新编英语语法教程-复习资料

1.主谓一致

主谓一致Subject-Verb Concord即谓语动词在人称和数上要和主语保持一致，主谓一致包括语法一致、意义一致和就近一致。

1.1指导原则

(1)语法一致

语法一致即谓语动词在单复数形式上要和主语保持一致

eg.

A grammar book helps you learn something about the rules of a language. (主语是单数形式，谓语也采取单

数形式）

语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则.

Grammar books help you learn something about the rules of a language. (主语是复数形式，谓语也采取复数形式）

语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则.

(2)意义一致和就近原则

意义一致就是谓语动词要和主语意义上的单复数保持一致。

补充解释和例句见书P22

就近一致就是谓语动词要和靠近它的主语部分保持一致。

常出现在这类句子中的连词有：or, either…or…，neither…nor …，not only…but also …等.

例句见书P23

英语中，有时几个名词或代词有某些此连接起来一起作句子的主语，此时，谓语动词的形式就须有与之最接近的名词或代词的人称和数决定。如：

(1)There is a desk and five chairs in his room.他房间里有一张办公桌和五把椅子。

There are five chairs and a desk in his room.他房间里有五把椅子和一张办公桌。

(2)Either you or Li Lei is going to be sent there.要么是你要么是李蕾将被派到那里去。

Are either you or Li Lei going to be sent there?是你将被派到那里去还是李蕾将被派到那里去？

1.2-s结尾的名词作主语

(1)以-s结尾的疾病名称和游戏名称

(2)以-ics结尾的学科名称

(3)以-s结尾的地理名称

(4)其他以-s结尾的名词

1.3以集合名词作主语

(1)通常作复数的集体名词

见书P27

【注】goods(货物),clothes(衣服)只有复数形式，且只表示复数意义：

Such clothes are very cheap.那样的衣服很便宜。

All the goods have been sent to them.所有的货物都给他们送去了。

(2)通常作不可数名词的集体名词

clothing(衣服)，poetry(诗歌)，baggage/luggage(行李)，furniture(家具)，machinery(机械)，scenery(景色)，jewelry(珠宝)，equipment(设备)等集合名词通常只用作不可数名词，表示单数意义，用作主语时，其后谓语动词用单数形式。

(3)既可做单数也可作复数的集体名词

family(家庭)，team(队，队员)，class(班，班上的全体学生)，crowd(人群)，government(政府)，crew(乘务员)，committee(委员会)，audience(听众)，public(公众)等集合名词，当它们表示整体意义时，表单数意义，当它们强调个体意义时，表示复数意义。

【注】有时没有特定的语境，用单复数谓语均可以：

The audience was(were)very excited by the show.观众对演出甚感激动。

The public has(have)a right to know what’s in the report.公众有权知道这篇报告的内容。

如将侧重点放在组成集体的成员上，动词用复数。

(4) a committee of 等+复数名词

见书P27

1.4 以并列结构作主语

(1)由and和both...and连接的并列主语

【注意】

a)当由and连接的两个并列主语受each,every,no的修饰时，谓语用单数：

Every boy and(every)girl likes the book.每个男孩女孩都喜欢这本书。

No desk and(no)chair was seen in the room.房间里不见桌椅。

b)当and连接两个数相加时，谓语动词可用单数或复数：

Six and eight makes[make]fourteen.六加八等于十四。

c)当and连接的两个的词语指同一个人或事物时，谓语通常要用单数：

A cart and horse was seen in the distance.远处看见一辆马车。

(2)由or,nor,either...or,neither…nor,not only…but also,not…but等连接的并列主语

就近原则处理

The teacher as well as the students has read it不仅学生读过它，老师也读过。

The teacher rather than the students is to blame.应受责备的是老师而不是学生。

(3)主语+as much as等书P30

(4)主语+as well as等书P30

1.5 以表示数量概念的名词词组作主语

(1)以表示确定数量的名词词组作主语

a)表时间长度、钱数、速度等的词组作主语

此时通常将其视为整体，谓语用单数。

eg. Twenty years is a long time.20年是很长的时间。

Ten dollars is all I have left.我只剩下10美元。

如果看作组成该数量的一个个的个体，谓语用复数。

eg. There are six silver dollars in each of the stockings.

b)“分数(百分数)+of+名词”结构作主语

谓语动词形式依of-词组中的名词类别而定。

例句见书P32

【注意】

在现代英语中，有时即使该结构中的名词为复数，其谓语也可用单数(即将其视为整体)：

Over sixty per cent of families own[owns]a television.百分之六十以上的家庭已拥有电视机。

c)两数相减或相除，动词用单数；两数相加或相乘，动词可以用单数，也可以用复数。

例句见书P32

d)“one in/one out of +复数名词”作主语

在正式语体中，动词用单数；在非正式语体中，动词也可按“就近原则”用复数。

例句见书P32

(2)以表示非确定数量的名词词组作主语

a)主语是all of…，some of…，none of…，half of…，most of…等表示非确定数量的名词词组，其后的动

词形式依of-词组的名次类别而定。

例句见书P32

b)主语是由“lots of，heaps of, loads of, scads of, plenty of+名词”构成，表示“许许多多”等概念时，随

后动词的单复数形式也依of-词组的名次类别而定。

c)主语是由"a portion of，a series of，a pile of，a panel of+名词"构成，不管名词类别如何，动词通常用单

数。

d)主语是由“限定词+a kind/ sort/ type of +名词”构成，随后的动词形式按以下规则：

在a kind/ sort/ type of，this kind/ sort/ type of之后通常加单数或不可数名词，动词用单数。

如果要用复数名词：名词复数+of this kind/ sort/ type

Roses of this kind are very sweet

出现在these kinds of，many/several kinds of 后的名词，既可以是单数或不可数名词。也可以是复数名词，动词用复数。

在非正式语体中，常见“these/those kind of +复数名词”作主语，随后的动词用复数。

e)主语是由"many a+名词"或"more than one+名词"构成，其意义虽属多数，但随后的动词仍遵循"语法一

致"原则，用单数。

f)如果主语由"an average of/a majority of+复数名词"构成，而且明确表示多数个体概念，随后的谓语动词

用复数;如果这类主语不表示多数个体概念，随后的谓语动词用单数。

1.6 其他方面的主谓一致问题

(1)名词性分句作主语时的主谓一致

名词性分句作主语时，随后的动词一般使用单数，但有时也会有主谓一致的问题：

由what，who，why，how，whether等wh-词引导的名词性分句作主语，其后的动词通常用单数。

两个由and连接的并列名词性分句作主语，如果主语表示两件事，动词用复数。

在以what-分句作主语的SVC结构中，如果主语补语是复数名词，主语谓语动词可用复数。如果what-分句本身明显表示富士意义，那么主句动词也可用复数。

(2)以非限定分句作主语的主谓一致

以非限定分句（主要是不定式分句和ing分词分句）作主语，随后动词通常用单数

由and连接的并列非限定分句作主语，如果指两件事，动词用复数；如果指一件事，动词用复数。

(3)关系分句中的主谓一致

在"one of+复数名词+who/that/which"引导的定语从句中，从句谓语的单复数取决于one前是否有the only,the very。如果有，从句的谓语动词用单数，如没有，就用复数形式。

(4)分裂句中的主谓一致

在强调句中，由that/who引导的从句的动词形式通常依先行词而定。在"It is I+who从句"+的动词现在时在人称和数的形式上应与I保持一致。

(5)存在句中的主谓一致

在存在句中，要使用就近原则，即谓语动词的单复数形式一般取决于离谓语最近的那个名词或词组的单复数形式。

2.名词属格

2.1 名词属格的构成、意义和用法

（1）名词属格的构成（加-’s）

A）单数名词和不以-s结尾的复数名词一般在词尾加-’s

如：Milltown's poems，my mother’s arrival，women’s clothes。

B) 以-s 结尾的复数名词在词尾只加-'，

如：the girls’dormitory。

C）复合名词和作为一个整体的名词词组构成属格时，在最后一个词的结尾加's

如：my mother-in-law’s death，

an hour and a half’s talk，

somebody else’s opinion

* 以-s 结尾的普通名词后加’s，或者只加’。

D）并列名词表示各自的所有关系时，要在各个名词之后加-'s

如Mary’s and Bob’s book。如果仅在第二个名词之后加-‘s（Mary and Bob’s），则指两人共有的书。

E）“名词词组+同位语”构成属格时，-‘s加在同位语名词之后

如：his schoolmate Johnson’s，Basel the bookseller’s，也可以前后都加-'s，如Basel’s，the bookseller’s。

F）以咝音/z/结尾的人名，其属格加-‘s或-’均可

如Dickens’/Dickens’s，Jones’。

但以其他咝音结尾的人名，属格用-’s，如Marx’s，Ross’s等。

（2）结构二: of +名词

1）表示无生命东西的名词所有关系时，用of +名词

the legs of the table the title of the book

the cover of the book the importance of the plan

the window of the house the strength of the envelope

2) 表示有生命的东西的属格，当该名词有较长的定语或者为了表达某种感情色彩时，亦可用of +名词

结构：

the classroom of the first-year students

the wedding of the Prince of Wales

the death of the king

+书p55

Genitive nouns are sometimes interchangeable with of- phrase.

e.g.:

the visitor’s arrival the arrival of the visitor

an elephant’s trunk the trunk of the elephant

men’s shoes shoes for men

* shoes of men

Collective nouns can also take both forms:

the family’s objection the objection of the family

the committee’s task the task of the committee

Both the genitive and of-phrase can be used with geographical proper nouns and nouns re-ferring to places, institutions, etc.

China’s foreign policy the foreign policy of China

Britain’s resistance the resistance of Britain

the city’s problems the problems of the city

the hospital’s entrance the entrance of the hospital

the village’s population the population of the village

（3）名词属格的意义Meanings of genitive nouns

A) Possessive genitive (所有关系)

China’s territory

my son’s wife

the Young Pioneer’s red scarf

B) Subjective genitive (主谓关系, 其中的名词大多由动词转化而来) (动作的执行者)

the teacher’s praise

the student’s application (= The student applied.)

the Party’s call

C) Objective genitive (动宾关系,名词由动词转化而来) (动作的承受者)

the younger generation’s education

the president’s assassination

the war prisoners’ release

D) Genitive of origin (来源)

Remin Ribao’s editorials

Newton’s law

※the girl’s story=a story told by the girl

E) Descriptive genitive (类别)

women’s magazines

children’s language

a doctor’s degree

F) Genitive of time, distance, measure, value, etc. 表示时间、度量、价值等

ten minutes’ break

two or three minutes’ absence

a mile’s distance

50 kilograms’ weight

twenty dollars’ value

two pounds’ worth of stamps

（4）名词属格的用法Uses of genitive nouns

a.作限定词和前置修饰语

(1) 名词-s 属格主要用于表示人的名词后。

e.g.: the girl’s skirt Elizabeth’s hair

men’s room teachers’ office

(2) 名词-s 属格也用于表示除人外的高等动物的名词后。

e.g.: the cat’s paw the dog’s tail

the snake’s teeth ewe’s milk 羊奶

(3) 名词-s属格也用于表示某些无生命的东西之后。

a. 用于由人组成的集体名词后。

e.g.: the class’s monitor the team’s leader

the club’s members the government’s policy

the delegate’s visit our Party’s stand

the majority’s view the family’s objection

b. 用于表示时间的名词之后。

e.g.: today’s newspaper two days’ leave

a month’s holiday a moment’s thought

one minute’s talk a day or two’s delay

c. 用于表示距离的名词之后。

e.g.: one meter’s length three miles’ drive

two centimeters’ width ten cables’ length

d. 也用于表示价值、重量等的名词之后。

e.g.: a dollar’s/ shilling’s worth of stamp

a ton’s weight

e. 用于表示地理、国家、城市、地域等名称的名词后。

e.g.: Africa’s features China’s future

the island’s southern tip Europe’s development

the United States’ attitude New York’s population

f. 用于表示天体名称的名词后。

e.g.: the earth’s surface the moon’s light

the sun’s heat Jupiter’s (木星) orbit

g. 用于表示工业、科技等名称的名词后。

e.g.: industry’s pollution problem

science’s contribution

h. 表示人家、店铺等工作、生活处所的所有格后的名词常省略。

e.g.: I’m going to the barber’s. (barber shop)

We visited St. Paul’s. (St. Paul Cathedral)

i. 一个名词属格所修饰的词,如果前面已经提到,就往往可以省略,避免重复。

e.g.: This is not my computer, but Mr Wang’s.

He had views quite different from his father’s.

j. 用于某些固定词组中。(P55)

Others idioms:

You had better keep him at an arm’s length.

你最好不要跟他亲近。

Put the vase out of harm's way so the children can't break it.

把那只花瓶放在安全的地方, 以免孩子们打碎了。

For God’s sake, hold your tongue and let me love.

看在上帝的面上, 闭上嘴让我爱你吧。

*for friendship’s sake (为了友情), for mercy’s sake (为了仁慈的缘故), for safety’s sake (为了安全起见), for caution’s sake (为慎重起见), for acquaintance’s sake (看在熟人的面上), for convenience’s sake (为方便起见), forappearance’s sake (为了装门面), for conscience’s sake (为求良心的安宁), etc.

※k. 与人类活动有特殊关系或拟人化的名词。

e.g.: the game’s history the novel’s structure

heaven’s will television’s future

duty’s call the brain’s total solid weight

※l. 地点名词(地区、公共场所)。

e.g.: the world’s economic organization

the hotel’s entrance

the church’s mission

※m. 飞机、火车、汽车等名词。

e.g.: the train’s heating system

the car’s engine

a glider’s performance

2.2 名词属格和of-词组的比较

A) 下列情况只用名词属格:

(a) Descriptive genitive (表示事物类别或属性时)

a ship’s carpenter a doctor’s degree

the teachers’ book a summer’s day

children’s pictorial = the pictorial for children 儿童读物

the pictorial of children 孩子们的画报(儿童们的绘画)

(b) used in idioms

at the death’s door

at one’s finger’s ends / tips

at a stone’s throw

out of harm’s way

to one’s heart’s content

the salesman’s brother, a postman * the brother of the salesman, a postman

Lee’s friend, the singer * a friend of Lee’s, the singer

B) 只用Of-词组的情况：

(a) 当of-词组中的名词后面跟有后置修饰语时:

the name of the girl standing under the tree * the girl’s name standing under the tree

the support of the people of the whole world * the people’s support of the whole world

the suggestion of the teachers present at the meeting * the teachers’ suggestion present at the meeting

the opinion of the committee appointed a few days ago * the committee’s opinion appointed a few days ago

I have read the article of the student who falls in with my views on this problem.

* I have read the student’s article who falls in…

名词或名词词组后带有较长的后置修饰语，通常用Of-词组形式.

* the man I know’s car

* the lady living next door’s hat

* the children killed in the war’s pictures

* the professor to consult’s questions

同样，若名词或名词词组后带有较长的介词词组或介词词组可能会引起歧义，则用Of-词组形式来代替名词属格的形式。

* the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island’s heir

* the man with the dog’s food

(b) 当of-词组中的介词宾语是以“定冠词+ 分词/ 形容词”表示的一类人的结构时:

the resistance of the oppressed

*…the oppressed’s resistance

the experience of the old

*…the old’s experience

In pre-liberation days, the rulers paid little attention to the welfare of the poor.

*…the poor’s welfare

the City of Rome* Rome’s City

at the age of twenty* at the 20’s age

2.3 独立属格和双重属格

（1）独立属格

A genitive noun can sometimes be used indepen-dently, that is, without a following noun. This use of the genitive may be termed as the independent genitive. Independent genitive is used:

1）名词中心词已在上下文中出现过

e.g.: My car is faster than John’s.

Her memory is like an elephant’s.

The child’s hatred for the enemy is as deep as his father’s.

这种用法相当于名词性物主代词作主语的用法

e.g.: Hers is the prettiest dress.

Ours is a great socialist country.

2）被省略的名词中心词表示某人的家或住宅

e.g.: Shall we meet at his brother’s?

I’m going to stay at Johnson’s.

See you at Harry’s tomorrow.

3）被省略的名词中心词表示教堂、学校等公共场所

St. Paul’s (Cathedral) (圣保罗大教堂, 位于伦敦)

St. James’s (Palace) (圣詹姆斯宫, 是英国君主的正式王宫)

Guy’s (Hospital) (英国伦敦盖氏医院)

Queen’s (College) (英国女王学院)

4）被省略的名词中心词表示店铺、公司等

at the butcher’s / tailor’s / grocer’s / barber’s / fruiterer’s / greengrocer’s / photographer’s / baker’s / hairdresser’s dentist’s / druggist’s / stationer’s (文具店)

（2）双重属格

An independent genitive can sometimes be used as prepositional complementation. The prepositional phrase (usu. an of-phrase) that takes an independent genitive as complementation is called a “double genitive”.

e.g.: a poem of Shelley’s

a painting of my roommate’s

a patient of the doctor’s

在双重属格结构中, 用作介词补足成分的属格名词，必须是确定特指的，而且一般指人！

*a patient of a doctor’s

*an engine of the plane’s

(a)后置属格必须指确定的对象(如专有名词),而且必须指人。

a friend of Jim’s/of my sister’s/of the professor’s

却不可以说: a friend of a professor’s (非特指)

也不可以说: a wheel of the car’s (指物)

(b) 带有双重属格作后置修饰语的名词中心词必须是不确定的人或物,可以受不定冠词或数量词的修饰(a, two, some, any, few, no, several, a lot of…),不能受定冠词的修饰。如：

Some friends of my brother’s have arrived.

Have you read any plays of Shakespeare’s?

It was no fault of ours that we took the wrong way.

却不可以说: the poem of Shelly’s

也不可以说: the friend of the doctor’s

更不可以说: the friend of a doctor’s

★但是可以说: the friend of the doctor

(c) Exceptions to the rule are the cases where the first noun is premodified by a demonstrative or postmodified by a relative clause.

在表达带有感情色彩的意义时, 可以用指示限定词。

this/ these 含褒义, 特别强调, 以引起对方的注意。

that/ those 往往带有否定和轻蔑含义。

eg. this very inspiring speech of the president’s

These remarks of yours are of great value to us.

that notorious scheme of the King’s

I shall never meet that daughter of Mrs. Brown’s.

☆the friend of Bob’s who was here last night

?双重属格的意义

(a) 双重属格表示身份, of-词组侧重说明关系。

He is a friend of my father’s. (我爸爸的一个朋友)

He is a friend of my father. (对我爸爸友好/够朋友)

He is my father’s friend. (唯一的一个或刚谈及的那一个)

(b) 有些情况下, of-词组与双重属格的意义大相径庭。

双重属格表示某人做的、干的, 但不是他本人的。

of-词组表示本人的。

a bone of the dog’s (一根狗啃的骨头)

a bone of the dog (一根狗骨)

a painting of Mr. Blake’s (他收藏的一张画像)

a painting of Mr. Blake (他本人的一张画像)

a criticism of the students’ (学生们的批评)

a criticism of the students (对学生们的批评)

an opinion of my brother’s (我哥哥的看法)

an opinion of my brother ((别人)对我哥哥的看法)

?of-词组

(a) To refer to someone or something that belongs to or is connected with someone, it is usual to use –'s or –s’ , not of , with short noun phrases :

Dad’s car (NOT the car of Dad)

a child’s bike (NOT the bike of a child)

my sister’s boyfriend (NOT the boyfriend of my sister)

the miners’ strike (NOT the strike of the miners)

(b) When referring to one of several people or things belonging to or connected with someone, or when using 'this’

or 'that', use of mine/yours/his/hers/ours/theirs :

a friend of mine (NOT a friend of me)

that car of yours (NOT that car of you)

To talk about the person who sang, wrote, or painted a particular work, use by , not of :

a song by Mariah Carey (NOT of Mariah Carey)

3. 限定词

英语的限定词包括：

1、冠词（article）定冠词（DEFINITE ARTICLE），不定冠词（INDEFINITE ARTICLE），零冠词（ZERO ARTICLE)

2、形容词性的物主代词限定词（POSSESSⅣE PRONOUN DETERMINER），my, your, his, her, our, your, their, its.

名词（GENITⅣE NOUN），John's, my friend's.

指示限定词（DEMONSTRATⅣE DETERMINER），this, that, these, those, such.

关系限定词（RELATⅣE DETERMINER)，whose, which.

疑问限定词（INTERROGA TⅣE DETERMINER），what, which, whose.

不定限定词（INDEFINITE DETERMINER），

no,some,any,each,every,enough,either,neither,all,both,half,several,many,much,(a) few,(a) little, other, another.

3、数词（numeral）基数词（CARDINAL NUMERAL) 和序数词（ORDINAL NUMERAL)

倍数词（MULTIPLICATⅣE NUMERAL) 和分数词（FRACTIONAL NUMERAL)

4、量词（QUANTIFIER) a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of, a good deal of, a large amount of, a small amount of, a quantity of, a great number of, a good number of等。

3.1 限定词与三类名词搭配关系

书p60~62

3.2 限定词与限定词的搭配关系

（1）三类限定词

按照限定词与限定词的相互搭配关系，限定词可分为前位限定词(pre-determiner）、中位限定词（central determiner）和后位限定词（post-determiner）。

限定词的相互搭配关系为：前位+中位+后位

在这三类限定词中，前位限定词与前位限定词以及中位限定词与中位限定词是相互排斥的，后位限定

词与后位限定词之间虽不相互排斥但有搭配限制。

中位限定词包括：冠词：a(n),the ；指示代词：this, that, these, those ；形容词性物主代词：my, your, his, her, our, etc. ；名词属格：Jim’s, my mother’s ；不定代词：some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough, etc. ；连接代词what(ever),which(ever),whose, etc.

前位限定词包括：all, both, half; double, twice, three times, etc.; one-third, two-fifths, etc.; what, such,(a / an）等。

后位限定词包括：one, two, three, etc.; first, second, third, etc.; next, last, other, another, etc.; many, much,(a) few,(a) little, fewer,(the) fewest, less,(the) least, more, most; several, plenty of, a lot of, lots of, a great / large / good number of, a great / good deal of, a large / small amount of; such等。

（2）三类限定词搭配关系

书p65~66

3.3 限定词的用法比较

（1）many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of

表示"多"的意思，可用many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of等。但是many, much常用于否定句和疑问句，而a lot of等则常用于肯定句。

I haven't seen many English films. 多数英文电影我没看过。many修饰可数名词

I haven't done much work today. 我还没有做多少活呢。much修饰不可数名词

many / much常用于否定句和疑问句并不是绝对的，尤其是在下列场合many / much也常用于肯定句：

a) 用于whether / if引导的宾语分句中。

I doubt whether / if there'll be many people at the show on this rainy day. 我怀疑在这个雨天里会有很多人看表演。

b) 用于由"how / too / so / as+ many / much (+中心词）" 构成的名词词组中。

He took so many boxes with him that he had to call a taxi. 他身边带着太多的箱子，不得不叫计程车。

c) 用于在句首作主语以及在"存在句"中作实义主语的名词词组中。

Many people would like to take holidays abroad. 许多人喜欢去国外度假。

（2）(a) few,(a)little

表示"少"的意思，可用（a) few,(a) little，既可用作限定词，也可用作不定代词。a few,a little表示"少量"，带有肯定意义。

Here are a few more books on this subject. 在他的课题上有少量的书。

few / little 若不与a 连用则表示－否－定－意义，相当于not many / much,not enough。

I have very few (chocolates) left. 我剩下不多的巧克力。

little 的比较级和最高级是less 和least，通常只能用与不可数名词搭配，但在当代英语中也有用less

与复数搭配的。

If only there were less holes in the roof. 如果房顶仅是少量洞。

（3）some, any

要表示"一些"的意思，可用some,any。some 是肯定词（ASSERTⅣE WORD〕，常用于肯定句；any是非肯定词（NONASSERTⅣE WORD〕，常用于否定句或疑问句。

I seldom get any sleep these days.

any也常用于条件分句以及带有否定含义的句子中：

I forgot to ask for any change. 我忘了要一些零钱。

当some与单数可数名词搭配时，some相当于a certain（"某一"〕的含义；而any与单数可数名词搭配，则相当于eery（"任何一个"〕的含义

Any child could answer that question. 任何一个孩子都可以回答这个问题。

4）all, both, every, each, either, neither, any

这一类词，除every只能作限定词外，都是既可作限定词，也可作不定代词。

any boy / any (one) of the (three or more) boys,

a) 表示"全体"，可用all 和both，但all表示三个或三个以上人或物的"全体"，而both则表示两个人或物的"全体"。

All the four applicants are below the average. 所有这四位申请者都在平均数以下。

如果要表示"全体都不"的意思，当"全体"为三个或更多的人或物时，通常用none。

None of the students failed the examination. 没有一个学生考试失败。

如果要表示两个人或物"都不"，通常要用neither:

Neither student / Neither (one) of the (two) cars was made in Japan. 两辆车没有一辆产自日本。

b) 表示全体中的"每个"，如果这个"全体"包含三个或更多的人或物，通常用every。

Every student in the class took part in the performance. 这个班的每个学生都是这个表演的一部分。

如果这个"全体"包含两个或两个以上的人或物，便可以用each

Each / Every side of the square was crowded with people. 广场的边上挤满了人。

every 与each 的区别还在于every 指许多人或物中的"每个"，侧重在全体，近乎all的含义：

Every student failed the examination. = All the students failed the examination. 所有的学生都考试失败。

c) 表示全体中的"任何一个"，也要看这个"全体"是包含三个或更多，还是只包含两个。当"全体"包含三个或三个以上，要表示其中任何一个须用any。

Any (= Every) child would know that. 每个孩子都知道这个。

当"全体"只包含两个时，要表示其中任何一个须用either。

We have two copies left. Keep either (copy) for the file. 我们有两份考贝剩下，为文件保持其中的一份。

但在on either side,on either end等固定词组中有时可以兼指两个。

There are stairways at either end of the corridor. 走廊的两头都有楼梯。

3.4 冠词的类指和特指

冠词的表意功能可以归纳为二种，即类指（GENERIC REFERENCE）和特指（SPECIFIC REFERENCE）。冠词是虚词，本身不能单独使用，也没有词义，它用在名词的前面，帮助指明名词的含义。英语中的冠词有三种，一种是定冠词（the Definite Article）（定冠词the与指示代词this，that同源，有“那（这）个”的意思，但较弱，可以和一个名词连用，来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西。）；另一种是不定冠词（the Indefinite Article）（不定冠词a (an）与数词one 同源，是"一个"的意思。a用于辅音音素前，一般读作[e]，而an则用于元音音素前，一般读做[en]。）；零冠词zero Article）。

1〕类指

类指是表示类别，也就是泛指一类人或物。不论是定冠词还是不定冠词和零冠词都具有这种功能。比如定冠词与单数可数名词搭配，往往可起类指的作用，常用于正式语体。

Galileo claimed that he had invented the telescope.伽利略声称他发明了望远镜。

定冠词与某些形容词或分词连用，表示类别或抽象概念，也是一种类指用法。

The rich get richer,and the poor get children. 有钱的更有钱，穷人得了孩子。

用不定冠词与单数可数名词搭配也可表示类别

An ox is a useful animal. 公牛是一个有用的动物。

用零冠词与复数可数名词或不可数名词搭配，同样可以表示一类的人或物

Unity is strength.团结就是力量。

2〕特指

特指不同于类指，它不是泛指一类人或物，而是特指一类人或物中的具体对象。这里有两种情况：一种是非常明确地指出何人或何物，这叫做"确定特指"（DEFINETE SPECIFIC REFERENCE）

He bought a house.I've been to the house. 他买了幢房子。我去过那幢房子。指上文提到过的人或事。

4. 动词和动词词组

4.1 动词分类

（1）主动词&助动词

英语动词按其在构成动词词组中所起作用分为主动词和助动词。

主动词构成动词词组的语义核心，它表示动词词组的基本意义，因此，主动词又叫实意动词。

助动词分为三大类：基本助动词、情态助动词、半助动词。

1）基本助动词

基本助动词只有三个：be, do, have, 它们没有词汇意义，只有语法作用，如协助构成进行体，完成体，被动态，否定句，疑问句等。

2）情态助动词

1.情态助动词包括will(would), shall(should), can(could), may(might), must, need, dare, ought to, used to,

had better后接原形不定词。

2.情态助动词不受主语的人称和数的限制。

3.两个情态助动词不能连用。

3）半助动词

在功能上介乎主动词和助动词之间的一类结构，称为半助动词。常见的半助动词有be about to, be due to, be going to, be likely to, be meant to, be obliged to, be supposed to, be willing to, have to, seem to, be unable to, be unwilling to等。

（2）及物动词、不及物动词、连系动词p110

1）及物动词

及物动词的特征就是要求有宾语。所谓及物就是主体把动作传达到客体上，物是泛指，既可是物也可是人。只有及物动词可以使用被动语态。

及物动词分三类：单宾语及物动词、双宾语及物动词和复合宾语及物动词。

Finally he discovered the truth.（单宾语）

Don’t forget to buy me a box of biscuits.（双宾语）

She had cut her hair very short.（复合宾语）

2）不及物动词

不及物动词的特征就是不能使用宾语。

Many other struggles followed.

In1789his big chance for a major expedition came.

3）连系动词

1.连系动词是一种表谓语关系的动词，它必须后接表语。Be是最基本的连系动词。

My name is David.

After all,the ball is very important.

They are of great help to learners of English.

2.表示感觉和知觉的动词也是连系动词。He looks a nice,reliable man.

What are you cooking?It smells delicious.

★常用的连系动词有：

appear become come fall get go grow keep make prove remain seem turn

（3）动态动词&静态动词

动词按其词汇意义可分为动态动词（Dynamic Verb）和静态动词（Static Verb）。

1) 动态动词

动态动词大体分为三类：

a）表示持续动作的动词：drink，eat，read，write，walk，run，play，talk，fly，watch等。

b）表示短暂动作的动词：leave，go，come，see，arise，break，open，meet，close，join，jump，admit，discover等。

c）表示位移或状态改变的动词：become，turn，grow，change，come，go等。

2) 静态动词p111

静态动词表示存在于现在或过去的一种状态，是一种相对静止的动词，常用于非进行体，也可归纳为三类：

a）表示各种关系的动词：如contain，belong，consist of，have，concern，owe，involve，resemble，differ，exist，hold，cost，fit，lack，matter，compare，deserve，measure，weigh等。

b）表示感觉感知的动词：如feel，see，taste，smell，hear等。

c）表示心理状态的动词：如think，believe，know，consider，hope，want，mean，forget，remember，expect，understand，leave，hate，regret，envy，admire，suppose，fear，care等。

（4）单词动词&词组分词p113~115

（5）限定动词&非限定动词p116

限定动词和非限定动词从是否被主语所限定来分，动词有限定动词(finite verb)和非限定动词(non-finite verb)两大类。

限定动词形式：现在时、过去式

非限定动词形式：不定式、-ing分词、-ed分词

1)限定动词限定动词用作句子的谓语动词，并被主语所限定，有人称和数的变化。如：

He is a tractor driver.他是一个拖拉机手。

Facts are more eloquent than words.事实胜于雄辩。

We have friends all over the world.我们的朋友遍天下。

An apple falls by the force of gravitation.地心吸力使苹果落地。

2)非限定动词非限定动词有动词不定式、动名词和分词三种，在句子里都不能单独作谓语动词，故不被主语所限定，没有人称和数的变化。如：

I am pleased to meet you.我很高兴与你相识。(动词不定式)

Smoking is harmful to the health.吸烟对身体有害。(动名词)

I heard them singing the Internationale。我听见他们唱《国际歌》。(分词)

Spoken words are often more powerful than writing.语言往往比文字更有力。(分词)

不定式

(2) I was delighted to meet him.

(3) The clothes are easy to wash

动名词/分词

（1）Reading is an art.

（2）Swimming is a good sport in summer.

现在分词

（1）I saw the dog digging holes in the yard.

（2）Hearing the news, they immediately set off for Shanghai.

（3）He walked down the hill,singing softly to himself.

（4）If traveling north, you must change at Leeds.

过去分词

（1）developed country;fallen leaves;lost child

（2）Half of the guests invited to the party were foreigners.

（3）She can’t make herself understood in English.

非限定动词的双重性：

（1）非谓语动词具有动词的特性，可以带有自己的宾语、状语构成不定式短语、动词-ing短语，其短语可以有语态、时态的变化。例如：

Seeing his mother, the baby laughed. 看见妈妈，婴孩笑了。（动词-ing短语作状语）

Does he like reading English? 他喜欢读英语吗？（动词-ing短语作宾语）

We ran over to welcome the delegates. 我们跑过去欢迎代表们。（不定式短语作状语）

I am sorry to have disturbed you.

对不起，我打扰你了。（to have disturbed是to disturb的完成式，说明非谓语动词有时态变化，表示不定式的动作先于谓语动词的行为）

There is no time to be lost.

没有时间好去浪费。（to be lost是to lost的被动式，说明非谓语动词有语态上的变化，表示不定式与所修饰的词是被动关系）

（2）非谓语动词有非动词的特性，可以相当于名词、形容词、副词，它们在句子里可以作这些词类所能表示的句子成分。例如：

Smoking is a bad habit.吸烟是个坏习惯（动词-ing作主语）

How lovely the sleeping baby is!这熟睡的婴儿多可爱啊！（动词-ing作定语）

Stop talking. Class begins!别说话，上课！（动词-ing作宾语）

He came, laughing.他笑着过来了（动词-ing作状语）

（6）规则动词&不规则动词

规则动词：动词过去式和-ed 分词都在动词原形之后加-ed 构成。

不规则动词：动词不以词尾加-ed 的方式构成过去式和-ed 分词。

5. 动词的时和体

5.1 一般现在时p125~127

(1)表示经常性或习惯性的动作或存在的状态

(2)表示客观事实或普遍真理

(3)在时间、条件等状语从句中，用一般现在时表示将来时间

(4)表示现时状态和现在瞬间动作

(5)表示过去时间

5.2 一般过去时

(1)表示过去时间：在特定过去时间中一次完成的动作或一度存在的状态。

也可表示过去的习惯动作。

(2)表示现在时间和将来时间

1)表示婉转口气

2)在It’s time …，I wish …，I’d rather…等结构后面的that-分句中，以及在某些条件句中，表

示主观设想。

5.3 现在进行体

(1)表示现在正在进行的动作

(2)表示现阶段正在进行或从事的动作

(3)表示按计划安排近期内即将发生的动作

(4)其他用法

a)表示刚刚过去的动作

b)表示婉转口气

5.4 过去进行体

表示在过去某一时刻或某一段时间内进行或发生的动作。其形式为主语+was /were + V-ing。

(1)表示过去某一时间正在进行的动作

(2)表示过去某种习惯动作

(3)表示过去将来时间里的动作

(4)表示现在时间和将来时间里的动作

1)表示婉转口气

2)表示主观臆想的情况

(5)过去进行体与一般过去时用法比较

a)表示已完成的动作用一般过去时，表示未完成的动作用过去进行体。

b)一般过去时通常只说明过去某时发生某事，过去进行体则侧重在动作的持续时间，而不是说

明事实。

c)当一般过去时与过去进行体同时出现在句中时，通常是表示较短的动作用一般过去时，表示

较长时间的动作用过去进行体。

d)在口语中，说话人表示所谈内容是随便的呃，非故意的，或者无一定目的性，通常用过去进

行体。

e)注意一般过去时和过去进行体表示的动作的时间顺序。

* 1、一般过去时往往表示某一动作已经完成，而过去进行时却表示动作在持续或未完成。（延续性动词）

例：She wrote a letter to her friend last night. 她昨晚给朋友写了封信。（信写完了）

She was writing a letter to her friend last night. 她昨晚一直在给朋友写信。（信不一定写完）

2、一般过去时表示只做一次动作，而过去进行时却表示动作反复地进行。（短暂性动词）

例：She waved to me. 她朝我挥了挥手。

3、句中有a moment ago之类的短语一般用一般过去时。

4、句中有at this time last Sunday, from 8 to 9 yesterday 之类的状语一般用过去进行时。过去进行

时可以用来代替一般过去时，表示更为偶然而非预定的动作：

例：I was talking to Tom the other day．那天我跟汤姆聊天来着。

5.5 现在完成体和现在完成进行体的用法

(1)现在完成体的用法

现在完成体（由have/has+ -ed分词构成）有两个主要用法，即“已完成”用法和“未完成”用

新编英语语法教程(第6版)练习参考答案

新编英语语法教程（第6版）第21讲练习参考答案Ex. 21A was sorry to learn… will be sad to hear… would be very surprised to receive… is happy to have found… was afraid to go… was pleased to hear… am very anxious to meet you. were delighted to receive your telegram. were sensible to stay indoors. clerk was prompt to answer the call. rule is easy to remember. are reluctant to leave this neighbourhood. house is difficult to heat. you ready to leave would be foolish to go out in this weather. is quick to see the point. is very keen to get on. are proud to have him as a friend. was rude not to answer your letter. are happy to have you with us this evening. Ex. 21B decision to resign surprised all of us. showed no inclination to leave.

新编英语语法教程

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