6 Linguistics and foreign language teaching
(完整版)《英语教学法》unit_1_language_and_learning
III. Views on language learning
1) What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive process involved in language learning ?
2) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning process to be activated ?
English teaching arning
A common question asked by middle school students:
Is there any shortcut in English learning?
The answer:
If they think English is a communication tool, then they will try to teach the functional sentences, such as “Hello.” “How do you do.” “Good bye!” when greeting people; or sentences for going shopping.
Four theories of language learning:
Behaviourist theory Cognitive theory Constructivist theory Socio-constructivist theory
Behaviourist theory :
Proposed by behavioural psychologist Skinner, he suggested that language is also a form behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviourism. One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves the “ listen and repeat ” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes are immediately corrected, and correct utterances are immediately praised
英语教学法流派Approaches-and-Methods-in-Language--Teachin
2. 教授新词：教师课前将本课新词的英语、音标和汉语 解释写在小黑板上（或卡片上）。上课时按单词表逐 字讲解。学生跟教师朗读英语单词后，教师说汉语， 学生说英语单词，或反之。
3. 讲授语法（规则动词现在进行时）：教师讲解动词现 代进行时的意义及其变化规则后，在黑板上写出课文 中的动词原形，要求学生将它们转换成现在分词，再 变成现在进行时。
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Grammar was taught inductively.
4. New teaching points were introduced orally.
5. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
Audiolingual Approach Community Language Learning
Humanistic Approach Total Physical Response
The Silent Way Suggestopedia
Development of Communicative Approach:
语言学研究与外语教学研究的关系漳州师院PPT课件
• 语境（context）和上下文本（co-text）信息。语境指语言使用的情景环境，上下文本指语言环境。 有时我们很难区分两个意义相似的词或短语，但是，通过观察使用它们的语境和上下文就会发现差异 所在。
• 语法信息。我们通常会在语法书上查阅语法信息，但是语料库所展现的远比语法书上描述的语法复杂 得多。
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• 从语言学的角度来看，真实和非真实的语言 输入有什么不同？
• 假设i＋1的输入是可取的，我们怎么能够 保证语言输入材料是i+1而不是i＋0或者是i ＋2？有没有可靠的语言学标准来判定语言 输入“略微高于学习者的现有水平（不多也 不少）？
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• 处于学习过程的二语或外语学习者构建的语言通常被称为中介语。针对中介语 的语言特征，以下问题值得研究：
一、引言
• 个人观察和体会：语言学研究与语言教学研究脱节：
• 大多数语言学研究者主要关注语言本体的研究，不关心语言 教学问题，少数人甚至看不起语言教学研究；
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• 一些语言教学研究者则认为语言学研究对语言教学研究没有 指导作用，他们不注重语言学研究成果对语言教学研究可能 具有的启示。相当多的语言教师和语言教学研究者没有语言 学基础（背景）；
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• 再比如：语言学有利于帮助我们理解一些语言 教师难解释的问题。如果要对Mary fell from the bike.中的划线部分提问时，要说What happened to Mary?，而不能说What did Mary do。根据语言学理论就很好解释了，因 为fell from the bike不是某人主观上要做的 动作，所以不能用do来提问。
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中西禁忌语对比分析
- 211 -校园英语 / 中西禁忌语对比分析桂林理工大学外国语学院/马路【摘要】禁忌语是日常交流过程中普遍存在的语言现象。
在中西不同的文化背景下，禁忌语也会有所不同。
本文通过对中西禁忌语异同进行对比分析，帮助人们在以后的文化交流中避免尴尬，保证跨文化交际能够顺利进行。
【关键词】禁忌语 文化差异 交际一、引言语言不仅是文化的载体，同时也是文化的一部分。
中西不同的文化背景决定了它们的禁忌语会有差异。
在双方交际过程中，由于不了解对方的禁忌语，在言语的使用上，难免会出现失误。
而中西双方受不同的宗教信仰、政治体系、民族文化和风俗习惯等的影响，会造成相同事物的不同禁忌范围或者不同事物的相同的禁忌范围。
随着中西交流的不断加强，对双方禁忌语的了解显得尤为重要，这样不但可以提高学者的跨文化交际意识，而且还可以对英语教学有启发意义，从而保证跨文化交际能够顺利、有效地进行。
二、中西禁忌语的相同之处虽然中西双方的文化背景不同，但是在一些表达上体现着相同的禁忌，而这些禁忌语主要体现在以下几个方面：1.宗教信仰的禁忌。
无论是在西方还是在中国，对宗教信仰上的禁忌都会尤为重视。
在西方国家，基督教徒不可随意使用上帝(God)或者上帝(Jehovah)的名字，他们认为这是对上帝的不尊重。
不仅要避免对上帝的不敬，同时在提及魔鬼的时候也有禁忌。
他们认为提到魔鬼会给他们带来厄运，所以会使用其他的词如“the deuce ，the dickens ，Old Nick ”等来替代“the Devil ”这个禁忌语。
中国在宗教信仰上的禁忌也很多，对自己信奉的神仙不可亵渎。
信仰佛教和道教的人不可胡说、乱说。
对于那些要想把菩萨神像放在家里信奉的人，他们会说“请菩萨”，不会说“买菩萨”。
在中西文化中，宗教上的信仰和神灵的信奉使人们对亵渎神灵的词语会有所禁忌。
2.辱骂性词语的禁忌。
在中西方交际过程中，辱骂性词语是被禁忌的。
这些词语过于粗鄙，会使人感到不快。
linguistics
Use of linguistics
1. Sociolinguistics: the study of relationship between
language and society
2. Psycholinguistics: the study of the relationship
Noam Chomsky • Birth: 1928.12.7 • Main interests： Linguistics Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind • Notable ideas： Generative grammar, universal grammar
In the late 1960s-1970s, semantics became a separate discipline.
Trend of modern linguistic development
2. Linguistics studies not only language system, but also speech activities & speech mechanism Structural linguistics: language system is the only object of linguistic study Speech activities: speaking & writing (constructing utterances) and listening and reading (understanding utterances) Speech mechanism: how people construct and understand utterances
「当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库」详细书单，你读过几本？丨语言学午餐
「当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库」详细书单，你读过几本？丨语言学午餐近年来，研究语言学和应用语言学的人多了；开设这方面专业的高校也多了，语言学硕士生和博士生也多了。
就是不以此为专业，学习语言学和应用语言学的也不乏其人。
为了给从事这个专业的师生提供便利，同时又帮助一般外语教师、涉外工作者以及汉语研究者开阔思路，扩大视野，提高效率，外研社献上了一套内容崭新而丰富的丛书——英文版《当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库》。
它覆盖了语言学与应用语言学26个分支学科。
这批书是各地有关专家教授反复研究之后精选出来的。
出版这样大规模的语言学与应用语言学丛书，这在我国语言学界和外语教学界是破天荒第一次。
详细目录：The Handbook of Linguistics语言学综览 72.90元Linguistic Theory: The Discourse of Fundamental Works语言学理论:对基要原著的语篇研究 37.90元Language语言论 49.90An Introduction to Linguistics语言学入门 19.90元Linguistics: An Introduction语言学教程 38.90元General Linguistics Fourth edition普通语言学概论 41.90元Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech语言论:言语研究导论 19.90元Course in General Linguistics普通语言学教程 24.90 元The Study of Language Second edition语言研究 28.90元Tone Sandhi: Patterns across Chinese Dialects汉语方言的连读变调模式 49.90元An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology Second edition 语音学与音系学入门 38.90 元Gimson's Pronunciation of English Sixth edition吉姆森英语语音教程 33.90 元Understanding Phonology音系学通解 28.90 元Optimality Theory优选论 42.90 元English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course Second edition英语语音学与音系学实用教程 25.90 元The Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic Theory当代句法理论通览 76.90 元Knowledge of Language: Its Nature， Origin， and Use语言知识:其性质，来源及使用 29.90元Chomsky's Universal Grammar: An Introduction Second edition乔姆斯基的普遍语法教程 34.90 元Introducing Transformational Grammar: From Principles and Parameters to Minimalism Second edition转换生成语法导论:从原则参数到最简方案 43.90元Syntax: A Minimalist Introduction句法学:最简方案导论 26.90 元Transformational Grammar: A First Course转换生成语法教程 56.90 元Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals乔姆斯基: 思想与理想 25.90元The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory当代语义理论指南 61.90 元Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction语义学引论 35.90 元Semantics语义学 34.90 元Morphology Second edition形态学 23.90 元The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and CognitiveApproach汉语形态学: 语言认知研究法 31.90元Pragmatics: An Introduction Second edition语用学引论 35.90元Pragmatics语用学 38.90 元Pragmatics语用学 13.90 元Relevance: Communication and Cognition Second edition 关联性:交际与认知 31.90元Understanding Pragmatics语用学新解 28.90元Discourse Analysis话语分析 27.90元An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory & Method 话语分析入门:理论与方法 17.90元How to Do Things with Words Second edition如何以言行事 18.90元Studies in the Way of Words言辞用法研究 36.90元Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language言语行为:语言哲学论 19.90元Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts表述和意义: 言语行为研究 21.90元The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution言语的萌发:语言起源与进化 28.90元A Short History of Linguistics Fourth edition语言学简史 27.90元Modern Lexicography: An Introduction现代词典学入门 26.90元English Dictionaries for Foreign Learners: A History英语学习词典史 22.90元Dictionary of Lexicography词典学词典 16.90元A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry英诗学习指南:语言学的分析方法 24.90元Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose小说文体论:英语小说的语言学入门 37.90元Patterns in Language: Stylistics for Students of Language and Literature语言模式:文体学入门 24.90元Stylistics: A Practical Coursebook实用文体学教程 22.90元Typology and Universals语言类型学与普遍语法特征 28.90元Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction 人类语言学入门 45.90元The Handbook of Socialinguistics社会语言学通览 46.90 元English as a Global Language英语:全球通用语 15.90 元The Sociolinguistics of Language社会语言学 32.90元Sociolinguistics Second edition社会语言学教程 24.90元Introduction to Sociolinguistics Third edition社会语言学引论 34.90元The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics Fourth edition会说话的哺乳动物:心理语言学入门 29.90元Psychology of Language Third edition语言心理学 41.90元Communication Between Cultures Second edition跨文化交际 28.90元Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach跨文化交际:语篇分析法 25.90元In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation换言之:翻译教程 27.90元Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践 28.90元Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory Second edition语言的范畴化:语言学理论中的类典型 31.90元An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学入门 31.90元The Functional Analysis of English: A Hallidayan Approach 英语的功能分析:韩礼德模式 27.90元An Introduction to Functional Grammar Second edition功能语法导论 41.90元Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning作为社会符号的语言:从社会角度诠释语言与意义 24.90元Cohesion in English英语的衔接 35.90元Introducing Functional Grammar功能语法入门 25.90元Historical Linguistics: An Introduction Third edition 历史语言学导论 33.90元Historical Linguistics历史语言学 41.90元Corpus Linguistics语料库语言学 27.90元An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics语料库语言学入门 28.90元Statistics in Language Studies语言研究中的统计学 29.90元A History of the English Language Fourth edition英语史 41.90元From Old English to Standard English Second edition 英语史:从古代英语到标准英语 42.90元An Introduction to Child Language Development儿童语言发展引论 22.90元Language Acquisition: A Linguistic Introduction从语言学的角度看语言习得 22.90元Child Language New edition儿童语言 13.90元Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language 学习和运用第二语言的策略 28.90元Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition语言学和第二语言习得 28.90元Second Language Learning and Language Teaching Second edition第二语言学习与教学 22.90元Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis语言学习和语言使用中的错误:错误分析探讨 29.90元An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research 第二语言习得研究概况 36.90元Second Language Teaching and Learning第二语言教与学 31.90元Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL ClassroomESL/EFL英语课堂上的学习风格 26.90元Principles of Language Learning and T eaching Third edition 语言学习与语言教学的原则 32.90元Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy根据原理教学:交互式语言教学 42.90元The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development语言教学大纲要素:课程设计系统法 25.90元How to Teach English怎样教英语 19.90元Vocabulary， Semantics and Language Education词汇，语义学和语言教育 42.90元An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching 外语学习与教学导论 31.90元Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching语言教学的流派 16.90元International English Third edition英语:国际通用语 16.90元A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory语言教学教程:实践与理论 33.90元Research Methods for English Language Teachers英语教学科研方法 26.90元Form and Style: Research Papers， Reports and Theses Tenthedition如何写研究论文与学术报告 26.90元Using Corpora for Language Research用语料库研究语言 28.90元Projects in Linguistics: A Practical Guide to Researching Language语言学课题:语言研究实用指南 29.90元Language Test Construction and Evaluation语言测试的设计与评估 27.90元Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing Research第二语言习得与语言测试研究的接口 19.90元Dictionary of Language Testing语言测试词典 25.90元A Guide to Language Testing: Development， Evaluation and Research语言测试指南:发展，评估与研究 19.90元Writing English Language Tests New edition英语测试 19.90元Assessment and Testing: A Survey of Research评估与测试:研究综述 26.90元Academic Writing 学术写作About Language: A Reader for Writers Fifth edition谈语言:写作读本 34.90元Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching语言教学课程设计原理 19.90元Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English朗文英语口语和笔语语法 99.90元Grammaticalization语法化学说 26.90元Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics语言与语言学辞典 46.90元The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language Second edition剑桥语言百科全书 79.00元Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching应用语言学百科词典:语言教学手册 36.90元Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典(英英· 英汉双解) 44.90元。
Linguistics-an introduction 语言学教程
School of Foreign Languages Hainan University
• And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. Bible Genesis
• Then when we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the “human essence,” the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know unique to man. Noam Chomsky Language & Mind
• Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Sapir (1884-1939) Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Course in General Linguistics
外国语言学及应用语言学和英语语言文学难度
外国语言学及应用语言学和英语语言文学难度《外国语言学及应用语言学和英语语言文学难度之剖析》一、难度分析（一）外国语言学及应用语言学从某种意义上说，外国语言学及应用语言学就像是一片神秘而广袤的森林。
对于初学者而言，这片森林充满了未知和挑战。
它涉及到众多的语言理论，这些理论犹如森林里形态各异的树木，每一棵都有着复杂的根系和枝桠。
例如语音学理论，那可真是个让人头疼的东西，各种发音规则、语音现象就像树上密密麻麻的树叶，你以为你看明白了一片，结果转头又被另一片弄得晕头转向。
哎呀，这可不像在公园里散步那么轻松惬意！学习这门学科就像是在森林里探险，一不小心就会迷失方向。
从英语的角度看，应用语言学又与实际应用紧密相连。
你得把那些理论运用到实际的语言教学、语言测试等方面。
这就好比你在森林里找到了木材，还得把它加工成精美的家具一样困难。
你要考虑到各种使用者的需求，就像考虑不同客户对家具的喜好一样。
这其中的变数可太多了，难道不是吗？（二）英语语言文学英语语言文学呢，更像是一场绚丽多彩却又复杂无比的戏剧。
它涵盖了从古老的英语文学作品到现代的文学流派，就像戏剧里不同的幕和场景一样。
那些古老的作品，像是用一种古老的密码写成的，你得像侦探一样去破解其中的含义。
比如乔叟的《坎特伯雷故事集》，里面的古英语就像是隐藏在重重迷雾中的宝藏，要找到它的价值可不容易。
而且，文学分析就像解读戏剧中的角色一样，你得深入到作品的灵魂深处。
你要理解作者的意图，就如同理解演员在舞台上的每一个动作背后的含义。
这不仅需要对英语语言有深刻的理解，还需要对历史、文化等诸多方面有所涉猎。
这难道不会让你感到压力山大吗？二、英语解释（一）Foreign Linguistics and Applied LinguisticsForeign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics is a complex discipline. It involves a great deal of theoretical knowledge. Just like exploring an unknown forest, when you study it, you will encounter various language theories. For example, in phonetics theory, there are numerous pronunciation rules and phonetic phenomena, which are difficult to master completely. And in applied linguistics related to English, it is closely connected with practical applications such as language teaching and language testing. It requires us to consider different users' needs, which is full of challenges.（二）English Language and LiteratureEnglish Language and Literature is like a magnificent but complicated drama. It includes a wide range of literary works from ancient to modern. Old English literary works are like treasures hidden in the mist. We need toanalyze them like detectives to understand their meanings. And literary analysis requires us to understand the author's intention deeply, which demands a profound understanding of the English language as well as knowledge of history, culture and so on.三、运用情况及例子（一）在学术研究领域1. 当研究语言习得理论时，就会涉及外国语言学及应用语言学。
现代语言学_自考本科00830
Chapter 1——1
Some important distinctions in linguistics
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
Competence and performance
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
Chapter 1——2
What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.
modern_linguistic自考现代语言学
第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?∙什么是语言学？∙Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics∙语言学的研究范畴∙The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)∙The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. [fəˈnetɪks]（语音学）∙ The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. [fəu ˈnɔlədʒi] （音系学）∙ The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. [mɔ:ˈfɔlədʒi]（形态学）∙ The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. [ˈs ɪnˈtæks]（句法学）∙ The study of meaning in language is called semantics. [sɪˈmæntɪks]（语义学）∙ The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. [præɡˈmætiks]（语用学）∙ The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）∙ The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）∙The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）∙But in a narrow([ˈnærəu] adj. 狭隘的；狭窄的；) sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.∙Other related branches include anthropological([ˈænθrəpəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] adj. 人类学的) linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological [ˈnjʊərəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational [ˈkɔmpju(:)ˈteiʃ(ə)n(ə)l] linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics∙语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive [priˈskriptiv] and descriptive [dɪˈskrɪptɪv]∙描写与规定∙If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.∙Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.∙Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.∙The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic [siŋˈkrɔnik] and diachronic [ˈdaiəˈkrɔnik]∙共时和历时∙The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing∙口头语与书面语∙Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.∙Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. ∙Reasons:∙1. Speech precedes([ˈpriˈsi:d] vt.& vi.在……之前发生或出现，先于；在……之上，优于；给……作序；处于……前面的位置) writing;∙2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;∙3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load ([ləud] n. 负荷；负担；装载；工作量)of communication than the written.Langue [lɑ:ŋɡ] and parole [pə'rəul]∙语言和言语∙The Swiss linguist( [ˈlɪŋgwɪst] n.通晓数国语言的人；语言学家)F. de Saussure made thedistinction between langue and parole early 20th century.∙Langue refers to the abstract ([ˈæbstrækt] adj. 抽象的，理论上的)linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community( [kəˈmju:niti] n. 社区；社会团体；共同体；[生态] 群落), and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.∙Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用∙Competence( [ˈkɔmpitəns] n.能力；技能；相当的资产)and performance∙Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.∙He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify( [ˈspesifai] v.指定；详述；提出…的条件；使具有特性)the language rules.4/ What is language?∙语言的定义∙Language is a system of arbitrary([ˈɑ:bitrəri] adj.随意的，任性的，随心所欲的;主观的，武断的；霸道的，专制的，专横的，独断独行的)vocal( [ˈvəukəl] adj. 声音的，嗓音的；由嗓音发出或产生的；有声音的，能发出声音或语言的；畅所欲言的n.元音；[音乐]声乐作品)symbols used for human communication.∙Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition.∙Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.(purely [ˈpjʊəlɪ] adv.完全地，十足地；纯粹地；纯洁地，贞淑地) (institution[ˈɪnstiˈtju:ʃən] n.（大学、银行等规模大的）机构；惯例，制度，规定，建立；社会事业机构；<口>名人，名物)∙Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features∙语言的甄别性特征∙Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communication.∙American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.1) Arbitrariness [ˈɑ:bitrərinis]n.∙任意性（和约定俗成性）∙ It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.∙For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example.( instance [ˈinstəns] n. 例子，实例；情况；要求，建议；[法]诉讼手续vt.举…为例)∙Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely ([enˈtaɪəli:] adv.完全地，彻底地)arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation( [ˈɪmiˈteiʃən] n. 模仿，仿效；仿制品；赝品；[生]拟态)of sounds by sounds are motivated [ˈməʊtɪveɪtɪd] adj. 有动机的，有目的的；有积极性的v. 作为…的动机，激发，诱发（motivate的过去式和过去分词）in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source [sɔ:s] n. 根源，本源；源头，水源；of expressions.2) Productivity( [ˈprɔdʌkˈtiviti] n.生产率，生产力；[经济学] 生产率；[生态学]生产率)∙能产性∙Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation( [ˈɪntə:priˈteiʃən] n.解释，说明；翻译；表演，演绎；理解)of an infinitely [ˈɪnf ɪnɪtlɪ]adv.无限地,无穷地；极其large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality ([dju(:)ˈæliti] n.二元性)∙结构二重性∙It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation([ɑ:ˈtikjuˈleiʃən] n. 清晰度，咬合，关节；发音；接合) of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) Displacement∙语言的移位性（突破时空性）∙It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary([iˈmædʒinəri] adj. 想像中的，假想的，虚构的；[数]虚数的；幻；虚幻) world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate([iˈmi:diət] adj. 立即的；直接的，最接近的；目前的，当前的；直觉的) situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission∙文化传播性∙While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically ([dʒe'netikəli] adv. 创始；遗传学；生殖；基因)transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew([əˈnu:, əˈnju:] adv. 再，重新).Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic([ˈfəunik] adj. 声音的，有声的，声学的) medium of language∙语言的声音媒介∙Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles([ˈvi:ɪklz] n. 运载工具；传播媒介；车辆；传播媒介；手段) for communication.∙Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior([ˈpraiə] adj. 优先的；占先的；在……之前) to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech whe n the need arises(arise [əˈraiz] vi.& vt. 产生；出现；起身，起立；起源于，产生于).∙For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.∙The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .∙The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics([fəˈnetɪks] n. 语音（学）；发音学；语音学)?∙什么是语音学？∙Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all thesounds that occur([əˈkə:] vi. 发生；出现；闪现) in the world’s languages.∙语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
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6 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 6.1 Terminology术语 Approach, method, technique and material First language, second language and foreign language TESL and TEFL 6.2 Historical Perspectives历史回顾 Psycholinguistic and linguistic theories and foreign language teaching心理语言学、语言学理论与外语教学 From the Renaissance to the beginning of the nineteenth century文艺复兴时期 (1) The grammar-translation method(18th -19th century)语法翻译法 Three key axioms （which typify the approach of the early modern linguist the end of 19th century)语言教学三原则 1) Language is a system. 2) Language is speech. 3) Language is conventional. (2) Natural methods and the direct method (the late 19th century)自然教学法、直接教学法 (3) The reading approach (1920-1940) 阅读教学法 (4) Oral Approach/Situational Language Teaching (1940-1960)口语法、情景教学法 (5) The American approach: the Oral Approach, the Aural-Oral Approach, and the Structural Approach (1940-1960)口语法、听说法、句子结构法 Five slogans (Moulton 1961) 1) Language is speech, not writing. 2) A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say. 3) Languages are different. 4) A language is a set of habits. 5) Teach the language, not about the language. Contrastive analysis (Lado 1957)对比分析 Transformational Generative Grammar (Chomsky 1957)转换生成语法 Cognitive code approach (1960s)认知语码教学法 Functional grammar (Halliday); Sociolinguistics (Hymes); Philosophy (Austin) Notional-functional syllabus (Wilkins 1972)意念功能大纲 (6) Communicative Language Teaching (The terms the Communicative Approach, Notional-functional Approach and Functional Approach) (1970s)交际教学法 Cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theories (1940s-1950s)认知心理学与认知学习理论 Humanistic psychology (1960s)人本心理学: (7) Affective language teaching情感教学法 Total Physical Response整体动作反应法, Community Language Learning集体语言学习法, The Natural Approach 自然教学法 Suggestopedia暗示法 (8) Task-based approach (Prabhu 1980s) 任务型教学法 6.3 Views of Language and Language Learning语言和语言学习观 Behaviourist Theories行为主义理论 (1) Conditioning 条件反射 Pavlov (1902) John B. Watson (1913) and behaviorism行为主义 (2) Habit formation习惯行成 Skinner (1957) and operant conditioning (instrumental learning) model操作性条件反射 Cognitive Theories认知理论 Piaget and his first language acquisition research Cognitive theorists focus on the development of thinking and reasoning as the key to understanding childhood growth. Mentalist Views心灵主义理论 Chomsky and his transformational generative grammar A human being possesses a mind which has consciousness, ideas, etc., and that the mind can influence the behaviour of the body. Sociolinguistic Views社会语言学理论 Communication involves not only linguistic knowledge but also sociolinguistic knowledge. Hymes’ notion of communicative competence (Hymes 1972)交际能力 Canale and Swain’s (1980) model of communicative competence: grammatical competence语法能力, sociolinguistic competence社会语言能力, discourse competence语篇能力, strategic competence交际策略能力 Humanistic Theories 人本主义理论 The following principles underly the humanistic approaches to language teaching: (1) the development of human values (2) growth in self-awareness and in the understanding of others (3) sensitivity to human feelings and emotions (4) active student involvement in learning and in the way learning takes place Carl Rogers (1951) and client-centered psychology顾客为本的心理学 6.4 Methods in Foreign Language Teaching The Grammar-translation Method语法翻译法 (1) the learning of grammatical rules and vocabulary lists (2) their subsequent application to translation tasks The Direct Method直接法 (1) Only the target language was allowed in the classroom (2) Meanings should be communicated “directly” by concrete associations (3) Reading and writing should be taught only after speaking (4) Grammar should only be taught inductively The Reading Method阅读法 Reading comprehension is the main objective. The Situational Method情景法 Knowledge of structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used. The Audiolingual Method听说领先法 (1) speaking and listening are the most basic language skills (2) each language has its own unique structure and rule system (3) a language is learned through forming habits. The Notional-functional Approach意念功能法 The focus of the notional-functional approach is on how to use the target language for communicative purposes. The approach takes into consideration both linguistic and extralinguistic factors The notional-functional approach is theoretically based on the development of communicative competence. Learners learn to see that successful communication is an accomplishment jointly achieved and acknowledged. The teacher’s role is manly to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. Task-based Language Teaching任务型教学法 Task is defined as “a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing and, or interacting in the target language while their attempt is principally focused on meaning rather than form. 6.5 Affective Language Teaching情感教学 Language teaching should be affective-based; it should be adapted to the learner’s needs, motivations, and learning style. Total Physical Response整体动作反应法 Linguistic items are presented in the foreign language as orders, commands, and instructions requiring a physical response from the learner The Silent Way沉默法 The method is based on the principle that successful learning involves commitment of the learner to language acquisition through the silent awareness and then active participation. The Natural Approach 自然教学法 The approach emphasizes natural communication and the informal acquisition of language rules. Community Language Learning集体语言学习法 The teacher-learner relationship should be similar to the one between a counselor and a client. Suggestopaedia 暗示法 The principal learning technique is that learning occurs without the subjects realizing it.