A Comparative Study of Scientific Hedging by Chinese Writers and English Writers
译者多重身份对译者行为影响路径的语料库考察——以《传习录》英译本为例
2024年1月第40卷㊀第1期外国语文(双月刊)Foreign Languages and Literature (bimonthly )Jan.,2024Vol.40㊀No.1收稿日期:2023-09-10基金项目:国家社会科学基金项目 基于历时复合语料库1919 2019的翻译对现代汉语语言特征影响研究 (19BYY107)的部分研究成果作者简介:赵秋荣,北京科技大学外国语学院教授,博士,博士生导师,主要从事翻译学和语料库语言学研究㊂孙培真,北京科技大学外国语学院博士生,主要从事翻译学和语料库语言学研究㊂引用格式:赵秋荣,孙培真.译者多重身份对译者行为影响路径的语料库考察 以‘传习录“英译本为例[J].外国语文,2024(1):131-143.译者多重身份对译者行为影响路径的语料库考察以‘传习录“英译本为例赵秋荣㊀孙培真(北京科技大学外国语学院,北京㊀100083)摘㊀要:译者作为翻译活动的主体,大多同时拥有多种社会身份,按照等级高低分为主身份㊁次身份和末身份㊂本文建立‘传习录“汉英平行语料库,运用二语句法复杂度分析器(L2SCA )㊁词汇复杂度分析器(LCA )和语篇衔接分析器(Coh-Metrix ),对比译入和译出两个英译本的易读性㊁词汇丰富度和句法复杂度,探究译者多重身份对翻译行为的影响㊂研究发现,译入型文本词汇更丰富,句法更复杂,忠实度㊁准确度㊁易读性较低;译出型文本词汇丰富度较低,句法更简洁,忠实度㊁准确度㊁易读性较高㊂译者主㊁次㊁末身份的相互作用在翻译过程中对译者行为产生不同影响,最终影响译本生成㊂本文尝试提出了 译者多重身份差异影响路径 的模型,展示主㊁次㊁末身份对译者行为的影响路径,以期为译者身份研究提供新思路㊂关键词:‘传习录“;译入;译出;译者行为;多重身份中图分类号:H315.9㊀㊀㊀文献标志码:A㊀㊀㊀文章编号:1674-6414(2024)01-0131-130㊀引言‘传习录“是新儒学的重要代表作,集中体现了王阳明的心学智慧㊂国学大师钱穆喻其为 中国人所人人必读的书 (陈荣捷,2009:1)㊂有关‘传习录“哲学思想的中文著述颇丰,但其英译本研究起步较晚㊂近百年来仅出现了两个英文全译本:一个是1916年美国芝加哥大学哲学博士㊁传教士亨克(Frederick G.Henke)译The Philosophy of Wang Yang-ming (以下简称亨克译本);另一个是1963年哈佛大学博士㊁美籍华裔国学家陈荣捷(Wingtsit Chan)译Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming (以下简称陈译本)㊂目前‘传习录“英译研究集中在以下方面:译本点评和译者背景㊁翻译㊃131㊃㊀外国语文2024年第1期㊀动机研究(刘孔喜等,2018;2019);语用充实对翻译实践影响研究(刘响慧,2019);文化自觉意识和文化资本对翻译策略和风格影响研究(刘孔喜,2019);陈译本语言转喻特点研究(辛红娟等,2019);亨克译本中 厚重性 翻译策略研究(徐赛颖,2020)㊂按照毕比(Beeby,2009:84)的分类,陈荣捷和亨克分别属于译出型和译入型译者,译者翻译方向可能影响译本产生㊂翻译研究中译者身份多重性和社会性间的交互关系有待系统界定和梳理㊂对译者的研究应不仅关注翻译方法,更应将译者身份和翻译过程联系起来(许多,2018)㊂为了更客观㊁更准确地剖析译者多重身份在‘传习录“英译中发挥的作用,本文借助语料库语言学的研究方法,从译本易读性㊁词汇丰富度和句法复杂度入手,旨在回答以下两个问题:(1)两译本在易读性㊁词汇丰富度和句法复杂度上是否存在差异?(2)译者多重身份是否影响译本生成?与译入译出型译者行为有何关系?1㊀译者多重身份与译者行为研究译者身份的认知过程在翻译发展史上是循序渐进的,从 作者的奴仆 (Bentley et al., 1985:58)㊁ 临摹者 (Robinson,2001:3)㊁ 创造者 (田德蓓,2000:20)到 语言评估和传递者 (Chen,2011:121)㊂译者身份的定位发生很大变化,凸显译者多重身份的特性,赋予译者更重要的主体地位㊂在社会学研究中,社会认同理论(social identity theory)将身份划分为两类: 个人身份 和 多重身份 (Tajfel,1971:153)㊂个人身份完全由个体自己决定,与个体的认知㊁联想㊁记忆等有关;多重身份指与外界环境相互作用㊁受外界因素刺激生成的身份,如社会身份㊁文化身份等(Hogg et al.,2003:98)㊂社会认同理论不仅定义身份多重性,还指出多重身份的等级性和次序性㊂不同身份按照一定规律由高到低排列,等级越高,与个体行为选择的关系越大,越容易对个体行为产生影响(Oakes,1987:118)㊂社会学的研究成果为译者身份研究提供了参考㊂译者所处的政治㊁经济㊁文化环境及其他主客观因素相互联系㊁相互作用,实现了翻译的社会功能,体现出语言学和社会学的内在联系(冯曼,2018:1)㊂语言学中译者有三种身份:个人身份㊁角色身份和群体身份(李文静,2011:9)㊂个人身份指与其他译者产生差异的独特身份;角色身份指与译者社会职业相关的身份;群体身份指基于对国家㊁民族等群体认同形成的身份㊂上述对译者身份的定义和分类是社会认同理论与译者身份㊁翻译行为相结合的首次尝试,明确了译者身份的多重性对翻译活动的影响㊂谭载喜(2011:120)指出,该尝试提供了一个很有意义的参考模式,但并未讨论译者多重身份间的等级性和次序性㊂他接着提出身份的三个层面:一是身份的本身意义;二是自我身份与他人身份的关系意义;三是身份的等级意义(谭载喜,2011: 119)㊂身份从等级上划分为 主身份 和 次身份 :主身份即每个个体特有的㊁稳定不变的㊃231㊃㊀赵秋荣㊀孙培真㊀译者多重身份对译者行为影响路径的语料库考察 以‘传习录“英译本为例㊀身份㊂次身份即受外界影响的多样化身份,是可变的㊂译者的 主身份 是 语言转化者 ,次身份是在具体翻译行为中受多种因素影响生成的角色身份(谭载喜,2011:120)㊂同时,也有学者将身份和角色区分开来,指出 身份 是显性㊁固定的,是译者语言层面的行为特征; 角色 是隐形㊁可变的,是译者社会层面的特征(周领顺,2014a:215)㊂为了满足特定的社会需求,译者会调整和改变自己的角色,译文也会因译者个人意志留下痕迹,这种社会性选择过程即为 角色化 ㊂译者在翻译社会化过程中呈现多种角色特征,直接导致译者行为和译文的多样性(周领顺,2014b:269)㊂另一种观点认为,译者的主身份并不仅仅是双语转换者,而有可能是最具影响力的社会身份(谭素琴,2017:34)㊂褚慧英等(2021)将译者身份进一步划分为学者㊁译者和作者身份,通过三种身份的转变,探讨译者认知㊁逻辑和文章布局的发展模式㊂随着时间的推移,历史㊁环境和场所也会发生变迁㊂受此影响,译者主体身份可能并不固定,而是变化的,主身份甚至可以退化为次身份,次身份也可以上升为主身份(刘骥翔,2022:78)㊂每位译者社会身份各异,但每种身份都可以折射出特定的社会㊁文化特征㊂对译者不同身份的探讨正成为翻译过程研究的重要课题(聂炜等,2022:82),同时也成为译者行为研究的重要途径㊂周领顺(2014a:25)将译者行为定义为 社会视域下译者的语言性翻译行为与社会性翻译行为的总和 ㊂译者成为语言属性和社会属性的结合体,既承担译内行为(语言性行为),又承担译外行为(社会性行为)㊂换言之,在翻译过程中,译者不仅要基于原文对译文进行翻译,还要兼顾读者与社会的需求㊂在此基础上提出 求真 务实 译者行为连续统评价模式,并指出 求真 与 务实 是连续统上的两个端点(周领顺,2014a:77)㊂翻译过程中,既要 求真 也要 务实 ,并尽可能达到二者的平衡㊂ 求真 指忠实于原文的内涵意和形式意义; 务实 指赢得读者和市场的认可,译者的务实行为,最直接的表现是语言可读性的提升(周领顺,2023b:177)㊂ 译者行为批评 为译者行为研究提供了模式,在此基础上译者行为研究不再拘泥于单一的译者主体性研究,而是将文本㊁译者㊁社会有机结合,以此来梳理主体之间的互动关系(彭白羽,2023:118)㊂近年来相关研究包括:译者身份对译本选择和译本表达的影响研究(黄勤等,2021),译者身份和角色对译者行为影响研究(梅晓娟,2022),译者审美意识与译者行为之间关系研究(杨国强等,2023)等㊂目前,国内外的译者行为研究,大致分为三大阵列㊂我国学者周领顺(2010)提出的 译者行为批评 研究位于第一阵列,是当前译者行为理论体系化研究的主阵地(周领顺, 2023a:17)㊂中国学者 译者行为批评 视域之外的其他译者行为研究,属于第二阵列,这一阵列大多没有构建自己的译者行为理论体系,而是通过译者行为研究验证或支撑其他理论体系(周领顺,2023a:18)㊂第三阵列在国外,可称为 国外广义狭义译者行为研究阵㊃331㊃㊀外国语文2024年第1期㊀列 ,与第二阵列相似,该阵列研究主题多元,呈离散状态,缺乏相应的理论体系(Mastropierro,2018;Shih,2019;Liu et al.,2021等),但基于语料库的研究手段和眼动追踪㊁键击记录等研究方法值得学习和借鉴(周领顺,2023a:18)㊂本文正是基于语料库的方法探讨译者多重身份对译者行为的影响㊂翻译方向是西方翻译学界的古老课题之一㊂翻译方向指意义传递方向,即译者将母语(或第一语言)译为外语(或第二语言),或是将外语(或第二语言)译为母语(或第一语言) (Beeby,2000:190;Pokorn et al.,2020:59)㊂译入母语常被称为 L1翻译 正向翻译 直接翻译 译入翻译 等;译出到外语常被称为 L2翻译 反向翻译 间接翻译 译出翻译 等㊂译入是对其他民族文学㊁文化的向内翻译行为;译出是向其他民族译介自己的文学和文化(谢天振,2014:248)㊂从外语译向母语为译入型译者,从母语译向外语为译出型译者(Beeby,2009:84)㊂译者身份与译者行为研究中,译入㊁译出是重要的关注点,也是中国文化 走出去 的热点话题(赵征军,2019:112)㊂由于翻译方向不同,译入型和译出型译本在语言特征和风格上存在一定差异(王瑞等,2015:97;赵征军,2019:118)㊂目前,多数研究仍聚焦于译者的职业身份(黄海翔,2009;李捷,2016;许多,2018;贺莎莎等,2020),基于译者多重社会身份和角色的译者行为研究较少,尤其在典籍英译研究中,鲜有对译入译出型译者的多重身份研究(聂炜等,2022)㊂同时,对译入译出翻译仍存在一些模糊认识(许多等,2019:131),研究过程中使用的研究方法㊁指标各不相同,系统性不强,缺乏统一标准㊂面对这一问题,本文认为,基于译者多重身份考察不同翻译方向作品的生成过程,不仅能够窥探译者主体身份对译入译出行为的影响,还可以充分探究深层次社会和文化因素,做到翻译内和翻译外研究相结合㊂以多重身份为路径对译者行为进行研究,可以更全面地探究译者身份对译本生成的影响,从而更好地揭示译入译出型译者在典籍外译中的行为差异㊂2㊀研究设计及研究步骤本文首先构建‘传习录“汉英平行语料库,库容58176词,其中陈译本29623词,亨克译本28553词㊂其次,本研究采用的工具为二语句法复杂度分析器(L2SCA)㊁词汇复杂度分析器(LCA)和语篇衔接分析器(Coh-Metrix3.0)㊂L2SCA和LCA是宾夕法尼亚州立大学陆小飞教授团队开发的在线工具,共包含39个语言特征,用于测量文本的词汇和句法复杂度(Lu,2010;2012)㊂Coh-Metrix3.0由美国曼菲斯大学开发,可以计算11个维度的106个词汇语法特征,用于分析词汇多样性和易读性等语言特征(Graesser et al.,2004)㊂最后,本文基于两译本易读性㊁词汇丰富度和句法复杂度差异探索两位译者的风格差㊃431㊃㊀赵秋荣㊀孙培真㊀译者多重身份对译者行为影响路径的语料库考察 以‘传习录“英译本为例㊀异,从译者多重身份角度分析译入译出型译者风格的表现及其对译本的影响,并总结出 译者多重身份差异影响路径 模型图㊂3㊀两译本易读性、句法复杂度和词汇丰富度对比本文使用SPSS25.0对L2SCA㊁LCA和Coh-Metrix的指标进行独立样本T检验,发现共有58个指标存在显著差异㊂限于篇幅,本文选取其中比较有代表性的14个特征,如词汇丰富度㊁动词连贯度㊁平均句长等,从易读性㊁词汇丰富度和句法复杂度三方面考察两译本差异㊂3.1易读性差异易读性(readability)即文章的阅读难度,指读者阅读和理解的困难程度(McNamara et al.,2014)㊂两译本在3种评分模式下的易读性均呈现显著差异(p值小于0.05),结果见表1㊂表1㊀陈译本和亨克译本易读性差异维度特征陈译本亨克译本均值标准差均值标准差P值弗莱士易读度RDFRE65.32 6.6860.92 6.450.000弗莱士-金凯德年级水平RDFKGL8.47 1.679.32 1.370.003Coh-Metrix二语易读度RDL218.93 4.4616.67 4.000.004㊀㊀由表1可知,弗莱士易读度㊁弗莱士-金凯德年级水平和Coh-Metrix二语易读度都反映出陈译本易读性高于亨克译本㊂读者阅读陈译本时会更加轻松,更容易理解文本内容㊂这可能与两译本的词汇使用和句法结构有一定关系㊂基于此,本文将具体分析两译本在词汇和句法方面的差异㊂3.2词汇丰富度差异从词汇特征上看,两译本在词汇丰富度㊁动词丰富度㊁动词连贯度㊁名词短语使用频率㊁副词短语使用频率㊁动名词使用频率㊁第一人称代词使用频率等七项特征上存在显著差异,具体见表2㊂整体而言,亨克译本的词汇丰富度高于陈译本,动词丰富度也较高,对原文中动作和行为的表述更加丰富,但也因此降低了词汇前后连贯度㊂另外,大量使用名词性成分是英语书面语的标志之一(Biber et al.,2011:228)㊂亨克译本中名词性成分的高频使用体现出鲜明的书面语特征,说明亨克译本没有完全忠实于‘传习录“源语的语录体体裁㊂相比亨克译本,陈译本虽词汇丰富度较低,但动词使用保持了前后一致,动词连贯度显著高于亨克译本,更易于阅读和理解㊂另外,陈译本中第一人称代词和副词词组的使用频率较高,突出了㊃531㊃㊀外国语文2024年第1期㊀文本的人际交互性,体现出较强的口语化特征,表达出更加丰富的情感㊂表2㊀两译本词汇特征差异特征缩写陈译本亨克译本均值标准差均值标准差P值词汇丰富度LV0.590.070.610.070.036动词丰富度CVV1 3.290.51 3.500.580.038动词连贯度PCVERBz0.570.66-0.190.600.000名词短语使用频率DRNP347.8628.11360.6024.790.009副词短语使用频率DRAP32.699.7628.979.300.034动名词使用频率DRGERUND18.2711.4622.8212.430.038第一人称代词使用频率WRDPRP1p 3.35 4.480.71 1.750.0003.3句法复杂度差异亨克译本平均句长㊁小句数量㊁T单位数量和复杂T单位比率均高于陈译本,具体见表3㊂表3㊀陈译本和亨克译本句法复杂度差异特征缩写陈译本亨克译本均值标准差均值标准差P值平均句长MLS18.10 4.8519.64 2.820.035每句中的小句数量C/S 1.940.24 2.170.270.000每句中的T单位数量T/S 1.780.21 1.900.250.001复杂T单位比率CT/T0.440.110.510.110.001㊀㊀从表3可见,亨克译本的句法复杂度较高,表现为嵌套结构和语言单位更复杂㊂而陈译本平均句长较短,复杂语言单位出现的比率较低,句法构造更加简洁㊂4㊀译者多重身份对译者行为影响的分析基于两位译者译入型和译出型的身份定位,本文从主身份㊁次身份和末身份三个层次剖析二者的多重身份等级,探索译入译出型译者行为在译本中的表现并探究其规律㊂典籍译者多有其专属的社会身份和标签,如传教士㊁大学教授等㊂本文认为,译者的社会身份贯穿译者翻译活动始末,且最先对翻译活动产生影响,也就是在翻译尚未开始时译者社会身份就开始发挥作用,体现在译者翻译目的㊁翻译选材上㊂本文将译者的主身份定义为最重要的㊁长期从事的社会身份㊂其次,翻译过程中,尤其是对比不同翻译方向译者时,语言差异成为重要的参考指标,母语影响不仅体现在语言方面,还通过母语思维影响译文的逻辑㊃631㊃㊀赵秋荣㊀孙培真㊀译者多重身份对译者行为影响路径的语料库考察 以‘传习录“英译本为例㊀和译者策略选择,本文将译者的次身份定义为不同的母语使用者㊂最后,翻译活动同时也是创作活动,译者的创作往往受到其社会身份和母语文化的影响,本文将创作者身份定义为末身份㊂末身份不是指其无法独立起作用,而是受到前两种身份的影响较大㊂本文将逐一分析‘传习录“译者的主㊁次㊁末身份㊂4.1主身份:国学家对传教士主身份即译者最重要㊁长期从事的社会身份㊂主身份影响翻译的动机以及对源语文化的认同程度,进而影响翻译策略的选择以及对原文的忠诚度㊂个体的认知㊁思维㊁行为等总会受到集体文化以及文化中其他个体的影响(Markus et al.,1991:243)㊂翻译活动中,译者不可能脱离社会,也无法摆脱根植在思维中的特定文化场域㊂因此,翻译行为在不同程度上受到译者社会角色的影响(冯正斌等,2023:127)㊂亨克作为在华传教士及‘传习录“的首位译者,翻译‘传习录“源于上海英国皇家亚洲文会北中国支会中汉学家的动员(刘孔喜等,2018:29)㊂翻译动机以介绍为主,而非高度还原源语内容,对原文的忠实程度较低㊂他旨在向西方介绍孔孟老庄哲学之外的新儒学思想㊂而陈荣捷是享誉海内外的著名国学家,他认为亨克译本对原作遗漏甚多,甚至有误译,作用有限(Chan,1963:xiii);世人若要充分理解中国的思想文化,必须完整翻译此书(Chan,1963:xi)㊂可见,陈荣捷翻译‘传习录“的动机来源于纠正亨克译本的误译,目的是完整准确地呈现原作内容,因此对原作的忠实程度较高㊂4.2次身份:汉语母语者对英语母语者本文将译者的次身份归纳为不同的母语使用者,体现出译者所处语言文化场域的重要作用㊂次身份通过影响译入译出型译者对源语的理解,进而影响译文的准确度㊂翻译不是单纯语言层面的转换,而是一种跨文化交际活动㊂译者不仅要熟悉两种语言,还要熟悉两种文化,并在翻译中充分考虑两种文化的差异㊂汉语母语者和英语母语者的语言和文化差异导致他们对源语的理解也存在差异㊂译者的次身份体现出译入译出型译者在原文理解方面的差异㊂对非母语译者来说,读懂晦涩难懂的古汉语对他们挑战巨大㊂高度还原原文要求译者拥有丰富的文化知识底蕴,准确地理解原文㊂译者对原文的理解很大程度受到次身份的影响㊂陈荣捷在中国出生,成长,接受过良好教育,熟读古典名著,熟悉古代文化,具备准确理解古文的能力㊂而亨克作为英语母语者,对中国古代历史和哲学知识了解较少,不能较好地理解古汉语的丰富含义,导致其对原文某些词汇的理解出现了一定偏差,降低了译本的准确度㊂4.3末身份:创作者身份末身份指译者在翻译活动中体现出的 创作者 身份㊂这里的创作者身份是指相对于读者而言的译本创作者身份,译者的这一身份使其在创作过程中必须考虑读者的阅读感㊃731㊃㊀外国语文2024年第1期㊀受㊂该身份通过影响译本生成时的词汇和句式使用,进而影响译本的易读性㊂译者的任务是准确理解源语文字,同时将源语含义准确传达给读者㊂其中一大难点是在目标语和源语之间寻找平衡㊂在这个过程中 创作者 身份会受到前两种身份的影响㊂受 国学家 主身份的影响,陈荣捷选择以源语文化为导向,对原作进行高度忠实的还原,保持了中国哲学的独特性㊂为了兼顾目的语读者,译本中使用了大量注释,对文中人物㊁朝代㊁历史背景作了详细解释,这样既可以帮助读者学习中国古代知识,也有助于向世界传播中华文化㊂从创作者的角度观察亨克,可以发现他比陈荣捷更加关注目的语读者,这种差异与他作为传教士的主身份和英语母语者的次身份是分不开的㊂传教士的首要目的是让信众理解传教内容,进而与传教者产生共鸣,得到认同㊂因此,亨克作为创作者将目的语读者的阅读感受放在首位㊂为了迎合读者,他为原文的每个篇章拟作标题,合并部分相邻段落,使译文看上去更接近散文体而非原作的语录体㊂同时使用了丰富的词汇和多变的句式,这些都有助于提升读者阅读体验㊂4.4典籍外译中 译者多重身份差异影响路径 模型探索译者行为研究 理论 的初衷是尝试发掘新的探索路径或途径(周领顺,2019:25)㊂本文基于对‘传习录“译入译出型译本的易读性㊁句法复杂度和词汇丰富度对比,结合译者主㊁次㊁末身份等级的讨论,初步探索了典籍外译中 译者多重身份差异影响路径 模型(见图1),旨在一定程度上开拓译者行为研究路径,丰富现有的译者行为研究理论㊂图1㊀ 译者多重身份差异影响路径 模型译者多重身份差异影响路径 模型由主身份㊁次身份和末身份引导,每种身份通过各自的路径分别对译文忠诚度㊁准确度和易读性产生影响,最终形成不同的译者行为㊂同时,模型中的主㊁次㊁末身份包含了译者不同角色间的相互作用和影响㊂译者的主身份是译者㊃831㊃㊀赵秋荣㊀孙培真㊀译者多重身份对译者行为影响路径的语料库考察 以‘传习录“英译本为例㊀最重要㊁长期从事的社会身份,也可将其视为译者首要的社会主体角色㊂这一主体角色对译者的其他角色施加影响,影响译者扮演其他社会角色时的行为㊂例如,在从事语言相关活动中,译者承担了语言使用者的角色,但译文中的言语构造㊁逻辑层次等不仅与母语㊁非母语使用者相关,还受到社会主体角色的影响和制约㊂进行翻译活动时,译者又扮演了创作者的角色,本文将这一角色归纳为末身份,因为其同时受到译者社会主体角色和语言使用者角色的双重影响㊂可以发现,无论是主㊁次㊁末身份,还是主要角色和次要角色,都是由主到次递进式发挥作用㊂因此,在译者行为分析中,非常有必要了解和研究译者所处的社会㊁文化角色和身份,进而做到译内和译外相结合㊂此外,还需指出的是,译者作为社会中的个体,可以同时拥有多种身份和角色, 译者 只是个体在翻译活动中的一种特殊身份,这种身份是所有译者共享的㊂换言之, 译者 身份是共性的,对比译者行为和翻译策略时如果只从 译者 这一种身份入手,就如雾里看花,无法找到根源,而真正对翻译实践产生影响的是译者所在的社会和文化环境㊂社会和文化因素在塑造译入译出型译者风格中承担着重要作用㊂不同翻译方向的译者在各自的生长环境和特定的语言环境中形成独特的身份和价值体系,塑造了多元化的译者行为㊂尤其在典籍外译中,不同社会㊁文化导致的身份和认知差异是形成译本差异的重要因素㊂因此,从社会和文化角度剖析译者多重身份与译入译出型行为间关系的研究显得尤为迫切㊂结合‘传习录“英译本案例,本文将剖析译者的翻译行为如何受到多重社会身份的影响,并尝试揭示其折射的社会和文化缩影㊂4.4.1主身份影响译文忠实度翻译目的和动机与译者的身份息息相关(李翼,2022:89)㊂亨克 传教士 的主身份决定了翻译内容的选材,翻译过程中产生了 宗教至上 的翻译思想,使其对中国文化的认同度弱于宗教文化㊂传教士基于宗教背景㊁信仰和使命,从事的活动都或多或少与宗教相关(刘树森,1999:126)㊂受主身份影响,亨克翻译时对原作进行了评估,将他认为不需要传播到海外的内容进行删减,尤其未能完整地翻译第二章和第三章㊂此外,亨克译本也体现出强烈的宗教色彩㊂例(1)㊀先生明睿天授。
The_Application_of_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_i
The Application of Functional Equiva-lence Theory in Scientific Translation：A Case Study of the Translation of Ship-building EnglishZiqi LIUJiangsu University of Science and TechnologyAbstract: Translation of the scientific and technological articles can not simply convey the basic information of the source text literally by means of word to word or phrase to phrase. Instead, the differences on the characteristics and styles of the Chinese and English scientific articles should be noticed during the translation process and acceptable sentence patterns and expressions may be used to adapt to the reading habits of the target language readers. Scientific articles strive to express meaning by economy of the language and simple language is applied to explain professional problems in order to make the article understood. Under the guidance of the functional equivalence theory, this article studies four equivalent paths in the process of translation activity from Chinese to English, which can provide some learning for the people who are doing scientific translations in the field of ship-building English.Key words: Functional Equivalence Theory, Shipbuilding English1. IntroductionThe ultimate goal of translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text. However, during the process of intralingual communication or interlingual communication, two languages with total different features cannot be ab-solutely equivalent. What translators can do is to make the target text close to the source text as far as possible, thus achieving the closest equivalent. Besides, the target text should be fluent and natural, smooth and easy to understand, which is similar to the theory put forward by Nida that the target language should be the closest natural equivalent of the source language message (Nida, 2001:91)[1]. The theory implies that, “the equivalent” functions during the delivery of the information of the source text; 134The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding English “natural” means the target text should be smooth, fluent and easy to understand; “the closest” means the target text should be infinitely close to the source text both in the aspects of information delivery and writing style.Functional Equivalence consists of four aspects: (1) lexical equivalence; (2) syntax equivalence; (3) textual equivalence; (4) stylistic equivalence. According to Nida's theory, in the process of translation, the translators should regard these four aspects mentioned above as the principles to realize the communication and inter-action between the source language and the target language. Therefore, based on these four aspects, this thesis focuses on the discussion of problems people often come across in the process of translation.2. The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the Target Language(1) Lexical EquivalenceAs the minimal language unit which can be individually used, the word is considered as a unified whole connecting voice, meaning and grammar, which possesses some kind of form and expresses some meanings. Therefore, the under-standing and translation of lexical meaning is the foundation of translation activi-ties and the errors in lexical translation are bound to result in the errors in sentence translation.In the scientific translation, scientific terms are the carriers of the scientific information and it plays an important part in the process of information delivery (Fu Y onglin, Tang Y ueqin, 2012: 27)[3]. As we know, scientific articles have the speciality categories, which decides that these articles are strongly terminological ( Feng Zhijie: 1998:26)[2].As the important part of the scientific theory, the termi-nology is of fundamental significance whose semantic is rigorous and single. A lot of terms and professional vocabularies often emerge in the scientific articles, which bring some difficulty to the translation activities. To do the scientific translation well, it is extremely important to correctly translate these terms and professional vocabularies. Only when these vocabularies are accurately conveyed and they are equivalent between the content and form, the target text readers can receive the message which is close to the source text so as to achieve the communicative func-tion.1) The Translation of Shipbuilding TerminologyAs what is mentioned before, this thesis mainly focuses on the professional lexical translation of the ship. To realize the communicative function in the process135Creativity and Innovation Vol.3 No.1 2019of translation activity, we must achieve the equivalence in content and functions, trying to make the target text readers accurately understand what the source text writers want to express. The translation of some words and phrases may fixedly exist in the field of ship, nevertheless, non-professionals can be unfamiliar with them. During the translation activities, we must combine relevant professional knowledge, the context and apply various translation techniques together to finish the translation which is the most closest to the source text rather than follow our inclinations or translate whatever we want.E.g.1: Gourds, rafts and leather bags are original tools which can be used towade in the water.E.g.2: Hollow gourds, rafts and aired hides are original tools which can beused to wade in the water.These two simple sentences include three primitive tools for wading in the water. We can easily know that “Gourds”, “rafts” and “leather bags” in the first sentence have the same meaning with “Hollow gourds”, “rafts” and “aired hiders” in the second sentence. However, according to the context, the “Hollow gourds” is better than “Gourds” in that in ancient times, to add the buoyancy, people had a tendency to empty the “ Gourds“ whose volume could be controlled by people and whose height is around 40-50 centimeters and the belly mean breadth is around 30-50 centimeters. As a matter of fact, the top of the “Gourds“ ought to be cut and the inside of it ought to be emptied and then people used canes to connect them one by one, so the “Gourds” become hollow. Therefore, although there is no specific introduction of the empty “Gourds“, we must add a modifier into it when translat-ing to make its meaning more accurate. The translators have made sure of the ac-curate delivery of semantic meaning, which realizes the principle of “Content first, form second”.Similarly, we use “aired hides” rather than “leather bags” in that according to the context, the tool mentioned in the article for wading in the water is made of the hide of the cows or sheep. “Leather bags” usually refers to the synthetic leather made by human while “hide” refers to the skin of the large animal. Based on the context and basic knowledge, we can know that the tool is made of animals’ skin. Therefore, “hides” is better than “leather bags “in this translation. What’s more, these hides need being filled with air, so we need to add a modifier “aired” in front of the “hides”. Hence the phrase “aired hides” comes.136The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding EnglishE.g.3: Hollow gourd waist boatE.g.4: Hollow gourd “waist boat” (people tied the hollow gourd to the waistto cross the water, so it was called waist boat.)E.g.3 and E.g.4 are basically the same but they differ in that the E.g.4 gives a further explanation of the phrase “waist boat“. This is absolutely necessary in that the target readers of this article are all foreigners. If they are simply looking at the phrase “waist boat”, they may feel puzzled or confused that whether it is the boat which looks like the waist or the boat which is tied in the waist. Since the ordinary readers may never have the chance to see this ancient tool by their own and expe-rience the way of wading in the water, it is hard for them to imagine the specific situation. Hence, in order to make sure the accuracy and objectivity of the infor-mation delivery, the translators must add comment to it that” people tied the hollow gourd to the waist to cross the water, so it was called waist boat”, which can help set the explicit limitation and definition for these ambiguous words so that the translators are able to make readers know the relevant information of the source text.2) The Translation of the Culture Proper NounsIn the document of the history about shipbuilding, there is no denying the fact that it has many literal description about the ancient history which may include some words and phrases associated with the Chinese culture. These words and phrases are difficult to find the equivalence in the target language. Therefore, in the process of the translation activities, we must take some techniques and strategies to translate these words and phrases which are strongly connected with Chinese cul-ture.E.g.5: Shih Chi Biography of Xia had recorded that tributes from Y angzhou were transported along the river to the sea and then were taken to the north along the sea. Next, they were brought to Huai River and Si River, at last to central plains. (in today’s Henan Province)As a Chinese geographical concept, “central plains” is literally defined as “a plain in the middle”. Since the area of China experienced endless changes, our country has ensured the territorial scope until modern times. Generally speaking, there are two different kinds of versions: one is the literal translation--central plains, and the other one is to add comments for “central plains”. so we can’t simply take a literal translation when translating this phrase.137Creativity and Innovation Vol.3 No.1 2019It is illustrated in the Great Dictionary of American Heritage that the word “China” has something to do with the Qin Dynasty. And what describes in the fol-lowing is the Xia Dynasty, which is more earlier than Qin Dynasty. Therefore, the translators find that “plains” of the Xia Dynasty mainly refers to the area in Henan, which can naturally be translated into “central plains”. Finally, they can add the comment to signify the position of the province.(2) Syntax EquivalenceThere is a majority of differences between English and Chinese, which can be seen obviously between the sentences and lines. English emphasizes the form while Chinese emphasizes the meaning; English uses more impersonal structures than Chinese does; English uses more passive voice while Chinese uses more active voice; English highlights the static expression while Chinese highlights the dy-namic expression. Various differences between English and Chinese in syntax make request for the syntax translation. To make sure the source text readers and the tar-get text readers achieve almost the same reading experience, the translators should take into consideration the difference of the syntax and translate the sentences into what target text readers are familiar with.The objectivity of the scientific articles decides that there are many non-subject sen-tences in them. Since much information is conveyed in the scientific articles, the scientific articles consist of many long difficult sentences. As a matter of fact, the information in the scientific articles is often strongly professional.The sentences of the scientific English have four major features: the abundant use of the passive voice to make statement objects more objective, the use of long sentences to make statement objects more complete, the use of the special sentence patterns to make the scientific English different from others, and the frequent use of the nouns which can describe the movement and the state. This is best reflected by E.g.6, E.g.7 and E.g.8.E.g.6: It is found that the final weld metal has a high plate dilution.E.g.7: Subsequently it was discovered that by dipping the wire in lime a morestable arc was obtained.E.g.8: The process is more suitable for welding plates in the thickness range of13 to 50 mm with square or vee edge preparations and is therefore used for ship-building purposes in the welding of vertical butts when erecting side shell panels or for the vertical shell butt joints when joining building blocks on the berth or dock. 138The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding English(3) Textual EquivalenceText refers to a set of discourses or sentences that are different in lengths, of grammatical utterance and semantically coherent. It has both spoken language and written language ( Fu Y onglin, Tang Y ueqin, 2012: 170)[3]. The text usually focuses on the specific gist and has some logic. The discourses and sentences of the text are connected by means of the logical relationship and structure. In the process of do-ing translation activities, to make the target text more logical, we must clearly un-derstand the gist and structure of the source text. We should make clear the struc-ture of the text from the whole and understand the logical relationship and the con-necting devices from the local. Only in this way can we form the thesis structure and logical coherence in the target text which is equivalent to the source text that can be well-recognized by the target text readers.E.g.9: South China abounds with bamboos, so bamboo rafts were widely used there. First, use fire to bake the bottom of bamboos to make it cocked, and then bind them together with rattan and wild flax. Thus, when paddling it, the resistance will be much smaller, especially when it floats downstream the speed is amazing the bamboo raft in the Taiwan Strait has sail, so it is not very far from now.From the sentence above, we can easily come to the conclusion that the source text concentrates on the description of abundance of bamboos in the south area and the relevant procedures of making bamboo rafts. Generally speaking, in the Chinese text, there is no obvious marking words to explain the procedure of making bamboo rafts but people whose mother tongue is Chinese are easy to understand. It is the bamboo rafts rather than other kinds of rafts such as wooden rafts or leather rafts that are used spread because the south area is rich in bamboo, which provides the convenient condi-tion for making bamboo rafts. Going forward, the procedure of making bamboo rafts is step by step and it is a united procedure. Going ahead, the source text tells us that the rafts drift down the river and the clause “the speed is amazing “gives us the further ex-planation for the resistance mentioned ahead. In the English, the translators should first use a word “so” which implies a kind of causation relationship is used to totally con-vey the message that the bamboo bridge can be made just because of the abundance of bamboo in the south area. What’s more, the words “first” and “and then” tell us the order of making bamboo rafts. Due to the elaborate making procedures, the resistance of the raft is smaller. The word “thus” naturally brings us the consequence while the adverb “especially” is used to further emphasize the quick speed of the rafts drifting down the river. In the process of translation activity, we should clearly understand the relationship between sentences so as to make the message delivered wholly and achieve the textual dynamic equivalence.139Creativity and Innovation Vol.3 No.1 2019(4) Stylistic EquivalenceDifferent English articles may have different styles of writing, consistent with their own expression of spiritual emotions. Therefore, high-quality English transla-tion emphasizes the stylistic equivalence which means that the translators should deeply study the style of the source text to build a bridge between the writer and readers for effective communication and interaction. For example, in the translation of English business letters, we should pay attention to the use of polite words, and fully express the contents of the letter, in order to establish a good relationship be-tween the two cooperative parties to make them deeply feel each other' s sincerity which helps to promote more profound and lasting cooperation. Besides, for the translation of business contracts, translators should pay attention to the economy of language and accurately and completely convey information with simple words and sentences so that readers can understand according to the key words. This is also important for readers to improve their reading efficiency and comfort. In this pro-cess, translators need to carefully consider the contents of the contract and avoid information omissions or misunderstanding which can cause property loss for the company. In addition, the scientific translation lays high emphasis on rigorousness of logical structure. In the field of Western studies, no undetermined argument can be quoted freely, and in many arguments there is usually only “YES” or “NO”. Therefore, in scientific translation activities, we should respect the rigorous scien-tific tradition of Western research and do not add any subjective content with per-sonal emotion in the whole article structure and language style arrangement.3. The Strategies of the Functional Equivalence Theory in Scien-tific Translation(1) Clearly understanding the scientific concepts and transforming the key pointsIn the scientific paper, there are a lot of new and complex scientific concepts which bother people in a way. In this case, the translators need the experts in the field of the science and technology to make clear these complicated concepts in the paper and find key points in these concepts. Finally, they translate these concepts under the guidance of the lexical equivalence theory.(2) Making clear the logical relationship of the source text and translating with different methodsThe complex logical argumentation is frequently used in the English scientific paper. Which we translate between Chinese and English, we can express in differ-ent form. For instance, we can use the chart translation approach. The translators 140The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding English can firstly list arguments one by one and associate them with the conclusion by chart which can bring a more vivid experience for readers. Actually, the translators can use the arguments readers are familiar with, which helps them experience the target context on their own.(3) Closely grasping the style of the source textBased on a serious scientific perspective, the scientific articles are equipped with rigorous argument process, precise logical structure, and the strict textual structure. Therefore, in the process of scientific translation, the translators should closely grasp the structure and language style of the source text.4. ConclusionBased on Nida’s functional equivalence theory, this thesis illustrates the prin-ciples of equivalence by the examples of scientific translation of shipbuilding and proposes some translation strategies for people who are doing scientific transla-tions.Works Cited［1］Nida, E.A . “Language and Culture: Context in Translation”. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.［2］Feng “Zhijie, A Guide to C-E Translation for Science” Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1998.［3］Fu Yonglin, “Tang Yueqin, Scientific Translation” Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching And Research Press, 2012.141。
高中英语冀教版选择性必修第四册Unit2Poetry-CallingForthTheRichesof
一、完形填空1. Reading and writing ______is a very personal experience.Poets use language as a way of______their feelings, whether positive ones of love, happiness and hope, or negative feelings like______and fear.Poems can describe the beauty of nature, a person，a dream or a memorable event.Most______have tried writing poetry at some time，for example，at school.For children, it is a good way to explore language and have______with words as well as to express themselves.But teachers and psychologists have found another use for poetry as a form of treatment to help people with problems.There are______for people of all different backgrounds and ages.Writing poetry can help people deal with______in their lives－death or feelings of sadness, drug or alcohol problems or serious illness.By writing down your feelings，______can learn to understand yourself better and give yourself a voice if you feel you are being ignored.A poem might be a way of telling someone something when you do not feel able to talk about it______.And just because people are______or having difficulties in their lives, it doesn't mean they have lost their sense of humor.Poems______as treatment can be funny too, as laughter is also considered to be very good medicine.Students at a special school in Dudley, in England, read and write poems______.Their reason for writing poems is not just to be creative, but some of them they write are very good.All of them have problems.Some of them have long－term______conditions, such as cancer，while others have personality disorders or psychological problems.By writing poems students are growing______self confidence.The poems provide a channel through______they can______with the world，and convey their feelings.They______help them to recognize and explore their problems andto develop a positive attitude to life.But the poems are helping______people，too.The school has collected some of the students'poems and published them in a book which is______to raise funds for a local hospital.The book has proved very popular, giving students a sense of______.1.A．poem B．the poems C．poet D．poetry2.A．transforming B．conveying C．convincing D．impressing3.A．excitement B．anger C．darkness D．joy4.A．people B．students C．writers D．teachers5.A．game B．fun C．smile D．food6.A．benefits B．warmth C．patterns D．style7.A．branches B．changes C．exercises D．lines8.A．I B．they C．she D．you9.A．shoulder to shoulder B．face to face C．hand in hand D．eye to eye 10.A．hungry B．ill C．thirsty D．happy11.A．said B．spoken C．seen D．written12.A．some time B．everyday C．every day D．sometime13.A．salty B．scientific C．natural D．medical14.A．in B．on C．from D．at15.A．who B．which C．that D．when16.A．communicate B．exchange C．contradict D．delight17.A．either B．too C．yet D．also18.A．another B．the other C．other D．the others19.A．sells B．sell C．being sold D．being selling20.A．achievement B．humor C．duty D．experience二、阅读选择(阅读理解)文章大意：本文是一篇记叙文。
基于大型可比语料库的中国学者科学家学术英语现状研究
基于大型可比语料库的中国学者科学家学术英语现状研究基于大型可比语料库的中国学者学术英语现状研究是对中国学者在科学研究领域中使用英语的实际情况进行调查和分析。
以下是研究的一般框架：1. 构建语料库：首先需要构建一个大型可比语料库，其中包括中国学者在学术出版物、会议论文、研究报告等方面的英文写作。
可以从学术数据库、期刊论文、学术机构网站等获取相关数据。
这个语料库应涵盖多个学科领域和不同学术水平的学者。
2. 数据收集和分析：从构建的语料库中随机抽样，获取包括摘要、导言、方法、结果和讨论等部分的学术英语文本。
收集并记录有关作者身份、学科领域、学术地位等的元数据，以便进行相关分析。
3. 内容分析：对收集到的学术英语文本进行内容分析，关注以下几个方面：- 词汇使用：分析学者常用的英语词汇、短语和表达方式，以及学术语言中的特定术语和惯用语。
- 句法结构：分析学者在句法结构、句子长度、从句的频率等方面的特征。
- 语篇框架：分析学者在学术英语的语篇结构、论证逻辑、段落组织等方面的表现。
4. 与国际标准对比：将中国学者的学术英语与国际学术界的标准和规范进行对比，例如国际期刊的论文发表要求、国际学术会议的论文写作指南等。
比较学者的学术英语与国际标准之间的差距，找出存在的问题和改进的空间。
5. 结果和讨论：在研究结果和讨论部分，总结中国学者学术英语的优势和不足之处，提出改进建议。
例如，增加学术英语培训的机会、鼓励学者参与国际学术交流等。
研究的目的是了解中国学者在学术英语方面的现状，促进学术英语的提高和国际交流的顺利进行。
当然，具体的研究方法和分析侧重点可以根据研究者的兴趣和目标进行调整和拓展。
科技论文标题中_以_为例_英译用词探讨_杨廷君
12 6 1 1 2 1 1 1
31
中国科技术语 /2015 年第 6 期
类别 第3 类 （ 24． 90% ）
其他类 （ 7． 63% ）
译文表达用词
a case from + NP a case of + NP a case in + NP a case for + NP case of + NP cases from + NP a case history of case research on + NP in the case of in a case of + NP the case of + NP with + NP + as the case a case history of + NP taking + NP + as a case taking + NP + as case taking NP as a case based on…cases
一 研究语料的基本数据
此次所提取的 474 篇学术论文，从时间分布上 看，出现逐年递增的趋势，见表 1。
表 1 论文的时间分布
时间 1997 年以前
1998 年 1999 年 2000 年 2001 年 2002 年 2003 年 2004 年 2005 年
论文数量 14 5 6 8 8 17 23 19 23
examples of + NP examples of + NP examples in + NP examples from + NP examபைடு நூலகம்le from example of
2022新高考全国Ⅱ卷真题及参考答案
2022新高考全国Ⅱ卷真题及参考答案一、现代文阅读（35分）（一）现代文阅读I（本题共5小题，19分）阅读下面的文字，完成1~5题。
材料一：中国学者进入典籍英译领域时间相对较晚，据现有汉学书目统计，中国典籍译本绝大多数是由西方汉学家或独立、或在中国合作者帮助下完成的。
传教士以降的西方译者为中国典籍的异域传播做出了不可磨灭的贡献，但以往的西方译者翻译中国文化典籍时，大多采取迎合译语读者的翻译策略，翻译过程中曲解、误译中国文化之处比比皆是。
此外，中国古代经典文本的语言具有语义的浑圆性、语法的意合性和修辞的空灵性这三大特点，使得绝大多数外国学习者难以在较短的时间内触及中华文化的内核。
然而，典籍英译的主要目的，是向西方世界介绍真正的中国传统文化，促进中西文化交流和发展，让西方了解真正的中国。
我们应当客观、公正地看待中国典籍翻译实践和接受之间的窘况与差距，从典籍翻译大家身上汲取翻译的智慧，获取前行的指导和力量。
在这方面，对杨宪益、戴乃迭（英国籍）合译的与英国人霍克斯翻译的《红楼梦》译本的比较，是一个值得我们静下心来认真思考的课题。
这两个译本于20世纪70年代出版，三位译者皆因此获得巨大声誉，也同时掀起了翻译界此后对两种译本经久不息的对比研究热潮。
在这过程中，我们应深入了解中国典籍的外译事实，客观分析两种译本的优长与不足，将中国的本土经验和理论与西方翻译理论相结合，取其精华，让中国的翻译研究与实践在传承和发展的良性循环中获得升华，在实践中不断培养和提高我们讲述中国故事、构建中国话语体系的时代能力。
（摘编自辛红娟《中国典籍“谁来译”》）材料二：翻译思想是决定译者翻译行为和翻译结果的主因，只有通过其翻译思想，读者才能理解其翻译过程中所采取的种种策略，也才能对这些策略所产生的译文进行更客观的评价。
从霍克思的译本中可见，他对原文采取了大多时候“忠实不渝”、间或背信弃“意”的态度。
为证此言，举个背信弃“意”的例子。
《红楼梦》第一回中，曹雪芹用了一个较长的段落交代自己的写作目的，并说明选用“甄士隐”和“贾雨村”作为人物姓名的缘由，为读者理解整部小说进行铺垫。
《出师表》四个英译本对比研究
2095
2708.
2021.
02.
138
ji
文章编号:
2095
2708(
2021)
02
0138
05
《出师表 》四个英译本对比研究
张
云,申连云
(扬州大学 外国语学院,江苏 扬州 225127)
关键词:《出师表》;生态翻译学;三维转换;整合适应选择度
摘
要:以罗慕士 (Mo
s
sRobe
r
t
s)、谢 百 魁、邓 罗 (
7、
8 为部分
整体上看,罗经 国 译 本 在 文 化 维 的 转 换 效 果 最
佳,罗慕士和谢百魁次之,邓罗最差。但具体情况还
具有代表性的示例。
需例证证明,因为 同 一 种 翻 译 方 法,用 词 不 同,则 文
表6
罗慕士
侍中
邓罗
谢百魁
罗经国
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生态的平 衡,“
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原语 和 译 语 是 两 种 不 同 的 语 言,除 了 语 言 差 异
颇为接近的生态环 境,达 到 了 更 巧 妙 的 语 言 维 度 的
外,文化自然也存在千差万别。为了避免曲解原文,
转换。
译者除了做到语言 维 度 的 转 换,自 然 也 需 做 到 文 化
有许多文化负载 词,官 职、自 谦、尊 称 与 禁 忌 语 是 其
中国学者英语学术论文中的语篇衔接手段——基于可比语料库的研究
中国学者英语学术论文中的语篇衔接手段——基于可比语料
库的研究
陈建生;孙芳
【期刊名称】《长春师范学院学报（人文社会科学版）》
【年(卷),期】2011(030)005
【摘要】从不同语义连接词在两个语料库中出现的次数上来看,中国学者与英语本族语学者使用情况基本相同,这说明中国学者已经掌握英语学术论文的写作特征。
由于母语迁移的影响和回避策略的使用,中国学者在连接词的使用上仍存在不足,如他们使用连接词的总频率低于英语本族语者,用词局限在少数简单的连接词上以及正式文体中出现口语化倾向等。
【总页数】4页(P93-96)
【作者】陈建生;孙芳
【作者单位】天津科技大学外国语学院,天津300222;天津科技大学外国语学院,天津300222
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】H315
【相关文献】
1.中国学者和英语本族语学者语法衔接手段运用的对比研究 [J], 许秀云
2.中国学者英语学术论文中的语篇衔接手段——基于可比语料库的研究 [J], 陈建生;孙芳;
3.中国学者英语学术论文手稿中强化语使用特征\r—基于语料库的对比研究 [J],
刘座雄;杜蕾;刘萍;胡素芬
4.基于《中国英语能力等级量表》的大中小学英语语篇衔接手段分析——以“英雄”话题为例 [J], 唐书哲;江雨晴;王子琨
5.基于《中国英语能力等级量表》的大中小学英语语篇衔接手段分析——以"英雄"话题为例 [J], 唐书哲;江雨晴;王子琨
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A Narrative Inquiry into The comparisons of English and Chinese intonation
A Narrative Inquiry into The comparisons of English andChinese intonation【Abstract】English and Chinese are in different language families，and they are also two totally different languages.The study of intonation has existed for a long time.The importance for the study of intonation lies in that foreign language learner always transfer their native language into the process of learning the target language.Chinese speak English in a way of Chinglish，while when foreigner speak Chinese they would make some pragmatic mistakes because of negating the change of intonation.So，the study of intonation plays an important role in the communication which the foreigners use a different language.The study of intonation not only plays a crucial role in the avoidance of making mistakes in cross cultural communication，but also promotes the development of phonetics and teaching method of phonetics，which has an important theoretical and practical meaning in the process of studying linguists.【Keywords】intonation；stress；semantic；pragmatic；negative transferThis simple comparison makes a very important point about how we speak and use English or Chinese.It is believed that，English is considered as a stressed language while many other languages are considered as syllabic，such as，Chinese.What does that mean？It means that，we use stress to certain words in English while other words are quickly spoken.In other languages，such as French or Italian，each syllable receives equal importance.What’more，Chinese is considered as a tone language which has four totally different tones.For example，妈马骂麻are words with totally different meaning but with same syllables.In terms of stressThe meaning of Chinese words is determined by the tone of each word，sentence stress is generally not affect by the meaning of the sentence.However，in English，the meaning of words in English is determined by the placement of stress.In English，there are grammatical function words，such as verbs，adjectives，adverbs，and these words usually uttered with strong stress.While，some function words，such as，pronouns，prepositions，articles，conjunctions，auxiliary，read not in a strong way.And the verb may have their own lexical meaning which is not strong reading，to read insignificantly asPianissimo.For example：I'm a 'teacher，and my' mother is a 'worker.In the process of English learning，many Chinese may have negative transfer，Chinese learner may read sentences in English in a way of same weight，which lack rhythm and read like their mother tongue.When they read English sentences，they will add an accent in front of each word，and have read every word which well fall behind Tune.For example，She is a good student.Attending to：['She ?K' is ?K 'a ?K' good ?K 'student.] In terms of pragmatic and semanticThe role of intonation is to express lexical and syntactic structure of the sentences.Although the intonation is often accompanied with personal feelings，this is essentially，it is a convention，a regular system.In English，because of the tone of the reason，the phase has the same grammatical structure will have different pragmatic meaning，Pragmatic functions can also be considered as a praise，but if you use a rising tone，you may have questions about，surprise，doubt pragmatic meaning，as possible What kind of situation，depending on the context of the time and the relationship between the two sides of communication.That is，when considering the significance of discourse，the researcher can not fail to consider this factor oftone.Because different tone can also cause changes in meaning.Such as：This is her car.ConclusionIntonation，as being the essential and crucial element and external form of a languages，serves the human beings primarily as a medium of communication.After the comparison，the distinctions between English and Chinese intonation are also explored.Since English intonation determines the pitch movements of its utterances，various aspects of pitch are changed flexibly.However，in Chinese，the pitch movements for intonation purpose are confined by the limits of tone-pattern that guarantees the identification of lexical meaning.Intonation，as being the essential and crucial element and external form of a languages，serves the human beings primarily as a medium of communication.References：[1]G，Leech & J.Svartvik.A Communicative Grammar of English.Longman，1974：38-39.[2]Lado，Robert.Linguistics Across Cultures，Applied Linguistics Language Teachers.Ann Arbor，MI：University of Michigan Press，1957.[3]龚卡佳.英汉语调对比教学[J].现代外语，1991.[4]Rod Ellis.Understanding Second Language Acquisition[M].Oxford University Press，1985.[5]李瑞华.英汉语言文化对比[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1996.。
语言学试卷(期中及南师大)
语言学期中测试班级: 姓名：学号:I: Multiple Choice第一章语言与语言学1. Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of ___.A. A particular languageB. The system of a particular languageC. Human languages in generalD. The English languageWilliam Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet, Juliet said "What's in a name That which wecall a rose by any other name would smell as sweet." This illustrates ___.A. the arbitrary nature of languageB. the big difference between human language and animal communicationC. the creative nature of languageD. the universality of language3. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of languageA. Productive.B. Dual.C. SymbolicD.Arbitrary4. Who put forward the distinction between langue and paroleA. HallidayB. Ferdinand de SaussureC. Noam ChomskyD. Charles Hockett5. One of the properties of language is that a language user can understand and produce sentenceshe/she has never heard before. This property of language is called ___.A. dualityB. arbitraryC. displacementD. Productivity6. The ____ function refers to the fact that language can be used for establishinga favorable atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.A. phaticB. directiveC. evocativeD. performative7. Modern linguistics is the scientific study of language. Consequently, modern linguistics emphasizes the importance of language data collected from ___.A. newspapers and magazinesB. writing by the famous writersC. the language people actually speakD. radio broadcasts8. Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learningrather than by instinct. This property of language is called ___.A. interchangeabilityB. cultural transmissionC. productivityD. arbitrarinessa linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ___.A. DescriptiveB. linguisticC. prescriptiveD. analytic linguistic10. Which of the following statements is NOT trueA. Language is a system.B. Animals also have language.C. Language is symbolic.D. Language is arbitrary.11. According to Noam Chomsky, which of the following is seen as the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his languageA. Competence.B. Parole.C. PerformanceD. Langue12. Our linguistic ability is a ___ gift of the species' gene program.A. biologicalB. physicalC. scientificD. chemical13. The description of a language at some point in time is a ___ study.A. diachronicB. prescriptiveC. descriptiveD. synchronic14. One of the properties of language is that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. This property of language is ___.A. dualityB. productivityC. displacementD. arbitrariness15. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what we mean by ___.A. dualityB. productivityC. displacementD. arbitrariness16. Cultural transmission is one of the ____features of language.A. suprasegmentalB. pragmaticC. distinctiveD. design17. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not lay down rules for "correct " linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___.A. descriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. prescriptiveD. psycholinguistic18. Which of the following is the exception to the feature of arbitrariness of languageA. Native English wordsB. Borrowed wordsC. Onomatopoeic wordsD. One-syllable words19. Saussure took a(n) ____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language froma ___ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. Applied, pragmaticD. Semantic, linguistic20. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ___.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable第二章语音学与音系学1. The tone, defined as variation, is an important suprasegmental feature of tone languages such as ____.A. ChineseB. EnglishC. Chinese and EnglishD. English and French2. According to the places of articulation, sounds in English such as /t/, /l/ and /z/ can be labeled as ____ ones.A. dentalB. bilabialC. velar D alveolar3. Of the following sound combinations, only ____ is permissible according to the sequentla1 rules in English.A. kiblB. bkil C ilkb D. ilbk4. Of all the speech organs, the ____ is the most flexible.A lip B. mouth C. vocal cord D. tongue5. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal6. ____ is a voiced alveolar stop.A . /z / B. /d / C. /k/ D. /b/7. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____.A. identicalB. similarC. exactly alikeD. same8. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ____.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair9. The sound /f/ is a ____.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodentals fricativel0. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle11. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____.A. suprasegmental featuresB. immediate constituentsC. phonetic componentsD. semantic features12. A(n)____is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme13. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones14. Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correctA. Allophones are different forms of the same phoneme.B. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.C. Allophones distinguish meani ng·D. Allophones are language specific.15. When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as ____.A. intonationB. toneC. phonemeD. sentence stress16. Which of the following is also called "semivowelsA. fricativesB. liquidsC. affricatesD. glides17. In terms of place of articulation, the two consonants /f/, /v/ are ____.A. denta1B. alveolarC. palatalD. labiodental18. In terms of manners of articulation, the sounds /p/, /b/, /t/,/d/, /k/,/g/ are ____.A. bilabialB. stopsC. affricatesD. fricatives19. What is your understanding of "the Adam’s apple”A. Part of Adam’s body.B. The front part of larynx.C. The top of larynx.D. A kind of apple.20. Which of the following is NOT a velar soundA. /k/B. /ŋ/C. /v/D./g/ 第三章形态学1. ____ is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.A. DerivationB. BlendingC. AbbreviationD. Compounding2. Words such as "telex " and "workfare "are created through ____.A. blendingB. compoundingC. conversionD. affixation3. According to the morphological analysis, the underlined part in the word “internationali sm” should be referred to as a ____.A. rootB. stemC. prefixD. suffix4. Which of the following words is made up of bound morphemes onlyA. Happiness.B. Television.C. Ecology.D. Teacher.5. Which of the following words is a derivativeA. Able.B. Pet.C. Dusty.D. Change.6. How many morphemes are there in the word “d i sarmed”A. 2.B. 3.C. 4D. 57. When "-ing" in "gangling" is removed to get a verb "gangle", we call this way of creating words ____.A. suffixingB. compoundingC. back-formationD. acronymy8. The phoneme "vision" in the common word “television” is a(n) ____.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme9. As is known ____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language.A. wordsB. sentencesC. phonemesD. morphemes10. “-s” in the word "books" is ____.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root11. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ____.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic12. The compound word "bookstore" is the place where books are sold. This indicates that themeaning of a compound____.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD. none of the above13. Bound morphemes are those that ____.A. have to be used independentlyB. cannot be combined with other morphemesC. have to be combined with other morphemesD. can either be free or bound14. As one of the affixes, a prefix is ____.A. below the stemB. after the stemC. before the stemD. in the middle of the stem15. ____ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. syntaxB. grammarC. morphologyD. morpheme16. Which one of the following is NOT a suffix for adjectivesA. -ous .B. -nessC. -al17. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes18. The stem of the word “d isengagements” is ____.A. engagementB. disengageC. engageD. disengagement19. Which of the following words is a derivational oneA. CocktailB. ReadsC. EstablishmentD. Kids20. ____ and ____ can constitute a compound.A. A stem, an affixB. A free morpheme; a free morphemeC. A root, an affixD. A prefix, a suffixII: Define the following terms2. parole3. competence4. performance5. synchronic study6. diachronic study7. IPA8. phonetics 229. narrow transcription10. phonology11. phoneme12. phone13. allophone14. assimilation rules15. suprasegmental features16. morpheme17. morph18. allomorph19. free morpheme20. bound morpheme21. inflectional morpheme22. derivational morpheme23 compounding24. conversion25. derivation语言学期中测试班级: 姓名：学号:I: Multiple Choice第一章语言与语言学1. Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of ___.A. A particular languageB. The system of a particular languageC. Human languages in generalD. The English languageWilliam Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet, Juliet said "What's in a name That which wecall a rose by any other name would smell as sweet." This illustrates ___.A. the arbitrary nature of languageB. the big difference between human language and animal communicationC. the creative nature of languageD. the universality of language3. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of languageA. Productive.B. Dual.C. SymbolicD.Arbitrary4. Who put forward the distinction between langue and paroleA. HallidayB. Ferdinand de SaussureC. Noam ChomskyD. Charles Hockett5. One of the properties of language is that a language user can understand and produce sentenceshe/she has never heard before. This property of language is called ___.A. dualityB. arbitraryC. displacementD. Productivity6. The ____ function refers to the fact that language can be used for establishinga favorable atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.A. phaticB. directiveC. evocativeD. performative7. Modern linguistics is the scientific study of language. Consequently, modern linguistics emphasizes the importance of language data collected from ___.A. newspapers and magazinesB. writing by the famous writersC. the language people actually speakD. radio broadcasts8. Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by instinct. This property of language is called ___.A. interchangeabilityB. cultural transmissionC. productivityD. arbitrarinessa linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ___.A. DescriptiveB. linguisticC. prescriptiveD. analytic linguistic10. Which of the following statements is NOT trueA. Language is a system.B. Animals also have language.C. Language is symbolic.D. Language is arbitrary.11. According to Noam Chomsky, which of the following is seen as the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his languageA. Competence.B. Parole.C. PerformanceD. Langue12. Our linguistic ability is a ___ gift of the species' gene program.A. biologicalB. physicalC. scientificD. chemical13. The description of a language at some point in time is a ___ study.A. diachronicB. prescriptiveC. descriptiveD. synchronic14. One of the properties of language is that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. This property of language is ___.A. dualityB. productivityC. displacementD. arbitrariness15. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what we mean by ___.A. dualityB. productivityC. displacementD. arbitrariness16. Cultural transmission is one of the ____features of language.A. suprasegmentalB. pragmaticC. distinctiveD. design17. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not lay down rules for "correct " linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___.A. descriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. prescriptiveD. psycholinguistic18. Which of the following is the exception to the feature of arbitrariness of languageA. Native English wordsB. Borrowed wordsC. Onomatopoeic wordsD. One-syllable words19. Saussure took a(n) ____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language froma ___ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. Applied, pragmaticD. Semantic, linguistic20. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ___.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable第二章语音学与音系学1. The tone, defined as variation, is an important suprasegmental feature of tone languages such as ____.A. ChineseB. EnglishC. Chinese and EnglishD. English and French2. According to the places of articulation, sounds in English such as /t/, /l/ and /z/ can be labeled as ____ ones.A. dentalB. bilabialC. velar D alveolar3. Of the following sound combinations, only ____ is permissible according to the sequentla1 rules in English.A. kiblB. bkil C ilkb D. ilbk4. Of all the speech organs, the ____ is the most flexible.A lip B. mouth C. vocal cord D. tongue5. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal6. ____ is a voiced alveolar stop.A . /z / B. /d / C. /k/ D. /b/7. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____.A. identicalB. similarC. exactly alikeD. same8. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ____.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair9. The sound /f/ is a ____.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodentals fricativel0. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle11. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____.A. suprasegmental featuresB. immediate constituentsC. phonetic componentsD. semantic features12. A(n)____is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme13. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones14. Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correctA. Allophones are different forms of the same phoneme.B. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.C. Allophones distinguish meani ng·D. Allophones are language specific.15. When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as ____.A. intonationB. toneC. phonemeD. sentence stress16. Which of the following is also called "semivowelsA. fricativesB. liquidsC. affricatesD. glides17. In terms of place of articulation, the two consonants /f/, /v/ are ____.A. denta1B. alveolarC. palatalD. labiodental18. In terms of manners of articulation, the sounds /p/, /b/, /t/,/d/, /k/,/g/ are ____.A. bilabialB. stopsC. affricatesD. fricatives19. What is your understanding of "the Adam’s apple”A. Part of Adam’s body.B. The front part of larynx.C. The top of larynx.D. A kind of apple.20. Which of the following is NOT a velar soundA. /k/B. /ŋ/C. /v/D./g/ 第三章形态学1. ____ is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.A. DerivationB. BlendingC. AbbreviationD. Compounding2. Words such as "telex " and "workfare "are created through ____.A. blendingB. compoundingC. conversionD. affixation3. According to the morphological analysis, the underlined part in the word “internationalism” should be referred to as a ____.A. rootB. stemC. prefixD. suffix4. Which of the following words is made up of bound morphemes onlyA. Happiness.B. Television.C. Ecology.D. Teacher.5. Which of the following words is a derivativeA. Able.B. Pet.C. Dusty.D. Change.6. How many morphemes are there in the word “disarmed”A. 2.B. 3.C. 4D. 57. When "-ing" in "gangling" is removed to get a verb "gangle", we call this way of creating words ____.A. suffixingB. compoundingC. back-formationD. acronymy8. The phoneme "vision" in the common word “television” is a(n) ____.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme9. As is known ____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language.A. wordsB. sentencesC. phonemesD.morphemes10. “-s” in the word "books" is ____.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root11. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ____.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic12. The compound word "bookstore" is the place where books are sold. This indicates that themeaning of a compound____.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD. none of the above13. Bound morphemes are those that ____.A. have to be used independentlyB. cannot be combined with other morphemesC. have to be combined with other morphemesD. can either be free or bound14. As one of the affixes, a prefix is ____.A. below the stemB. after the stemC. before the stemD. in the middle of the stem15. ____ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. syntaxB. grammarC. morphologyD. morpheme16. Which one of the following is NOT a suffix for adjectivesA. -ous .B. -nessC. -al17. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes18. The stem of the word “disengagements” is ____.A. engagementB. disengageC. engageD. disengagement19. Which of the following words is a derivational oneA. CocktailB. ReadsC. EstablishmentD. Kids20. ____ and ____ can constitute a compound.A. A stem, an affixB. A free morpheme, a free morphemeC. A root, an affixD. A prefix, a suffixII: Define the following terms1. langue2. parole3. competence4. performance5. synchronic study6. diachronic study7. IPA8. phonetics 229. narrow transcription10. phonology11. phoneme12. phone13. allophone14. assimilation rules15. suprasegmental features16. morpheme17. morph18. allomorph19. free morpheme20. bound morpheme21. inflectional morpheme22. derivational morpheme23 compounding24. conversion25. derivation南京师范大学联办生学士学位课程考试英语专业《英语语言学》课程考试卷I. Multiple Choice ( 20x1)Directons: You are supposed to choose the best out of the four choices and write theletter of the answer you have chosen in the corresponding space in the TABLE.1. What are the dual structures of languageA. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaningC. Letters and meaningD. Sounds and symbols.2. Which of the following is NOT a compound wordA. LandladyB. GreenhouseC. UpliftD. Unacceptable3. Which of the following statements about language is NOT trueA. Language is a system.B. Language is symbolic.C. Animals also have languageD. Language is arbitrary4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and ParoleA. SaussureB. ChomskyC. HallidayD. Anonymous5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his languageA. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langue6. The study of the way listeners perceive the sounds is called ____.A. acoustic phoneticsB. auditory phoneticsC. articulatory phoneticsD. phonology7. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ____.A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips8. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcriptionA. Phonetics.B. Phonology.C. Semantics.D. Pragmatics.9. Which studies the sound systems in a certain languageA. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics10. Which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formedA. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PhonologyD. Semantics11. ______ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept12. ______is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act13. Historical linguistics explores __________.A. the nature of language changeB. the causes that lead to language changeC. the relationship between languagesD. all of the above14. Language change is essentially a matter of change _____.A. in collocationsB. in meaningC. in grammarD. in usages15. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes16. ______ in a person's speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation17. Human linguistic ability largely depends on the structure and dynamics of______.A. human brainB. human vocal cordsC. human memoryD. human18. Linguistic _____ is the brain's neurological specialization for language.A. fossilizationB. performanceC. competenceD. lateralization19. In first language acquisition, imitation plays _____.A. a minor roleB. a significant roleC. a basic roleD. no rule20. In general, a good second language learner is an adolescent_____.A. who has a strong and well-defined motivation to learnB. who seeks out all chances to interact with the inputC. who is willing to identify himself with the culture of the target language communityD. all the aboveII. Define the following terms (6x5)Directions: You are supposed to write each of the following definitions in the corresponding space.1. productivity2. context3. sentence and utterance4. regional dialect and sociolect5. psycholinguistics6. interlanguageIll. Decide whether the statements are true or false (10x1)Directions: You are supposed to put your answer T (true) or F (false) for each sentence into the corresponding space in the TABLE.1. A sentence cannot be a word or a fragment in strict sense, but an utterance can be a word or a fragment of a sentence.2. A stem first of all refers to any morpheme or combination of morphemes, but an affix can be added to it.3. Every word in a language can find at least one referent in the objective world.4. In most cases, lexicon means vocabulary and is related to the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.5. The use of the term 'implicature' is different from 'implication' in that it usually indicates a rather narrowly denned logical relationship between two propositions.6. The defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication are termed design features.7. There are other channels, besides language, for communicating our thoughts, so language is only one aspect of semiotics.8. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, written language as secondary.9. Descriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for 'correct' language use, ., to tell people what they should say and what should not say.10. Phonology is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and their patterns.IV. Answer the following questions (4x10).Directions: You are supposed to answer each of the following questions in the corresponding space.1. What are the possible causes of language change2. Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence to show its syntactic structure They knew that the senator would win the election.3. What is arbitrariness Illustrate it with examples4. What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Give examples or proof to support your point of view. ^。
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Ｍａｒ．２００６，Ｖｏｌｕｍｅ ３，Ｎｏ．３（Ｓｅｒｉａｌ Ｎｏ．２７） Ｓｉｎｏ－ＵＳ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ Ｔｅａｃｈｉｎｇ，ＩＳＳＮ１５３９－８０７２＇ＵＳＡ Ａ Ｃｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅ Ｓｔｕｄｙ ｏｆ Ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ Ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｂｙ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ Ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ ａｎｄ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ Ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ
Ｈｕａ Ｙａｎｇ’Ｂｅｏｉｎｇ Ｉｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌ Ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ：Ｂａｓｅｄ ｏｎ ａ ｃｏｒｐｕｓ ｏｆ １ ０ ｔｅｘｔｓ ｉｎ ｍａｔｅｒｉａｌ ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ，ｔｈｉｓ ｐａｐｅｒ ｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｓ ｔｈｅ ｕｓｅ ｏｆ ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｂｏｔｈ ｂｙ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ａｎｄ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ．Ｔｈｅ ｒｅｓｕｌｔ ｓｈｏｗｓ ｔｈａｔ ｔｈｅｒｅ ａｒｅ ｓｉｍｉｌａｒｉｔｉｅｓ ａｓ ｗｅｌｌ ａｓ ｄｉｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｓ ｉｎ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｃｙ ａｎｄ ｄｉｓｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｔｈｅ ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ ｂｙ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ ａｎｄ ｎａｔｉｖｅ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ．Ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ ｗｒｉｔｔｅｎ ｂｙ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ ｔｅｎｄ ｔｏ ｂｅ ｍｏｒｅ ｄｉｒｅｃｔ ａｎｄ ａｕｔｈｏｒｉｔａｔｉｖｅ ｉｎ ｔｏｎｅ ａｓ ａ ｒｅｓｕｌｔ ｏｆｈｉｇｈｅｒ ｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｃｙ ｏｆａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｏｒｓ ａｎｄ ｌｏｗｅｒ ｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｃｙ ｏｆｐｌａｕｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ ｓｈｉｅｌｄｓ． Ｋｅｙ ｗｏｒｄｓ：ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ ｓｈｉｅｌｄ ｐｌａｕｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ ｓｈｉｅｌｄ ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｏｒｓ
１．ＩｎｔｒＯｄｕｃｔｉＯｎ Ｔｈｅ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｐｈｅｎｏｍｅｎｏｎ ｈａｓ ｂｅｅｎ ｅｘｔｅｎｓｉｖｅｌｙ ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅｄ；ｆｒｏｍ ｉｔｓ ｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎ ｂｙ Ｌａｋｏｆｆ（１ ９７２），ｔｏ ｔｈｅ ｓｔｕｄｙ ｏｆｖａｒｉｏｕｓ ｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃ ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ（Ｗｕ，１９９９）；ｆｒｏｍ ｉｔｓ ｕｓｅ ｉｎ ｃａｓｕａｌ ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ（Ａｉｊｍｅｒ，１９８４；Ｈｏｌｍｅｓ，１９８６） ｔｏ ｉｔｓ ａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎ ｉｎ ｗｒｉｔｔｅｎ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ，ａｎｄ ｍａｎｙ ｏｔｈｅｒ ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ（ＲＡｓ），ｊｕｓｔ ｔｏ ｌｉｓｔ ａ ｆｅｗ．Ｔｈｕｓ，ｔｈｅ ｏｒｉｇｉｎ ａｎｄ ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｐｈｅｎｏｍｅｎｏｎ ａｎｄ ｉｔｓ ｒｏｌｅ ａｓ ｉｎｄｉｓｐｅｎｓａｂｌｅ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ ｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓ ａｒｅ ｂｅｃｏｍｉｎｇ ｃｌｅａｒ． Ｔｈｅ ｊｕｓｔｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｉｔｓ ａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎ ｉｎ ＲＡｓ ｈａｓ ｂｅｅｎ ｗｉｄｅｌｙ ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｚｅｄ，ｉ．ｅ，，ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｎｃｅ ｈａｓ ｂｅｃｏｍｅ ａｎ ｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｅｄ ｐａｒｔ ｏｆ ｇｅｎｅｒａｌ ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ ｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｎｃｅ．Ｗｈｅｔｈｅｒ ｔｈｅ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ ｏｆ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ＲＡｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈ ａｒｅ ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｉｎｇｌｙ ｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｔ ｔｏ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓ ａｔ ａ ｔｉｍｅ ｏｆ ｇｌｏｂａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ ａｎｄ ｉｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌ ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ，ｍｅｅｔ ｉｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌ ｓｔａｎｄａｒｄ ｉｎ ｔｈｅｉｒ ｕｓｅ ｏｆ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｉｎ ｔｈｅｉｒ ＲＡｓ，ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｈａｓ ｎｏｔ ｂｅｅｎ ｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃａｌｌｙ ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅｄ．Ｔｈｉｓ ｐａｐｅｒ ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓ ａｎ ｅｍｐｉｒｉｃａｌ ａｃｃｏｕｎｔ ｏｆ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ’ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｂａｓｅｄ ｏｎ ａ ｃｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅ ｓｔｕｄｙ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ（ＣＷｓ）ａｎｄ ｎａｔｉｖｅ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ（ＥＷｓ）．Ｉｔ ａｉｍｓ ｔｏ ｄｅｔｅｒｎｆｉｎｅ ｔｈｅ ｓｉｍｉｌａｒｉｔｉｅｓ ａｎｄ ｄｉｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｓ ｉｎ ｔｈｅｉｒ ｕｓｅ ｏｆ ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ，ａｎｄ ｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｅ ｔｈｅ ｆａｃｔｏｒｓ ｂｅｈｉｎｄ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ’ｉｎａｄｅｑｕａｃｙ ｉｎ ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ， ｉｎ ｔｌ１ｅ ｈｏｐｅｓ ｏｆ ｉｍｐｒｏｖｉｎｇ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓ’ａｃａｄｅｍｉｃ ｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ ｉｎ ｔｈｉｓ ｒｅｓｐｅｃｔ．
２．Ｍｅｔｈｏｄｏｌｏｇｙ ２．１ Ｃｏｒｐｕｓ—ｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｏｎ Ｔｅｎ ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ ｉｎ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｗｅｒｅ ｃｏｌｌｅｃｔｅｄ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｆｉｅｌｄ ｏｆ ｍａｔｅｒｉａｌ ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ．Ｃｏｌｌｅｃｔｉｎｇ ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ
ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｓａｍｅ ｆｉｅｌｄ ｍｉｎｉｍｉｚｅｓ ｔｈｅ ｖａｒｉｅｔｉｅｓ ｆｏｕｎｄ ｉｎ ｄｉｆｅｒｅｎｔ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ ｉｎ ａｃａｄｅｍｉｃ ｆｉｅｌｄｓ．Ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｔｅｎ
ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ，ｆｉｖｅ ｗｅｒｅ ｗｒｉｔｔｅｎ ｂｙ ｎａｔｉｖｅ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｗｒｉｔｅｒｓ ａｎｄ ｆｉｖｅ ｂｙ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ．Ｔｈｅｓｅ ａｒｅ ｄｉｖｉｄｅｄ ｉｎｔｏ ｔｗｏ ｇｒｏｕｐｓ：Ｅ ａｎｄ Ｃ，ｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ ｆｏｒ ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ ｏｆ ＥＷｓ ａｎｄ ＣＷｓ ｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙ． ２．２ Ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｚａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇｓ Ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ ｔｏ Ｐｒｉｎｃｅ ｅｔ ａ１．（Ｚｈａｎｇ，１ ９９８），ｈｅｄｇｉｎｇ ｆａｌｌｓ ｉｎｔｏ ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｏｒｓ ａｎｄ ｓｈｉｅｌｄｓ．Ｔｈｅ ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎ
’Ｈｕａ Ｙａｎｇ（１９７６－），ｆｅｍａｌｅ，Ｍ．Ａ．，ｌｅｃｔｕｒｅｒ ｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ Ｔｅａｃｈｉｎｇ Ｄｅｐａｒｔｍｅｎｔ．Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ Ｉｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌ Ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ；Ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ ｆｉｅｌｄ： ａｐｐｌｉｅｄ ｌｉｎ．ｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ；Ａｄｄｒｅｓｓ：１ ９Ｆ，Ｂｕｉｌｄｉｎｇ １ ５，Ｘｉｎｇｌｏｎｇ Ｊｉａｙｕａｎ，Ｎｏ．２９，Ｊｉａｎｇｕｏ Ｒｏａｄ，Ｃｈａｏｙａｎｇ Ｄｉｓｔｒｉｃｔ，Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ， Ｒ．Ｃｈｉｎａ； Ｐ
ｏｓｔｃｏｄｅ：ｌ ０００２５． ’
维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com ＡＣｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅＳｔｕｄｙ ｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃＨｅｄｇｉｎｇｂｙＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＷｒｉ ｔｅｒ．．．ｓａｎ．．．．ｄＥｎｇ．．．．１．．ｉ．．ｓ．．．ｈ．．．．．Ｗ．．．．．．．．ｒ．．．ｉ．．ｔ．．ｅ．．．ｒ——ｓ
ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｏｒ ａｎｄ ｓｈｉｅｌｄ ｉｓ，ｔｈｅ ｆｏｒｍｅｒ ｉｓ ｒｅｌａｔｅｄ ｔｏ ｔｒｕｔｈ—ｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌ ｓｅｍａｎｔｉｃｓ ｗｈｉｌｅ ｔｈｅ ｌａｔｔｅｒ ｒｅｌａｔｅｓ ｔｏ ｎｏｎ．ｔｒｕｔｈ ｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌ ｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃｓ．Ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｏｒｓ，ｈｅｄｇｅｓ ｌｉｋｅ“ａｂｏｕｔ，ｓｅｖｅｒａｌ，ｇｅｎｅｒａｌｌｙ，ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｅｌｙ’’ｃｈａｎｇｅ ｔｈｅ ｔｒｕｔｈ ｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ａ ｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ．Ｆｏｒ ｅｘａｍｐｌｅ， （１）Ｆｏｒ ＤＳＣ ｗｏｒｋ，ｐａｉｒｓ ｏｆ ｓａｍｐｌｅｓ ｏｆ ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｅｌｙ “Ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｅｌｙ”ｉｎ ｔｈｉｓ ｓｅｎｔｅｎｃｅ ｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓ ｔｈａｔ ｔｈｅ ｔｈｅ ｓａｍｅ ｍａｓｓ ｗｅｒｅ ｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄ．（Ｅ４）
ｅｘａｃｔ ｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ ｉｓ ｎｏｔ ａｎ“ｉｄｅａｌ”ｏｎｅ．Ｄｅｌｅｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｔｈｉｓ ｈｅｄｇｅ ｗｉｌｌ ｃｈａｎｇｅ ｔｈｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒ’ｓ ｉｎｔｅｎｄｅｄ ｍｅａｎｉｎｇ ａｎｄ ｔｈｕｓ ｆａｉｌ ｔｏ ｇｉｖｅ ａ ｔｒｕｅ ｒｅｃｏｒｄ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｒｅａｌ ｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ． Ｕｓｉｎｇ ａ ｓｈｉｅｌｄ ｉｎ ａ ｔｅｘｔ ｉｍｐｌｉｅｓ ｔｈａｔ“ｔｈｅ ｓｐｅａｋｅｒ ｉｓ ｌｅｓｓ ｔｈａｎ ｆｕｌｌｙ ｃｏｍｍｉｔｔｅｄ，ｏｒ ｃｏｍｍｉｔｔｅｄ ｉｎ ｓｏｍｅ ｍａｒｋｅｄ ｗａｙ ｔｏ ｔｈｅ ｔｒｕｔｈ ｏｆ ａ ｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ”（Ｚｈａｎｇ，１ ９９８）． Ｐｒｉｎｃｅ ｅｔ ａｌ ｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｙ ｔｗｏ ｔｙｐｅｓ ｏｆ ｓｈｉｅｌｄｓ：ｐｌａｕｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ ａｎｄ ａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ（Ｚｈａｎｇ，１ ９９８）．Ｐｌａｕｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ ｓｈｉｅｌｄｓ ｓｉｍｐｌｙ ｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅ ｔｈｅ ｓｐｅａｋｅｒ’ｓ ｌａｃｋ ｏｆ ｃｅｒｔａｉｎｔｙ ａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｄｅｇｒｅｅ ｏｆ ｔｅｎｔａｔｉｖｅｎｅｓｓ ａｎｄ ｔｈｅｙ ｓｅｒｖｅ ｔｏ ｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅ ｔｈｅ ｗｒｉｔｅｒ ｆｒｏｍ ｔｈｅ ｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ．Ｆｏｒ ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ， （２）！！ｉ 乜Ｑ ！曼ｔｈａｔ ｓｉｎｃｅ ｉｎｔｅｒｌａｍｅｌｌａｒ ｓｐａｃｉｎｇ ｉｓ ｓｏ ｆｉｎｅ，ｔｈｅ ｍｅａｓｕｒｅｄ ｆｅｒｒｉｔｅ ｃａｒｂｏｎ ｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｍａｙ ｂｅ
ａｆｆｅｃｔｅｄ ｂｙ…．（Ｅ４） Ａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ ｓｈｉｅｌｄｓ ｈａｖｅ ａ ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎ，ｉｍｐｌｙｉｎｇ ｔｈａｔ ｔｈｅ‘＇ｂｅｌｉｅｆ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｔｒｕｔｈ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ
ｃｏｎｖｅｙｅｄ ｉｓ ｔｏ ｂｅ ａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｄ ｔｏ ａｎｏｔｈｅｒ．Ａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ ｓｈｉｅｌｄｓ ｃａｎ ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒ ｔｈｅ ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ ｆｏｒ ｔｈｅ ｔｒｕｔｈ ｏｆ ａ ｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ ｔｏ ｑｕｏｔｅｄ ｐｅｒｓｏｎ（３），ｔｏ ｔｈｅ ｌｉｍｉｔａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｍｅｔｈｏｄ，ｔｈｅｏｒｙ，ｏｒ ｅｘｐｅｒｉｍｅｎｔａｌ ｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓ（４）． （３） Ｓｈａｎｇｇ 垒 垦！鱼ｌ［２ ］§ Ｑ 星 ｔｈａｔ ｗｈｅｎ ｔｈｅ ｔｈｅｒｍａｌ ｃｏｎｄｕｃｔｉｖｉｔｙ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｐａｒｔｉｃｌｅ ｉｓ ｇｒｅａｔｅｒ ｔｈａｎ ｔｈｅ ｍｅｌｔ， ｔｈｅ ｓｈａｐｅ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｉｎｔｅｒｆａｃｅ ｂｅｈｉｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｐａｒｔｉｃｌｅ ｉｓ ｃｏｎｃａｖｅ．（Ｅ １） （４） Ｕｎｄｅｒ—ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｄ—ｉｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｄｉｆｆｕｓｉｏｎ．ｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｌｅｄ ｇｒｏｗｔｈ，ｔｈｅ ｇｒｏｗｔｈ ｏｆ ＴｉＦｅ ｐａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ ｃａｎ ｂｅ ｒｏｕｇｈｌｙ ｅｓｔｉｍａｔｅｄ ｆｒｏｍ ｔｈｅ ｄｉｆｆｕｓｉｏｎ ｃｏｅｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔ．（Ｃ２） ２．３ Ａｓｓｕｍｐｔｉｏｎｓ Ｔｈｅ ａｓｓｕｍｐｔｉｏｎｓ ａｒｅ：（１）ＣＷｓ ｈｅｄｇｅ ｌｅｓｓ ｉｎ ｑｕａｎｔｉｔｙ ａｎｄ ｌｅｓｓ ｉｎ ｖａｒｉｅｔｙ ｔｈａｎ ＥＷｓ，ａｎｄ（２）ＣＷｓ’ａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ ａｒｅ