语用学级期末复习思考题

I. Put the following English terms into Chinese. (1'×10＝10')

所指对象referent

所指论Referential theory

专有名词proper name

普通名词common nouns

固定的指称记号rigid designators

指称词语deixical items

确定性描述语definite descriptions

编码时间coding-time

变异性variability

表示反复的词语iterative

表述句constative

补救策略redressive strategies

不可分离性non-detachability

不确定性indeterminacy

不使用补救策略，赤裸裸地公开施行面子威胁行bald on record without redressive actions 阐述类言语行为representatives

承诺类言语行为commissives

指令类言语行为directives

表达类言语行为expressives,

宣告类言语行为declarations

诚意条件sincerity condition

次要言外行为secondary illocutionary act

等级含义scalar implicature

等级划分法rating scales

副语言特征paralinguistic features

非公开施行面子威胁行为off record

非规约性non-conventionality

非规约性意义non-conventional implicature

非论证性的non-demonstrative

非自然意义non-natural meaning (meaning-nn)

否定测试法negation test

符号学semiotics

构成性规则constitutive rules

古典格莱斯会话含义理论Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature

关联论Relevance Theory

关联原则Principle of Relevance

归属性用法attributive use

规约性含义conventional implicature

人际修辞interpersonal rhetoric

篇章修辞textual rhetoric

含蓄动词implicative verbs

合适条件felicity conditions

呼语vocatives

互相显映mutually manifest

会话含义conversational implicature

话语层次策略utterance-level strategy

积极面子positive face

间接言语行为indirect speech acts

间接指令indirect directives

结语upshots

交际意图communicative intention

可撤销性cancellability

可废弃性defeasibility

可推导性calculability

跨文化语用失误cross-cultural pragmatic failure

跨文化语用学cross-cultural pragmatics

命题内容条件propositional content condition

面子保全论Face-saving Theory

面子论Face Theory

面子威胁行为Face Threatening Acts (FTAs)

蔑视flouting

明示ostensive

明示－推理模式ostensive-inferential model

摹状词理论Descriptions

粘合程度scale of cohesion

篇章指示discourse deixis

前提presupposition

前提语presupposition trigger

强加的绝对级别absolute ranking of imposition

确定谈话目的establishing the purpose of the interaction

确定言语事件的性质establishing the nature of the speech event 确定性描述语definite descriptions

认知语用学cognitive pragmatics

上下文co-text

社会语用迁移sociopragmatic transfer

社交语用失误sociopragmatic failure

施为句performative

省力原则the principle of least effort

实情动词factive verbs

适从向direction of fit

手势型用法gestural usage

首要言外行为primary illocutionary act

双重或数重语义模糊pragmatic bivalence/ plurivalence

顺应的动态性dynamics of adaptability

顺应性adaptability

语境关系的顺应(contextual correlates of adaptability)、

语言结构的顺应(structural objects of adaptability)、

顺应的动态性(dynamics of adaptability)和

顺应过程的意识程度(salience of the adaptation processes)。

说话人经济原则speaker’s economy

损－惠等级cost-benefit scale

所表达的心理状态expressed psychological state

所指reference

所指对象referent

特殊性会话含义particularized conversational implicature

条件性的双重言外行为conditional bivalent illocutionary act

调节性规则regulative rules

投射问题projection problem

推理论inference theory

推理模式inferential model

文学语用学literary pragmatics

问卷调查questionnaire

习语论idiom theory

显性施为句explicit performatives

显映manifest

限定语篇长度策略space-making strategies

相对权势relative power

相邻对adjacency pair

象征型用法symbolic usage

小句含义clausal implicature

协商性negotiability

新格莱斯会话含义理论Neo-Gricean pragmatic theories of conversational implicature 新格莱斯语用学机制Neo-Gricean pragmatic apparatus

心理表征mental representation

信息意图informative intention

行事动词performative verb

宣告类言语行为declarations

言后行为perlocutionary act

言内行为locutionary act

言外行为illocutionary act

言外之的illocutionary point

言外之力illocutionary force

言外之力显示手段illocutionary force indicating devices (IFIDs)

言语事件speech events

言语行为speech act

一般性会话含义generalized conversational implicature

意义sense

因果的、历史的所指论Causal or Historical Chains Theory

隐性施为句implicit performatives

优先结构preference structure

语际语语用学interlanguage pragmatics

语境context

语境关系的顺应contextual correlates of adaptability

语码模式code model

语篇标示discoursal indicator

语篇性语用模糊discoursal ambivalence

语言顺应论Adaptation Theory

语言结构的顺应structural objects of adaptability

语言能力linguistic competence

语义学semantics

语用模糊pragmatic ambivalence

语用能力pragmatic competence

语用迁移pragmatic transfer

语用失误pragmatic failure

语用语言迁移pragmalinguistic transfer

语用语言失误pragmalinguistic failure

语用语言学pragmalinguistics

与事实相反的条件句counterfactual conditionals

蕴涵、推涵、衍推entailment

期待的第二部分preferred second part

预先的元语用评论语prospective MPCs

再表述reformulations

指号designator

指令类言语行为directives

追溯性的元语用评论retrospective MPCs

指示投射deictic projection

指示语/指示性词语deictic expressions

指示性用法referential use

指示中心deictic center

准备条件preparatory condition

着重受话人的元语用评论addressee-oriented metapragmatic comments ( A-MPCs)

着重说话人的元语用评论speaker-oriented metapragmatic comments (S-MPCs)

自然意义natural meaning

自我中心性egocentricity

最大关联maximal relevance

最佳关联optimal relevance

配对比较paired comparison

卡片分类card sorting

等级划分rating scales

开放性面谈open interview

引发法elicitation

II. Fill in the blanks with a proper word or words. (2'×10＝20')

1. How did Morris distinguish three aspects of semiotic inquiry

The use of the term is usually attributed to two American philosophers C. Morris and R.

Carnap, who first introduced the term ‘pragmatics’in their study of semiotics in the 1930s. Morris distinguished three aspects of semiotic inquiry, . syntactics (or syntax), being the study of the ‘formal relation of signs to one another’, semantics, the study of the ‘relation of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable, and pragmatics, the study of ‘the relation of signs to interpreters.’

2. What are the two most important notions in Pragmatics

3. How does P. Grice distinguish meanings

The American philosopher P. Grice distinguishes between what he calls natural meaning (meaning-n) and non-natural meaning (meaning-nn). The two terms parallel ‘sentence meaning’and ‘speaker meaning’.

4. What distinction did Frege make in 1952

The German philosopher Frege (1952) is generally credited with the distinction between the reference of a linguistic expression, ‘that to which the sign refers’, and its sense, an interpretation of the sign, provided by the grammar of the language.

5. What are the two major philosophical theories about reference

referential theory of names and causal-historical theory

6. What are the 2 distinct uses of definite descriptions

. Donnellan (1966:285-286) called attention to what he called the ‘referential use,’ as opposed to the ‘attributive use,’ of a definite description.

7. How many types of deictic expressions are there What are they

Deictic expressions in English are usually classified into five main types: person deixis, spatial deixis, temporal deixis, social deixis, and discourse deixis.

8. What are the two different uses of deictic expressions

There are basically two different uses of deictic expressions. They are called gestural usage and symbolic usage respectively.

12. What are the two categories of utterances did Austin distinguish

Austin distinguished two categories of utterances, which he referred to respectively as ‘constatives’ and ‘performatives.’

9. Who made the greatest contribution to Speech Act Theory in the post-Austinian age

Most of the contributions to Speech Act Theory in the post-Austinian age are ascribed to the American philosopher-linguist John Searle.

10. What distinction did Searle make about an utterance

Searle made the distinction between the illocutionary act and the propositional content of an utterance.

11. What did IFID stand for

According to Searle, IFID stood for illocutionary force indicating devices.

12. What are the two types of rules that govern the linguistic communication according to Searle

Searle distinguishes two basic types of rules, . regulative rules and constitutive rules.

13. What are the three most important dimensions of variation in which illocutionary acts differ from one another

Based on his criticism of Austin’s classification, Searle presented his taxonomy of illocutionary acts. He first of all specified 12 dimensions of variation in which illocutionary acts differ from one another. The most important of them are the following three: illocutionary point, direction of fit, and expressed psychological state.

14. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts that identified Searle’s taxonomy

It is mainly based on these three dimensions of difference that Searle builds his taxonomy, which identifies five types of illocutionary speech acts: (1) assertives/representatives，(2) directives，(3) commissives，(4) expressives，(5) declarations.

15. What did Jenny Thomas think of indirect language as

Compared with direct language, indirect language is ‘costly and risky.’

16. Searle believed that in performing indirect speech acts, there exist two speech acts. What are they

In performing indirect speech acts, two speech acts instead of one are involved, . primary illocutionary act and secondary illocutionary act.

17. What is the implied meaning termed in Grice’s theory.

The implied meaning is termed conversational implicature in Grice’s theory.

18. What are the most important properties of conversational implicature

Calculability, cancellability or defeasibility, nondetachability, non-conventionality, indeterminacy

19. What do Sperber and Wison apply to language understanding

Sperber and Wison apply cognitive psychology and monetary economics to language understanding,

20. What are the two models that Ostensive-Inferential Model base on

语码模式（Code Model）和推理模式(Inferential Model)

21. What is relevance defined in terms of

Relevance is defined in terms of contextual effect and processing effort.

22. What are the most important notions that Relevance Theory focus on

cognition and communication

23. What are the most influential ones in the pragmatic studies of politeness

In the pragmatic studies of politeness, the most influential are Leech’s Politeness Principle and Brown & Levinson’s politeness strategies.

24. What are the factors that measure the weightiness of a face-threatening act

The weightiness of a face-threatening act is measured by three factors: social distance, relative power and absolute ranking of impositions.

25. What are the two aspects of face according to Brown & Levinson

Brown & Levinson define face as the public self-image of an individual, which has two aspects: first positive face, which represents an individual’s desire to be accepted and liked by others; second, there is negative face, which refers to an individual’s right to freedom of action and his/her need not to be imposed upon by others.

26. What are the five sets of politeness strategies put forth by Brown & Levinson

P. 230 bald on record without redressive actions, positive politeness, negative politeness, off record, and Don’t do the FTA.

27. What are the three types of meaning in the course of communication

The meaning that is conveyed in the course of communication falls roughly into three types: the asserted meaning, the implied meaning, and the presupposed meaning.

28. What’s the way to tell presupposition from entailment

To tell presuppositions from entailments, semanticists proposed the so-called ‘negation test’.

29. The study of Cross-cultural pragmatics mainly consists of pragmalinguistics, sociopragmatics

and interlanguage pragmatics.

30. What is p ragmatics parameters

Pragmatics parameters refer to those factors that affect the choice of pragmatic strategies, including social distance, power, size of imposition, and rights and obligations. (P. 253)

31. The studies of Interlinguage pragmatics include four aspects: pragmatic understanding, language expression, pragmatic transfer and pragmatic failure.

32. What cause negative pragmatic transfer

Interlingual interference, Intralingual interference, influence of L1 literacy

33. What are the categories of discourse roles

Thomas has distinguished five different categories of producer of talk: Speaker, Author, Reporter, Spokesperson, Mouthpiece; four categories of receivers of talk: Addressee, Audience, Bystander, Eavesdropper.

34. What are the types of pragmatic ambivalence

Thomas and Yu Dongming divided pragmatic ambivalence into four major types: 1) Pragmatic multivalence, 2) Pragmatic bivalence/plurivalence, 3) Conditional bivalent illocutionary act, and 4) Discoursal ambivalence.

35. Presupposition is associated with some lexical items or certain syntactic structures, which are thus given the name of presupposition triggers. What do you know about them

A large variety of presupposition triggers in English have been identified. They can be found at the lexical, syntactic, and phonological level.

Presupposition triggers at the lexical level:

1) Definite descriptions, 2) Factive verbs 3) Implicative verbs 4) Change of state verbs 5) Iteratives 6）Verbs of judging

Presupposition triggers at the syntactic level:

7）Adverbial clauses and expressions of time 8）Cleft sentences 9)Structures and expressions indicating comparison 10) Non-restrictive attributive clauses 11) Counterfactual conditionals 12) Questions

Presupposition can also be triggered off by some phonological means such as the shift of the normal sentence stress.

36. According to Adaptation Theory, communicative context consists of language users, the mental world, the social world, the physical world, etc.

37. According to Adaptation Theory, the reason why people make choices constantly is that language has variability, negotiability and adaptability.

38. GU Yueguo thought that in Chinese culture, politeness included four basic elements: repectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth, and refinement.

39. Generally speaking, pragmatic research includes theoretical exposition and empirical study.

40. In empirical study, people usually adopt observational method which is usually divided into two broad categories: quantitative and qualitative.

III. Put the following passages into Chinese. (10'×1＝10') 分值分布根据两段的长短可能比例有变化，但总分不变。后面的页码是译文在课本相应页码。

1. Leech summarizes three points about trivalent meaning as illustrated in the second case:

(1) It involves the speaker’s intention to convey a certain meaning which may or may not be evident from the message itself.

(2) Consequently, interpretation by the hearer of this meaning is likely to depend on the context.

(3) Meaning, in this sense, is something which is performed, rather than something that exists in a static way. It involves action (the speaker producing an effect on the hearer) and interaction (the meaning being negotiated between speaker and hearer on the basis of their mutual knowledge.)

(Leech, 1981：320) (P. 12)

2. The following four outward criteria are specified by Leech to judge whether a particular discussion of meaning takes us into the realm of pragmatics:

(1) Is reference made to speakers or hearers

(2) Is reference made to the intention of the speaker

(3) Is reference made to context

(4) Is reference made to the kind of act performed by means of using language (P. 13)

3. Grice gives the following characterization of meaning-nn:

S meant-nn z by uttering U if and only if

(i) S intended U to cause some effect z in recipient H

(ii) S intended (i) to be achieved simply by H recognizing that intention (i)

4. The version provided by J. Lyons is quite representative. He lists six variables:

(i) Each of the participants of communication must know his role and status. The relevant roles are of two kinds: deictic and social, and status here refers to the relative social standing of the participants.

(ii) The participants must know where they are in space and time.

(iii) The participants must be able to categorize the situation in terms of its degree of formality. (iv) The participants must know what medium is appropriate to the situation.

(v) The participants must know how to make their utterances appropriate to the

subject-matter, and the importance of subject-matter as a determinant in the

selection of one dialect or one language rather than another in bilingual or

multilingual communities.

(vi) The participants must know how to make their utterances appropriate to the

province or domain to which the situation belongs.

(See Lyons, 1977:574ff) (P. 18-19)

5. Searle further condenses these conditions into four felicity conditions:

1). propositional content condition

S predicates a future act which he himself is going to perform.

2). preparatory condition

S believes what he is going to do is beneficial to H and it is something he does not normally do.

3). sincerity condition

S intends to the act.

4). essential condition

S undertakes the obligation to do the act. (P. 101)

6. The f actors that determine the speaker’s choice are social rather than linguistic. Thomas suggests the following four factors:

(1) The relative power of the speaker over the hearer

(2) The social distance between the speaker and the hearer

(3) The degree to which X is rated an imposition in culture Y

(4) Relative rights and obligations between the speaker and the hearer.

(Thomas, 1995: 124) (P. 148)

7. The CP subsumes mainly four maxims, which are the actual realizations of the CP. The four maxims of Quantity, Quality, Relation and Manner, were formulated as follows (1991:308): Maxim of Quantity

1.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes for the

exchange.)

2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Maxim of Quality

1.Do not say what you believe to be false.

2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Maxim of Relation

Be relevant.

Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous

1.Avoid obscurity of expression.

2.Avoid ambiguity.

3.Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

4.Be orderly.

8. Levinson replaces Grice’s CP and maxims with three principles, . the Quantity Principle, the Information Principle, and the Manner Principle, and each principle subsumes a Speaker’s maxim and a Recipient’s corollary:

The Q-principle

Speaker’s maxim:

Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-Principle.

Recipient’s corollary:

Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he or she knows.

The I-principle

Speaker’s maxim: The Maxim of Minimisation

Say as little as necessary. That is, produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends (bearing the Q-principle in mind).

Recipient’s corollary: the Maxim of Enrichment.

Amplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific

interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s intended point.

The M-principle

Speaker’s maxim:

Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.

Recipient’s corollary:

If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression, he or she did not mean the same as he or she would have, had he or she used the unmarked expression – specifically, he or she was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of the unmarked expression. (P. 172-173)

9. Leech further formulates his PP with the negative and positive forms: (in the negative form) “Minimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs” and (in the positive form) “Maximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs” (1983:81). His PP is further categorized into six main maxims, which go in pairs as follows:

1) Tact Maxim (in impositives and commissives )

(a) Minimize cost to other[(b)] Maximize benefit to other

2). Generosity Maxim (in impositives and commissives)

(a) Minimize benefit to self[(b)] Maximize cost to self

3) Approbation Maxim (in expressives and assertives)

(a) Minimize dispraise of other[(b)] Maximize praise of other

4) Modesty Maxim (in expressives and assertives)

a) Minimize praise of self[(b)] Maximize dispraise of self

5). Agreement Maxim (in assertives)

a)Minimize disagreement between self and other

[(b)] Maximize agreement between self and other

6) Sympathy Maxim (in assertives)

(a) Minimize antipathy between self and other

[(b)] Maximize sympathy between self and other (1983:132)

There are three pairs of key notions (cost and benefit; self and other; minimization and maximization) which are prevalent in the PP.

(P. 219)

10. Conversational strategies

Utterance-level strategies

Speaker-oriented metapragmatic comments (S-MPCs)

Addressee-oriented metapragmatic comments (A-MPCs)

Discourse-level strategies,

Space-making strategies,

Establishing the purpose of the interaction, and

Establishing the nature of the speech event

11. According to Thomas, the study of an activity type can proceed with a statement of its features in the following fashion:

1)The goals of the participants, which might be different from one participant to those of

another. They might exploit different kinds of linguistic resources or pragmatic strategies to

achieve their respective, different communicative goals.

2)Allowable contributions: some interactions are characterized by social or legal constraints

on what participants say in a particular activity type.

3)The degree to which Gricean maxims are adhered to or are suspended. Clearly, the way

in which the CP is either observed or flouted might be different from culture to culture and from one activity type to another and there might be different underlying reasons and motivations for the differences.

4)The degree to which politeness maxims are adhered to or are suspended. As is widely

acknowledged, the way in which politeness principle is observed and the ‘face’ is saved might also be culture or activity type specific.

5)Turn-taking and topic control. A close examination of the turn-taking system can reveal

the power relations between the participants in an activity type as well the personality traits of the participants and the specific pragmatic strategies used by them to control the interaction, to establish their respective agenda, etc.

6)The manipulation of pragmatic parameters, which might include a close examination and

description of the following: power or solidarity, social distance, size of imposition and the relative rights and obligations, etc.

12. Please explain the calculating formula of the weightiness of an FTA:

Wx = D(S, H) + P(H, S) + Rx

Wx is the numerical value that measures the weightiness of the FTA.

D(S, H) is the value that measures the social distance between the speaker and the hearer.

P(H, S) is a measure of the power that the hearer has over the speaker.

Rx is a value that measures the degree to which the FTA is rated an imposition in that culture. Each of the three variables D, P and R can be measured on a scale of 1 to n, where n is some small number. They jointly contribute to the seriousness of an FTA, and hence the level of politeness with which an FTA will be performed.

IV. Answer the following questions in English. (10'×2＝20')

1. What is pragmatics

2. What do pragmatics and semantics have in common and how do they differ from each other What pragmatics and semantics have in common is that they both take meaning as the object of their study. But they differ in the level of meaning they study, and also in their approach to the study of meaning. Semantics, formal semantics in particular, studies the abstract, de-contextualized level of meaning while pragmatics studies the meaning in context, which is the actualization of abstract meaning.

3. What’s one of the tough question formal semanticists and philosophers of language encountered

One of the tough questions encountered by formal semanticists and philosophers of language is the one called ‘referential opacity’, which is also termed ‘the problem of substitutivity’. We would expect that any two singular terms that denote one and the same thing would be semantically equivalent: we could take any sentence containing one of the terms and substitute the other of the two for the first, without changing the meaning or at least without changing the truth-value of the sentence. (P. 43)

4. What are the six weakness of Austin’s classification that Searle pointed out

Searle pointed out six weaknesses of Austin’s classification: (1) there is a persistent confusion between verbs and acts, (2) not all the verbs are illocutionary verbs, (3) there is too much overlap of the categories, (4) there is too much heterogeneity within the categories, (5) many of the verbs listed in the categories do not satisfy the definition given for the category, and (6) there is no consistent principle of classification . The most serious weakness, it seemed to Searle, is the last one.(See Searle, 1976)

5. What model did Austin construct after he finally gave up his constative-performative antithesis

According to the new model, which has been widely accepted and applied, a speaker, when speaking, is performing three acts simultaneously, . locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.

A locutionary act is the act of saying something in the true sense of ‘say.’ An illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something, which is identical to the speaker’s intention of saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or as a result of saying something.

The locutionary act is the act of expressing literal meaning through the utterance of words, phrases and sentences; the illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention through literal meaning. Once the speaker’s intention is recognized by the hearer and he acts accordingly, there will be the perlocutionary act, . some outcome brought about by speaking.

7. What are the differences between the Gricean theory and relevance theory

The principle of relevance accounts for language use more succinctly and more explicitly than the Gricean framework. But the most important difference is that the principle of relevance is meant to explain ostensive-inferential communication as a whole, both explicit and implicit, while the Gricean theory is only concerned with the implicit side.

did Leech put forth Politeness Principle

Leech put forth the famous Politeness Principle (PP) in Principles of Pragmatics (1983) with the intention to ‘rescue’ Grice’s CP. As we know, though the CP explains how the conversational implicature(CI) is inferred, it does not explain why people often choose to be indirect in what they want to say. Leech explains the problem in terms of politeness. In his view, indirectness is motivated by politeness. That’s why Leech’s Politeness Principle is also called the conversational-maxim view of politeness.

9. Why is Brown & Levinson’s politeness strategies called Face-saving theory

Brown & Levinson put forward their politeness theory first in 1978, which was revised in 1987. They consider politeness as linguistic strategies to satisfy communicative and face-oriented ends. Thus, their theory is often called politeness strategies. To them, to be polite is to save face, and the central notion in their theory is “face”; therefore, their theory is also called Face-saving theory.

10. What the similarity and difference between presupposition and entailment

In general terms, presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. So it is speakers, not sentences, that have presuppositions.

Entailment is a relation of meaning inclusion: the inferable meaning is included in the original proposition.

What presupposition and entailment have in common is that they both belong to the aspect of meaning of a sentence which is not explicitly expressed but is inferred.

Yule (1996) has concisely summarized the similarity and difference between presupposition and entailment. Both of them belong to the information not directly expressed through the speaker’s utterance in communication, but they both belong to known information. The difference between them is that presupposition is speaker-based and entailment is sentence-based. The former refers to the assumptions held by the speaker while the latter is the conclusions derived from the contents of the sentence through inferences. Therefore, it is the speaker that presupposes, and it is the sentence that entails.

12. How do you understand the projection problem of presupposition

What happens to the presupposition of a sentence when it is embedded in a larger sentence It is generally assumed that the meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meaning of its component clauses. In the same vein, it is assumed that the presupposition of a sentence should also be the sum total of the presuppositions of its component clauses. In other words, when a sentence is embedded, it carries with it its original presupposition. But a brief observation of some coordinate and complex sentences reveals that this is not the case. Whether presuppositions survive in a larger and more complex sentence is known as the projection problem of presuppositions.

When a sentence is embedded, there are two possibilities for its original presupposition. One is that it is cancelled, the other is that it survives.

V. Do the following item as required. (10') （考试会选其中一个）

1．Analyze the following utterances in terms of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary speech acts, imagining different contexts in which the utterances are made. (10')

For example, look at this sentence for example: when the husband comes back home and says to his wife “I’m terribly hungry.”

The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words “I” “am” “terribly” “hungry”. This expresses what the words literally mean.

The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, . asking his wife to prepare some food.

The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If his wife gets the husband’s message and sees that he means to tell her to cook, the husband has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.

设想出一个语境3分，推出三种言语行为各2分，整个表述包括措辞、语法1分。

2. Identify the presupposition triggers in the following sentences and the presuppositions they indicate. (2'×5＝10')

参考P. 289-297分析与例句。判断出前提语给1分，推出前提给1分。

VI. Discussion (30')

Write on ANSWER SHEET a passage of at least 250 words following the requirement given above. Marks will be awarded for content, organization, grammar and

appropriateness. Failure to follow the instructions may result in a loss of marks.

1.Describe the development of Deixis. You are required to introduce the origin

of deixis, the linguist(s) who made great contribution, the definition, classification, examples, functions, and influence, etc.

2.Describe the development of Speech Act Theory. You are required to

introduce the origin of SAT, the linguist(s) who made great contribution, the definition, examples, classification, functions, and influence, etc.

3.Describe the development of Conversational Implicature. You are required to

introduce the origin of the theory, the linguist(s) who made great contribution, the definition, Cooperative Principle and its maxims, examples, classification, functions, limitations, and influence, etc.

4.Describe the development of pragmatic studies of Politeness. You are

required to introduce the origin of the theory, the linguist(s) who made great contribution, the definition, Politeness Principle and its maxims, face theory, examples, classification, functions, limitations, and influence, etc.