发展却可称为是在不停地兜圈子，即从多侧面迂回表达而不直接写明。
在开首段便说：“I would like to apply for a university scholarship”，而中国学生大多喜欢将这句话放在中间或最后点出。
句子与语境
Father: Do you drink?
Young Man: No, thanks, I’m cool.
Father: I’m not offering;
I’m asking IF you drink. Do you think I’d offer alcohol to teenage drivers taking my daughter out?
I have been coming to Beijing for fourteen years.
用短暂动词的完成进行时来表示到目前为止的一段时间内重复发生的动作。
三大基本从句
主语主语从句
宾语宾语从句
表语表语从句
同位语同位语从句
定语定语从句
状语状语从句
一名词从句
名词从句的本质---三种句子充当四种成分
所谓名词从句，就是把完整的句子当作名词来使用。一般来讲，名词在句中充当四种成分：主语，表语，宾语和同位语。
能够相当于名词作用的句子：陈述句，一般疑问句，特殊疑问句。
The book is interesting.
What I am reading is interesting.
No one knows exactly the life on other planets.
No one knows exactly whether there is life on other planets.
English is a useful tool.
English is what I like among all subjects.
I love the novel, The old Man and the Sea.
I love the saying that love , not time heals all wounds.
Concerns were raised _____ witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to ensure guilty verdicts.（考研真题）
A. what
B. when
C. which
D. that
同位语从句与其先行词分开
人们日益担心，证人可能会因此受到鼓励，在法庭上夸大其词以保证陪审团作出有罪审判。
1.1 主语从句
That引导的主语从句
That the seas are being overfished has been known for years.
That the plates(地球板块) are moving is not beyond dispute.
更常见的是it作形式主语置于句首的形式。
It be + 过去分词/形容词+that从句
And it is imagined by many that the operations of the common mind can be by no means compared with these processes, and that they have to be acquired by a sort of special training.
许多人以为，普通人的思维活动根本无法与这些思维过程相比，这些思维过程必须经过某种专门训练才能掌握。
It’s reported that…据报道
It’s generally thought that…人们普遍认为
It has been found…现已发现
It should be noted that… 应当注意
It must be pointed out that… 必须指出
Furthermore, it is obvious that the strength of a country’s economy is directly bound up with the efficiency of its agriculture and industry, and that this in turn rest upon the efforts of scientists and technologists of all kinds.
再者，很显然，一个国家的经济实力与其工农业生产效率密切相关，而效率的提高又有赖于各类科技人员的共同努力。
It be 形容词 that从句
It is clear that… 显然
It is possible that… 很可能
It is certain that… 可以相信
It is fortunate that… 幸运的是
It is strange that… 奇怪的是
It is an established fact that factory workers work better, harder, and have fewer accidents when their machines are painted orange rather than black or grey.
事实证明，如果把工厂的机器漆成桔黄色而不是黑色或灰色，工人就会干得更勤奋，更出色，事故也会少。
It be 名词短语 that从句
It is a pity that… 可惜的是
It is good news that… 。。真是太好了
It is no wonder that… 难怪
It is a fact that… 事实是
It is a shame that… 遗憾的是/。。真是太不象话了。
It + 不及物动词+that从句
It seems that… 似乎
It happens that… 碰巧
It com es about that… 结果是
It follows that… 因此/由此可见
It turns out that… 结果证明是
其他结构
It dawns upon/on sb. that… 某人突然想起
It makes no difference that… 无所谓
It is of little consequence that… 无关紧要
It occurs to sb. that…
It doesn’t need to be bothered that… 不必担忧
1.2 whether及连接代词或连接副词引导的主语从句
一般放在句首，这不同于that引导的主与从句
Whether the Government should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice versa often depends on the issue of which is seen as the driving force.
政府究竟是以减少对技术的经费投入来增加对纯理论科学地经费投入，还是相反，这往往取决于把哪一方面看作是驱动性的力量。
Whoever tries to resolve a conflict soon learns that nothing pleases everybody.
任何想要试图解决这个矛盾的人很快就会发现，他不可能让所有的人满意。
What happened on September 11,2001 will be forever etched in our memories. How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted.
这些预测将在多大程度上为后来的表现所证实，取决于采用的信息的数量，可靠性，适应性，以及解释这些信息的技能和才智。
Because引导的主语从句
Just because someone doesn’t love you the way you want them to doesn’t mean they don’t love you with all they have.
如果有人没有以你希望的方式去爱你，并不意味着他们没有全身心地爱你。
Something which seems valuable at first may turn out to be worthless. Example: “All that glitters is not gold!” Just because something appears valuable does not mean that it is really valuable.
有些东西乍看很值钱，但后来证明一文不值。比如，人们常说“闪光的并不都是金子”。只是看起来之前的东西并不意味着真的有价值。
2。宾语从句
同样是由前面讨论过的连词引导。
宾语从句在句中的位置
2.1 在及物动词后
I have learned that love, not time, heals all wounds. I have learned that everyone you meet deserves to be greeted with a smile. I have learned that there’s nothing sweeter than sleeping with your babies and feeling their breath on your cheeks.
2.2 在双宾语动词后
I assure you that I had no intention of offending you.
我向你保证，我当时决不是故意冒犯你。
They gave who came to the meeting a pamphlet.
他们给到会的所有人员发一本小册子。
2.3在介词后
I find the best way to concentrate is to make notes on what the teachers are saying. 我认为上课集中注意力的最好办法是把老师讲的内容记下来。
There is disagreement among economists about what money is and how money is measured.
什么是货币以及怎样计量，这些在经济学家们之间存在分歧。
2.4宾语从句后置
We believe it true that the human body is also a kind of good conductor.
It 指代被后置的宾语从句，True是宾语补足语。
We must make it clear that the parties involved are to make every effort to curb the pollution.
我们必须强调清楚，有关部门要尽一切努力在治理污染。
2.4 that在宾语从句中的省略
一般来讲，that引导的宾语从句可以将that省略，但是若有几个宾语从句并列的话，则一般不省。
I once read that “the beauty of life is its changes” and that “the art of life lies in a constant readjustment to our surr oundings”.
我曾经读过这样一句话：生活的魅力在于它的不断变化，生活的艺术在于不断地适应周围环境的变化。
3。表语从句
Women are much too preoccupied by family. Once the marriage begins to disintegrate, they’re lost. That’s where their unhappiness springs from and that’s why most divorced mothers regard themselves as victims.
妇女们太专注于家庭了。一旦婚姻开始瓦解，她们就会失去方向，这就是她们不快乐的原因，也是为什么大多数离婚的母亲认为自己是受害者。
4。同位语从句
当我们用一个完整的句子来补充说明名词式，即构成同位语从句。
名词+that+陈述句
I have been left with the knowledge that it’s better to expect nothing than to give everything and then be disappointed.
我从中懂得了，不抱任何期望比付出一切努力最后失败好。
名词+定语+that+陈述句
The statement by the driver of the vehicle that the did not see the lorry was rejected by the Court.
该汽车司机说自己没有看见卡车，但法庭对此并不相信。
名词+谓语+that+陈述句
Evidence came up that specific speech sounds are recognized by babies as young as 6 months old.
有证据表明，六个月大的婴儿就能辨别特定的说话声。
5。从句的嵌套结构
I realized that what I said was not exactly what I meant to say.
我后来意识到，当时所说的话并非我真正要说的。
The question is how what you have learned can be put into practice.
问题是，你所学的知识如何才能应用到实践中。
在英语句子中，如果有n个谓语，就有n-1个从句，n-1个连词。
No one is in the least interest in the marks a little child gets on his test; what we are interested in is whether we can conclude from his mark on the test that the child will do better or worse than other children of his age at tasks which we think require
‘general intelligence’.
我们对孩子们在考试中取得的分数并不感兴趣，我们所感兴趣的是我们是否能够从他们的考试分数中做出判断：这个孩子在我们认为需要“一般智商”的考试任务中的表现将会好于或差于同龄其他孩子
二。定语从句
先行词 antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers
Audrey Hepbrun: The beauty of a woman is not in the clothes she wears, the figure that she carries, or the way she combs her hair. The beauty of a woman must be seen from in her eyes, because that is the doorway to her heart, the place where love resides.
女人的美，不是来自她所穿的衣服，或她的身材，或她梳头的样子，而是来自于她的眼睛，因为透过眼睛我们可以看到她的心灵，一个爱的所在。
In the Europe, as elsewhere, multi-media group have been increasingly successful groups which bring together television, radio, newspapers, magazines and publishing houses that work in relation to one another.
在欧洲，像在其他地方一样，多媒体集团越来越成功了。这些集团把相互间联系密切的电视，电台，报纸，杂志以及出版社组合到了一起。
He said that he had no time, which isn’t true.
分句
My girlfriend likes dancing with other guys, which really drives me crazy.
完整的句子
1先行词+其他定语+定语从句
尾重原则（principle of end weight)
The mineral elements from the soil that are usable by the plant must be dissolved in the soil solution before they can be taken into the root.
土壤中可供植物利用的矿物质只有先溶解在土壤中，然后才能被植物的根部吸收。
先行词+状语+定语从句
Never leave that until tomorrow which you can do today.
Politics is probably the only business in the world where they spend the most money while they have the least number of available customers to pitch to.
政治可能是世界上唯一的一个投资最多而顾客最少的生意。
作主语的先行词+谓语部分+定语从句
It can be predicted, however, that from time to time questions will arise which will require specific scientific answers.
不过可以预见的是，将来会经常有问题出现，需要给出专门的科学的回答。
如何判断先行词
先翻译定语从句
在关系词前寻找与定语从句的意思有逻辑语义联系的名词，短语或从句。
定语从句的主谓一致问题
Despite much research, there are still certain elements in the life cycle of the insect that is not fully understood.
定语从句的谓语动词的单复数取决于先行词，而不是关系词。
关系代词，关系副词
关系代词：who/whom, which, that, whose, as ,than, but, what
关系副词：when, where, why
There are nations whose lack of contact with the outside world has resulted in poverty.
有些国家因为闭关锁国，导致贫困。
关系代词as
As引导的非限定性定语从句
可以放在句首,先行词可以出现在as的后面，而which不可以。
As is so often pointed out, knowledge is a two-edged weapon which can be used equally for good or evil.
________is known to us all, the whale is not fish but a mammal.
________is known to us all that the whale is not fish but a mammal.
________is known to us all is that the whale is not fish but a mammal.
There is , as has been suggested, a growing body of research literature in journalism and broadcasting, but very little significant attention has been devoted to the study of the interview itself.
正如前面已经提到，对新闻和广播的研究文献越来越多，但却少有关注新闻采访本身的研究。（不能which替换）
As 有正好。。。，就像。。。，由。。。而知的含义，所以当主句和从句在内容上一致时，或者从句是顺着主句意思说下来的时候，用As.
若从句和主句的内容不一致，从句的内容起消极作用，反对，排斥，否定主句内容时，多用which
She has married again, as was expected.
She has married again, which was unexpected.
As 引导限定性定语从句
只能用在固定结构中
Such …as ,the same… as, as…as
He’ll repeated such point as are discussed in the book
He’ll repeated the point that are discussed in the book
He is not such a man as would leave his work half done.
He tried to make as few mistakes as he could avoid.(as 作宾语）
He is not such a fool as we would assume him to be.(as作表语）
关系代词than
Children are likely to have less supervision at home than was common in the traditional family structure.
与传统家庭结构相比，孩子们在家所受的管教可能更少了。
Than 在从句中一般作主语（也可作宾语）
Than前面的主句需要有形容词的比较级
比较级所修饰的名词即为先行词
There ought to be less anxiety over the perceived risk of getting cancer than
_______in the public mind today.
A. exists
B. exist
C. existing
D. existed
人们不应该像如今这样害怕患上癌症。
Don’t drink more wine than is good for healt h.
Don’t give him more money than is needed, since money will burn a hole in his pocket.
关系代词but
But 引导的定语从句在形式上是肯定的，表达的否定的。
先行词往往是被一个否定词修饰。这样一来，主句中的否定和but从句的否定意思构成双重否定，表达肯定的意思。
But可指人或物，作主语或宾语。
通常只引导限定性定语从句。
There are very few rules of grammar but have exceptions; the exception proves the rule.
很少有语法规则是没有例外的，因为有例外才证明规则的存在。
There’s no man but errs.
人必犯错。
There are very few people in this club but he knows.
这个俱乐部里的人他几乎都认识。
关系副词when
先行词必须是表示时间的名词
The day when we stop learning is the day when we die.
先行词表示时间时不一定都用When
I’ll never forget the time which I spent on campus.
I’ll never forget the day when we first meet in the park.
关系副词why
其先行词必须试表示原因的名词，如reason, cause 等。
只引导限定性定语从句，不同于when，where
通常把表示原因的先行词省去
This is the (reason) why I didn’t come her e.
关系副词有how吗？
不可以表示方式的关系副词。
The way+从句
The way that+ 从句
The way in which + 从句
The manner that + 从句
You should know the golden rule: care for others the way you would like them to care for you.
难理解的定语从句
Sometimes the very things that we think are holding us down are the thing that are helping us fly. That is what discipline is all about.
有时候我们认为正在拖我们后腿的东西其实正是帮助我们飞翔的东西，那就是纪律的含义所在。
作主语的关系词+插入语+定语从句的谓语部分
The millionaire has a very ugly girl who I could not have dreamed many boys fell in love with.
这个百万富翁有个丑陋的女儿，可是让我难以想象的是，竟然有很多男孩子在追求她。
作宾语的关系词+插入语+谓语部分