Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s
外国企业文化文献
外国企业文化文献1. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.- This book explores the impact of culture on work-related values and behaviors in different countries. It provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and comparing cultural differences and their implications for multinational companies.2. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in business. New York: McGraw-Hill.- This book offers insights into cultural differences in business practices and provides practical advice for managing cultural diversity in multinational companies. It presents a model for understanding and navigating cultural differences in different business contexts.3. Adler, N. J. (2008). International dimensions of organizational behavior. Mason, OH: South-Western/Cengage Learning.- This textbook provides an overview of various aspects of organizational behavior in an international context. It covers topics such as cross-cultural communication, leadership, motivation, andteamwork, offering insights into the challenges and opportunities of managing multinational teams.4. Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Doubleday.- In this book, Edward T. Hall explores the concept of culture and its impact on communication and behavior. It delves into the differences between high-context and low-context cultures and provides valuable insights for understanding and navigating cultural differences in international business settings.5. Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.- This book examines the role of organizational culture in shaping the behavior and performance of companies. It explores the various layers of culture within organizations and offers practical guidance for managing and transforming company culture in a global context.These references provide a range of perspectives on the topic of foreign company culture and can serve as valuable resources for understanding and managing cultural differences in international business.。
组织文化测评的方法与工具
文化划分为四种类型： 团队型（ Ｃｌａｎ） 、层级型（ Ｈｉｅｒ－ ａｒｃｈｙ） 、市场型（ Ｍａｒｋｅｔ） 、活力型（ Ａｄｈｏｃｒａｃｙ） 。这四 种类型是根据六个维度各四个测量题项（ 分别对应 四种文化类型） 来进行判断的。六个维度分别是： 主 导特征、领导风格、员 工 管 理 、组 织 凝 聚 力 、战 略 重 点、成功准则。
５、Ｄｅｌｏｂｂｅ 等的研究（ ＥＣＯ） Ｄｅｌｏｂｂｅ 等人（ ２００２） 认为， 组织文化可以用五种 基本的核心文化维度进行衡量， 这五种核心维度是： 赞赏与支持、承诺与团结、创新与生产力、控制、持续 学习。ＥＣＯ 量表即基于这五种核心维度进行构建。 ６、肯尼迪等人的公司文化七要素模型 阿伦·肯尼迪和特雷斯·迪尔（ １９８７） 提出的公司 文化有七个要素， 位于中心的是核心价值观， 位于外 围的是企业环境， 中间的五个要素是企业领导风格、 英雄人物、文化网络、文化仪式、传说和故事。肯尼迪 等根据基于组织成员结构反馈和回报的速度及他们 承担的风险的大小将组织划分为四类： 硬汉型、并重 型、赌注型和过程性。 ７、ＣＡＴ 文化分析工具 美 国 ＮＥＷＬＥＡＤＥ 公 司 以 现 代 文 化 理 论 为 基 础， 提出了研究文化冲突与融合的文化分析工具， 侧 重于对文化矛盾的比较和分析， 由 １１ 个主要的文化 范畴 ２１ 个细分指标组成 １８０ 条陈述， 可以借此确定 ３９ 种可能的文化方向。 ８、Ｇｏｆｆｅｅ ＆ Ｊｏｎｅｓ 的双 Ｓ 立体模型 Ｇｏｆｆｅｅ 等 （ １９９８） 基 于 组 织 中 的 社 交 性 特 点 ， 根 据企业中组织的社交度和凝聚力两个维度将企业文 化分成了社交型、融合型、分散型、目标型四种， 每种 类型都存在着正面和负面效果。凝聚力指的是组织 成员思维方式的相似程度， 而社交度是组织成员相 互尊重和关心的程度。 ９、Ｋｌｕｃｋｈｏｌｎ ＆ Ｓｔｒｏｄｔｂｅｃｋ 的文化维度 Ｋｌｕｃｋｈｏｌｎ 等（ １９６１） 认为， 文化可以从如下六个 维度进行描述： 对人性的看法、与自然的关系、对他 人的责任、行为模式、私有空间、当下指向。对人性的 看法是指对人的本性的看法， 如好与坏； 与自然的关 系测量的是人们对自然的看法， 如权利与责任等； 对
比较世界文化差异
比较世界文化差异世界上有着丰富多样的文化，不同的国家和地区都有独特的传统、价值观和习俗。
这些差异使得我们能够领略到不同文化背景下的魅力和多样性。
在本文中，我们将探讨一些世界文化的差异，以帮助读者更好地理解并尊重其他文化。
一、家庭文化差异在不同的文化中，家庭的角色和结构可能存在显著的差异。
例如，在东方文化中，家庭被认为是社会结构的核心，强调家族的连续性和尊重年长者的传统。
而西方文化中，个人的自由和独立更受重视，家庭成员之间的关系可能相对松散。
二、饮食文化差异不同的文化对于食物的选择和对待方式也存在差异。
例如，中国文化中，饮食被视为一种重要的社交活动，人们通常会与家人或朋友一起分享一顿丰盛的饭菜。
相比之下，西方文化中，快餐文化更加普遍，更注重效率和方便。
三、礼仪文化差异世界各地的文化都有自己独特的礼仪规范。
在东方一些文化中，强调谦逊和尊重他人。
例如，在日本，人们会弯腰鞠躬来表示对对方的尊敬。
而在西方文化中，握手常被用作问候和交往方式。
四、宗教信仰差异宗教信仰在塑造各个文化中起着关键的作用。
不同的宗教信仰导致了不同的价值观和行为准则。
例如，伊斯兰教的信徒在饮食和着装方面有特定的规定，而印度教强调的轮回转世观对于印度文化产生了深远的影响。
五、社交习俗差异社交习俗也是文化差异的体现之一。
每个国家都有着自己独特的社交礼仪和方式。
例如，在日本，人们在进入房屋时会脱鞋，以显示对主人的尊重。
而在西方文化中，握手和拥抱通常被用作问候和道别的方式。
六、时间观念差异世界上不同文化的时间观念也存在一定差异。
一些文化注重准时和高效率，例如德国和瑞士；而一些文化则更注重弹性和灵活性，例如地中海国家。
这种时间观念差异在商务和社交方面都会产生影响。
结论通过比较世界文化差异，我们能够更好地理解和尊重其他文化。
这种文化差异的存在给我们带来了跨文化交流和学习的机会，使我们能够广泛开阔我们的视野，增进世界各地人民之间的交流与合作。
在全球化的今天，尊重和欣赏不同的文化已成为我们必须具备的素质之一。
文化维度“普遍主义及特殊主义”对营销伦理决策影响——中美营销专业本科..
摘要营销是商业中直接与消费者打交道的一个功能性领域伦理问题广泛地存在于营销领域中营销人员潜在的非伦理行为最容易受到消费者密切的关注乃至争议随着越来越多的企业步出国门将业务全球化营销人员遇到的伦理问题由于文化冲突的影响而变得日趋复杂因此理解文化差异对伦理决策的影响对于避免潜在的商业陷阱和制定有效的国际营销管理项目显得愈加重要特龙彭纳斯和汉普登在他们的研究中指出美国属于高度普遍主义国家而中国属于高度特殊主义国家本论文尝试着通过比较中美两国营销专业的本科生探讨性地研究文化维度普遍主义与特殊主义对营销伦理决策的影响本论文分析了普遍主义与特殊主义这一文化维度对伦理决策三个阶段的影响这三个阶段是伦理知觉伦理判断伦理行为意图研究的结果表明文化维度普遍主义与特殊主义对营销伦理决策有很大的影响在伦理知觉方面美国人比中国人更有可能认识到营销中涉及到特惠待遇的伦理问题在伦理判断方面营销中道义论评价对美国人作出的伦理判断的影响比对中国人作出的伦理判断的影响更显著而目的论评价对中国人作出的伦理判断的影响比对美国人的影响更显著在伦理行为意图方面目的论评价对中国人形成的行为意图的影响比对美国人形成的行为意图的影响更显著虽然本论文的研究在某些方面尤其在受试方面存在着局限性但作为一个探讨性研究其结果仍然可以证明整个伦理决策的过程的确受到文化维度普遍主义与特殊主义的影响关键词普遍主义特殊主义伦理决策营销文化差异AbstractAs a functional area within business that interfaces with the consumer, marketing tends to come under the greatest scrutiny, generate the most controversy and receive the most criticism with respect to potentially unethical business practices.As more and more firms operate globally, the ethical problems faced by marketing practitioners have become more and more complicated as different culture clashes. Therefore, an understanding of the effects of cultural differences on ethical decision-making becomes increasingly important for avoiding potential business pitfalls and for designing effective international marketing management programs.According to Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, the U.S.A. is ranked as a highly universalistic culture and China a highly particularistic culture. This dissertation attempts to make an exploratory study on the impact of the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism” on ethical decision-making in marketing by comparing Chinese and American marketing undergraduate students.The dissertation analyzes the impact of the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism” on the three stages of ethical decision-making including ethical perception, ethical judgment and ethical intention. The results show that the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism” has a great influence on ethical decision-making in marketing. On ethical perception, Americans are more likely than their Chinese counterparts to recognize ethical problems involving preferential treatment of one over another in marketing context. On ethical judgment, deontological evaluation has a greater impact for Americans than for their Chinese counterparts in marketing context and teleological evaluation has a greater impact for Chinese than for their American counterparts in the marketing context. On ethical intention, teleological evaluation has a greater impact for Chinese than for their American counterparts in the marketing context.Though this dissertation has several limitations especially in the aspect of subject, as an exploratory study, the results, in a sense, still prove the whole ethical decision-making process is influenced by the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism”.Key words: universalism, particularism, ethical decision-making, marketing,cultural differencesChapter One Introduction1.1 Statement of the ProblemToday, it is difficult to pick up a newspaper or magazine that does not contain stories about questionable business behaviors, especially about the questionable marketing practices. Vitell, Lumpkin and Rawwas (1991)state, “Since marketing is the functional area within business that interfaces with the consumer, it tends to come under the greatest scrutiny, generates the most controversy and receives the most criticism with respect to potentially unethical business practices. Advertising, personal selling, marketing research and international marketing are all the subjects of the most frequent ethical controversy.”(p.366)Concurrently, research examining ethical issues of the marketing has increased dramatically in the last decade. Within this general stream of research on marketing ethics, ethical decision-making (EDM) has been identified as one of the major topics of interest. In a review article of the EDM literature, Ford and Richardson (1994) cited 62 articles investigating variables which have been hypothesized to influence ethical beliefs and behaviors. These variables are categorized into individual and situational factors. Variables that are related to the individual factors include nationality (i.e., culture), religion, sex, age, education, employment, and personality. Situational variables include referent groups, rewards and sanctions, codes of conduct, type of ethical conflict, organizational effects, industry, and business competitiveness. However, as more and more firms operate globally, an understanding of the effects of cultural differences on ethical decision-making becomes increasingly important for avoiding potential business pitfalls and for designing effective international marketing management programs.The concept of culture recognizes that individuals from different backgrounds are exposed to different traditions, heritages, rituals, customs, and religions. All of these factors establish and provide human beings with various learning environments and histories, which in turn cause significant variations in moral standards, beliefs, and behaviors across cultures (Vitell, Nwachukwu, & Barnes, 1993). In other words, culture not only influences learning, but also impacts what is perceived as right/wrong,acceptable/unacceptable, and ethical/unethical. For example, individuals with different cultural backgrounds may view the following terms dramatically differently, such as bribes, sexual harassment, sexual orientation, abortion, individual espionage, and religious beliefs. Failure to recognize these differences across cultures may result in conflicts and negative business consequences.While there are a number of conceptual frameworks for understanding cultural differences, such as the ones proposed by Hofstede (1980), Hall (Samovar, Porter & Stefani, 2000), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (ibid) and Trompennars and Hampden-Turner (1998),arguably the two most influential and widely known cultural perspectives that have been applied to business management and organization are the one of Hofstede and the one of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (Dahl, 2004). Both of them have studied people in multinational companies, collected huge databases and then classified nationalities in idealized, typical dimensions of culture.Although there is no dearth of cross-cultural studies of marketing ethics, almost all these ethical studies (both empirical and theoretical) have almost exclusively incorporated Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in defining or describing national culture to the exclusion of other contributions from the literature (Gopalan &Thomson, 2003). Contributions made by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) that addressed the impact of cultural dynamic on human relationships have been virtually ignored by the scholars who have investigated the effect of national culture on ethics. This triggers the author of this dissertation to utilize Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimension to explore the effect of national culture on ethics.1.2 Purpose and Significance of the StudyBased on the above discussion, this study attempts to fill a significant gap by extending the research scope of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions to the study of ethical decision-making. The emphasis of this study is placed on the impact of the dimension “universalism versus particularism” (or universalism/particularism) on the ethical decision-making process and criteria. More specifically, the primary purposes of this study are: (1) to utilize one of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions, i.e., “universalism versus particularism”, to explain the cross-cultural differences in ethical perception; (2) to test how “universalism versus particularism” dynamic influences the relative weight given to deontological and teleological evaluations when making ethical judgments and forming ethical intentions.Some argue that ethical issues cannot be the concern of business because business occupies a special place and that it will be impossible to fulfill its functions if it focuses on ethical issues. However, no business can operate purely on the basis of self-interest over the long run. As part of a larger social system, marketers feel the pressure of society’s concerns for truth, honesty, altruism, and respect for human beings. Trust, fairness, honesty, and respect for others are critical values that are essential to business success. The free market system, with its allocation of scarce resources, can and does drive out those who serve less well the needs of customers and the society. If the marketplace’s expectations are not met, the product and the company may go out of existence. To put it bluntly, those individuals who serve only themselves will be replaced by others who serve the needs of the marketplace better. To survive in the long term, business and marketing must operate on ethical grounds.Ethical problems faced by marketing practitioners stem from conflicts and disagreements and they are relationship problems (Chonko, 1995).Each party in a marketing transaction brings a set of expectations regarding how the business relationship should exist and how transactions should be conducted. For example, when you, as a consumer, want to purchase something from a retailer, you bring the following expectations about the transaction: you want to be treated fairly by the retail salesperson; you want to pay a reasonable price; and you want the product to be available as advertising says it will be and in the indicated condition. Unfortunately, your expectations might not be in agreement with those of the retailer. The retail salesperson may not have time for you; or the retailer’s perception of a reasonable price may differ from yours; or the advertising of the product may be misleading. In such situations, ethical conflict occurs as one individual believes that his or her duties and responsibilities to one group (e.g., the retail salesperson’s responsibility to the store) are inconsistent with his or her duties and responsibilities to another group (e.g., the retail salesperson’s responsibilities to the customer) or to himself or herself. Simply put, people will often disagree about which action is best in a given situation.Internationally, these ethical problems will become more complicated as different cultures clash. The significance of ethics and its impact on successful marketing should be amplified in the international context, particularly when the parties involved hold different sets of cultural values. Moreover, a firm expanding its operation to other countries by direct investment or joint venture will inevitably face ethical dilemmas that may not be encountered in familiar, domestic markets. Thus MultinationalCorporations’ ethical capability—organization’s capability to identify and respond effectively to ethical issues in a global context—is a sustainable source of competitive advantage (Buller & McEvoy, 1999). As we know, with the accelerated race of globalization, economic interdependence and interaction between countries are becoming ever stronger. In this massive tide of economic globalization, no country can develop and prosper in isolation. Therefore, it would seem important to understand the ethical decision-making processes and criteria of individuals from different cultures, and how differences in cultural values may affect decision-making processes and criteria.This study extends the research scope of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions to ethical decision-making and also shows some distinct patterns in ethical judgment and ethical intention to match universalism and particularism with the relative weight given to deontological and teleological evaluations. Findings from this study will allow international firms to better identify the inherent cultural differences which lead to different perceptions of ethical dilemmas of employees and to adopt effective sales management practices appropriate for those differences. Considering that individuals with different cultural backgrounds possess different ethical standards, some marketing practices might be perceived as ethical by some marketing practitioners and unethical by others. Therefore, a greater understanding of how cultural differences affect EDM across employees in different countries will allow international firms to formulate and adopt appropriate management practices that better safeguard against potential unethical behaviors.In addition, the present situation of China indicates that it is necessary to compare the differences in ethical decision-making between China and the U.S. China has learnt from her long history that isolation leads to backwardness. Development, progress and prosperity could only be achieved through opening to and integrating with the outside world, through stepping up exchanges and cooperation with other countries and through absorbing all fine results of human civilization. According to China Statistical Yearbook 2004, China’s share of world trade increased from about 1% to almost 6% between 1979 (when China started to open up) and 2003; China’s share of global inflows of foreign direct investment was almost 10% in 2003 (US $53 billion of a world total of US $560 billion) and China had 200,000 firms that were either foreign affiliates or funded from foreign sources, which made China the world’s largest recipient of FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in 2003. And the USA is the top source countries forChina’s FDI. In fact, China’s economic interactions with the other nations not only lie in FDI inflows but also outward FDI flows. China is now increasingly visible as a foreign investor and the USA’s share of China’s outward FDI becomes greater and greater. In 2003, China overtook the US and became the 6th largest outward investor among developing countries. Given the country’s rapid economic development and the government’s interest in encouraging outward FDI, China might emerge as a large source of FID in the near future. UNCTAD’s (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) Global Investment Prospects Assessment Survey found that a number of Investment Promotion Agencies (IPAs) ranked China as a possible top source of FDI during 2004-2007 (/TEMPLATES/webflyer.asp).1.3 OutlineThere are five chapters in this dissertation. The first chapter is introduction, which covers the purpose and significance of the study as well as the outline of this dissertation. Chapter Two is a review of relevant literatures; both theoretical and empirical perspectives are considered. In this chapter, the author firstly describes the definitions of three key terms in this study, i.e., culture, ethics, and ethical decision-making in marketing, and then states the relationship between culture and ethical decision-making. Secondly, a number of studies related to cultural differences are briefly reviewed. After that, the dissertation gives a general description of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s seven cultural dimensions. Thirdly, the three major stages of ethical decision-making, i.e., ethical perception, ethical judgment, and ethical intention, are introduced. Finally, the relevant theoretical and empirical studies are reviewed. In Chapter Three Research Methodology, the author first advances the research hypotheses based on the literature review. And then the methodological procedures which will be used to test the hypotheses are presented. Chapter Four contains the results of the research and a comprehensive discussion of the results. Chapter Five is a conclusion chapter that will present the major findings, limitations of the study, implications for future studies and marketing practitioners.Chapter Two Literature Review2.1 Culture and Ethical Decision-Making2.1.1 CultureCulture is an umbrella word that encompasses a whole set of implicit, widely shared beliefs, traditions, values and expectations that characterize a particular group of people. Giving a definition to “culture” is not as easy as it sounds. “Culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional, complex and all-pervasive.” (Samovar, Porter & Stefani, 2000, p.36) Anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, philologist, and so on—all kinds of experts or scholars have attempted to give a definition to culture.Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952), in their extensive literature review, listed over one hundred definitions of culture in an effort to develop one that would be acceptable to a range of social scientists. They defined culture as “…patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups…the essential (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values” (p.357).Hofstede (1984)refers to culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one human group from another…the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influence a human group’s response to the environment” (p.21). Besides, Hofstede (1994) proposes a set of four layers of culture, each of which encompasses the lower level, as it depends on the lower level, or is a result of the lower level. At the core of Hofstede’s model of culture are values, or in his words, “broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others”(Hofstede, 1994, p. 8). These values form the most hidden layer of culture. Values as such represent the ideas that people have about how things ought to be. In this way, Hofstede (1994) emphasizes the assumption that “values are strongly influencing behaviors” (p.9).Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) state that “culture is the shared ways in which groups of people understand and interpret the world…culture has three layers: (1) explicit products; (2) norms and values; (3) assumptions about existence” (p.20). Among these three layers, values determine the definition of “good and bad”, andtherefore are closely related to the ideals shared by a group and the basic assumptions in the third layers are somewhat similar to values in Hofstede’s model, a lower level of values, i.e. basic assumptions are the absolute core values that influence the more visible values in the layer above (Dahl, 2004).In the book International Business Culture, the author Mitchell (2000)gives us a formal definition “Culture is a set of learned core values, beliefs, standards, knowledge, morals, laws, and behaviors shared by individuals and societies that determines how an individual acts, feels, and views oneself and others” (p.4). Mitchell (2000) defines culture in terms of its components, he believed that “to view a country’s culture from the outside can be intimidating, but breaking it down into its components and understanding how each component is related to the whole can help to unwrap the enigma and provide some logic and motivation behind behaviors, including business behaviors”(p.5).The common thread throughout the above various definitions is the acknowledgment of differences in values and behaviors across different cultures. From these definitions we can see that culture has both physical and nonphysical components. The physical aspects of culture are tangible and functional, such as music, crafts, artistic objects, poetry and arts. The nonphysical aspects of culture constitute the mental values which people use to characterize their environment and view their relationships with nature. These cultural characteristics differentiate one group of people from another.In addition, we should also be aware that there is a significant debate about what level of analysis is desirable for the concept of culture to be a viable tool (Dahl, 2004).In more practical terms, national boundaries have been the preferred level of resolution, and therefore countries or nations are considered as the preferred unit of analysis. Just as Adler (1997) observes, “national boundaries are implicitly accepted as operational definitions of culturally distinct units in cross-cultural management research” (p.31).There are several good arguments for this: Firstly, the nationality of a person can easily be established, whereas membership of a sub-culture is more difficult to establish, particularly in cases where individuals may declare themselves members of various sub-cultures at the same time. The use of nationality is therefore avoiding unnecessary duplication and removes ambiguity in the research process, as the nationality of a person can usually be established easily. Secondly, there is considerable support for the notion that people coming from one country will be shaped by largely the same valuesand norms as their co-patriots (Hofstede, 1991). In fact, nearly all the empirical cross-cultural studies on ethics (e.g., Singhapakdi, Vitell, & Leelakulthanit, 1994; Armstrong & Sweeney, 1994; Karande, Shankarmahesh, Rao, & Rashid, 2000) have utilized nationality as a proxy of culture. Therefore, this dissertation was no exception and used two countries (i.e., China and the U.S.A.) as the surrogates of the cultural dimension universalism/particularism.2.1.2 Ethical Decision Making in Marketing2.1.2.1 Definition of Ethics“Unethical” acts were committed throughout history: Christianity has Adam eating the forbidden fruit, Cain murdering his brother. The majority of the ancient Greek philosophers devoted much of their time to developing theories of ethics. The early theories studied ethics from a normative perspective, meaning that they were concerned with “constructing and justifying the moral standards and codes that one ought to follow” (Vitell, 1986, p.4). On the other side, a positive perspective of ethics attempted to describe and explain how individuals actually behave in ethical situations.One of the major preoccupations of ethical theorists was to create a definition of ethics. As with the majority of concepts, ethics was defined differently by different theorists.Runes states that “ethical behavior refers to ‘just’ or ‘right’ standards of behavior between parties in a situation” (qtd. in Beu & Buckley, 2001, p.59). On the same line, Barry defines ethics as “the study of what constitutes good and bad human conduct, including related actions and values” (ibid).According to DeGeorge(1982), ethics is the study of morality. He argues: Morality is a term used to cover those practices and activities that areconsidered importantly right and wrong, the rules which govern thoseactivities and the values that are imbedded, fostered, or pursued by thoseactivities and practices. The morality of a society is related to its mores or thecustoms accepted by a society or group as being the right and wrong ways toact as well as to the laws of a society which add legal prohibitions andsanctions to many activities considered to be immoral (pp. 13-15).Similarly, Taylor defines ethics as “…inquiry into the nature and grounds of morality where the term morality is taken to mean moral judgments, standards, and rules of conduct” (qtd. in Akaah, 1996, p.606). Ferrell and Fraedrich(1991) describe it as “the study and philosophy of human conduct with an emphasis on determination ofright and wrong” (p.4).In the book Ethical Marketing Decisions, Laczniak and Murphy (1993) wrote, “ethics is one of those subjects where people cannot say anything of substance without revealing quite a bit about their own values and it has two dimensions” (p.10). First, ethics, via its foundation in moral philosophy, provides various models and frameworks for handling ethical situations (Laczniak & Murphy, 1993). That is, there are various approaches to ethical reasoning. For instance, ethics leads us to consider whether we should judge the moral appropriateness of business decisions based on the consequences for various stakeholders or on the basis of the intentions held by the decision-maker when a particular action is selected. Differing approaches may lead us to similar conclusions or divergent conclusions about the “ethicalness” of a particular action. The second dimension of ethics refers to ethics as the right thing to do (ibid). When people say that someone is acting ethically, they usually mean individuals are doing what is morally correct.From the above definitions, we can see the underpinning for having a feeling about what one ought to do comes mostly from our values. Carroll (1996) points out that “ethics is a set of moral principles that drives behavior… Values are the individual’s concepts of the relative worth, utility or importance of certain ideas. ...One’s values, therefore, shape one’s ethics.” (pp. 133-134)2.1.2.2 Ethical Decision Making in MarketingVitell (1986) applied Taylor’s definition of ethics to define marketing ethics as “an inquiry into the nature and grounds of moral judgments, standards, and the rules of conduct relating to marketing decisions and marketing situations.” (p.4) Marketing ethics examines systematically marketing and marketing morality related to 4P-issues, such as unsafe products, deceptive pricing, deceptive advertising, bribery, or discrimination in distribution (Smith & Quelch, 1993).Research on marketing ethics can be divided into six categories: causes of unethical behavior; the relationship between ethical behavior and profitability; social marketing ethics; surveys of various publics; development of normative ethical theories; and ethical decision-making. Within this stream of research on marketing ethics, ethical decision-making has been identified as one of the major topics of interest(Lu, Rose & Blodgett, 1999).Ethical decision-making is a subset of business decision-making because not all the business decisions have ethical ramifications. It is actually the business decision-makingwhen ethical considerations are involved. According to Holt (1990), decision-making is the process of identifying problems and opportunities, developing alternative solutions, choosing a preferred alternative, and then implementing it. When making a decision, the decision maker reaches a conclusion based on the evaluation of options or alternatives. Therefore, ethical decision-making can be defined as a process of choosing a course of action based on what is right and fair in and of itself, or for the common good.For the purpose here, ethical decision-making refers to discretionary decision-making behavior, which “determines how conflicts in human interests are to be settled and …optimizes mutual benefit…for people living together in groups” (Rest, 1986, p.1). Ethical decision-making in marketing refers to the process of making marketing decisions when ethical dilemmas are involved. In business firms, marketing is the most visible functional area because of its frequent interfaces with the customers. Most marketing decisions have ethical ramifications whether business executives realize it or not. When the actions are taken properly, the ethical dimensions go unnoticed and attention centers upon the economic efficiencies and managerial astuteness of the decisions. But such is not always the case. When a marketing decision is ethically troublesome, its highly visible outcomes can be a public embarrassment or even worse.Just as the process of business decision-making, the ethical decision-making process begins when an individual recognizes an ethical dilemma. Subsequently, the individual makes judgments and forms behavioral intentions that are thought to be predictive of actual behavior.2.1.3 Relationship between Culture and Ethical Decision-Making in MarketingFrom the above definition of ethical decision-making in marketing, we know that to explore the relationship between culture and ethical decision-making in marketing is actually to explore the relationship between culture and ethical decision-making.Matthew wrote “What good will it be...[to gain] the whole world, yet [forfeit one’s] soul? Or what can [one] give in exchange for [one’s] soul?” (qtd. in Chonko, 1995, p.4) This statement is at the heart of ethical decision-making, as is the following verse from Taoism: “[One] who stands on tiptoe doesn’t stand firm. [One] who rushes ahead doesn’t go far. [One] who tries to shine dims [one’s] own light” (ibid). These two statements imply gains and losses from actions. Actions imply a choice between alternative courses of action. Evaluating those alternative courses of action implies weighing the pros and cons of each alternative as seen by the individual and as seen by others with whom the individual interacts. These choices form the heart of the problems。
独立董事报酬的决定因素与公司治理特征
特征，学会了适应中方员工提问题、做决策和接受指示的方式，懂得了如何与具有不同背景、语言、态度、价值观的中国人打交道，懂得了必须使自己的技术和管理诀窍适应中国的环境，同时还必须应付那些比在本国遇到的还要复杂的政治、经济问题。
通过上述措施，大多数外派的法方管理人员能够较快地适应中国的工作环境，顺利、有效地完成了法方指派的任务。
(2) 培养外向型的中方管理人员把中方一些训练有素的管理人员放到一些岗位上做“影子培训”，让他们和法方一起工作，掌握技术的同时还熟悉了跨文化工作的技巧，为今后承担更重要的任务打下基础，大亚湾核电在这方面做得非常成功。
在核电建设和运营期间，大亚湾核电还有意识地委派一些中方管理骨干担任法方、港方管理人员的副手，给外方当学生，学习他们的管理经验和技术。
通过这些措施，使中方管理人员具备了以下技能：① 创新管理技能。
包括与外方的文化或其它业务整合在一起，从而形成新管理文化的较高能力；对环境变化的适用能力；能意识到企业的发展，承认并能评估中外方的差距，能从质和量的角度分析影响企业业务经营的因素，在合作中用不同方式解决问题的能力等。
② 管理核电的业务技能。
中方管理人员不断地虚心学习外方先进的管理技术，努力提高自己管理核电的业务技能。
目前，大亚湾核电的管理人员主要由中方担任，他们通过学习、提高、创新，不仅掌握了管理核电的业务技能，而且还结合中国的文化，创造性地形成了具有大亚湾特色的管理模式。
③ 冲突管理的技能。
在大亚湾核电的建设和运营过程中，中外方不仅面临着一般企业的个人冲突和部门冲突问题，而且还面临着跨文化的冲突。
因此，大亚湾核电的管理人员应有冲突管理的能力。
中方管理人员正是具备了这些能力和技巧才能够提前从法方手中顺利地接管大亚湾核电站的生产并取得令业内同行瞩目的成就。
参考文献[1]Geert Hofstede. Do American Theories Apply Abroad—A Replyto Goodstein and Hunt. Organizational Dynamics, Summer, 1981,(51): 63-117.[2]Geert Hofstede, Michael H. Bond. The Confucius Connection:From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth. Organizational Dynamics, 1988, 16(4): 4-21.[3](美)约翰 B·库仑著, 邱立成等译. 多国管理战略要经. 北京:机械工业出版社, 2000, (1): 38-41.[4]Fons Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner. Riding the Waves ofCulture, Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business. 2nd Edition, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 1998, 49-156. [5]Edward T. Hall. How Cultures Collide. Psychology Today, July,1976, 67-76.[6]Edward T. Hall, Mildred Reed Hall. Key Concepts: UnderlyingStructure of Culture, in International Management Behavior: Text,Reading and Case, 4th edition, Hanry W. Lane, Joseph J. andMartha L. Maznevski(ed.), Blachwell Business, 2000, 63-81.[7]张新胜, 王湲, （澳）杰夫·拉索尔, （澳）迈克尔·M·伯瑞尔等. 国际管理学——全球化时代的管理. 北京: 中国人民大学出版社, 2002, 166-184.[8]黎永泰, 黎伟. 企业管理的文化阶梯. 成都: 四川人民出版社,2003, 7(1): 468-475.[9]唐炎钊．“CCIOT”模型：中外合资企业跨文化管理研究新视角. 经济管理, 2004, (12): 17-23.[10] 姜岩．中外企业文化的交流、冲突与协调——以中外合资企业文化建设为例. 决策借鉴, 2000, 13(2): 14-19.[11] 荣敬本, 浦文昌. 社会资本的增值裂变——论大亚湾模式.中央编译出版社, 2004, 12-14.[12]广东核电高层管理文件汇集. 濮继龙广东核电文稿选编: 广东核电站管理工作的经验反馈.原子能出版社, 2000, 9(1):340-241.[13]（德）帕特里希亚·派尔—舍勒著, 姚燕译. 跨文化管理. 北京: 中国社会科学出版社, 1998, 3.作者简介 唐炎钊，厦门大学管理学院副教授，管理学博士，研究方向为跨文化管理、企业危机管理、创业投资和创业管理；陆玮，华中科技大学管理学院博士研究生，大亚湾核电运营管理有限责任公司总经理助理Research on the “Diamond Structure”Model of Cross-cultural Management within Sino-Foreign Joint Ven-tures: The Cross-cultural Management Practices of DayaBay Nuclear Power StationTang Yanzhao, Lu WeiAbstract This paper puts forward to a “Diamond Structure” modelbased on enterprises’ microcosmic aspects to settle the cross-culturemanagement problems of Sino-Foreign Joint Ventures, and carrieson traditional cross-culture management methods which. pointed atnational culture. And then the model will be adopted to analyze thecross-cultural management practices of Daya Bay Nuclear PowerStation. Finally we discuss the main measures of cross-cultural man-agement in Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station, to use for references ofSino-foreign cross-cultural management.Key Words Sino-Foreign Joint Ventures; Cross-Cultural Manage-ment; Diamond Structure; Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station摘要我国上市独立董事的功能受到很多质疑，直接涉及到独立董事获得的报酬的恰当性。
霍氏跨文化研究理论
霍夫斯戴德的文化价值理论Geert Hofsted’s Cultural Value Theory（太原工业学院外语系张晓玲）摘要：荷兰文化学者吉尔特·霍夫斯戴德教授的跨文化研究理论总结了反映民族文化差异和价值观念的五个独立维度,并且计算出了50多个国家和地区在这五个维度上的量值，基本上描绘了一个民族的文化特征，从而揭示了不同文化之间量的差异性。
本文从霍夫斯戴德提出的“洋葱式”文化里论入手来阐述他的文化价值理论，同时强调其理论无论是对于跨文化研究这门学科或是社会实践都有着诸多值得借鉴之处。
关键词：霍夫斯戴德文化理论文化差异Abstract:In the early 1980s, Geert Hofstede analyzed a large data base of employee values scores collected by IBM between 1967 and 1973 covering more than 70 countries. From the initial results, and later additions, Hofstede developed a model that identifies four primary dimensions to assist in differentiating cultures: Power Distance (PDI) , Individualism (IDV), Masculinity (MAS), and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) and Long-Term Orientation ( LTO).In his opinion, culture is like the layers of an onion around a core that consists of values. This paper briefly explicates the research method, results and limitations of Hofstede’s theory.Key Words: Geert Hofstede,cultural value theory, cultural differences语言是文化的载体，中西文化的差异导致了跨文化交际中的冲突，导致文化休克（culture shock）。
乐高愿景使命价值观
乐高愿景使命价值观很多事件都有可能动摇公司的根基，迫使你重新审视公司的使命。
公司的价值观可能并没有改变，但是你必须探索新的途径来实现它。
企业使命是企业有在的目的和理由，是企业在与环境的互动过程中确定的。
恒久的使命确定了企业生产经营的总方向、总目的、总特征和总的指导思想，揭示本企业与同行业其他企业在目标上的差异，以及企业试图满足的顾客基本需求。
在以网络科技和知识管理为特征的新经济下，能够根据市场的变化不断尝试使用新手段的企业才是永远的企业。
本文谈到的乐高集团，在困难时候谨记企业使命，在危机中获得新生。
乐高集团对本身事业归纳的五大主题值得中国企业管理者们借鉴与思考。
丹麦的儿童组合积木生产商乐高公司（LEG0）面临着艰难选择。
如何选择产品的销售对象一儿童还是他们的父母？回答是“两者都是"。
产品是供孩子们玩耍还是用于学习？也是“两者都是”。
公司是在做塑料积木的生意，还是在开发智力的游戏？回答还是"两者皆是"。
事实上，乐高公司所寻求的是顾客满意度，他们对产品的满意程度越大，公司就越兴旺发达。
乐高公司最近经受住了一次严俊的考验。
乐高集团的管理班子成员CHRistian Ma jgaard身临第一线，同执行总裁KjeldKirk Kristiansen并肩工作，执行公司的环球瘦身计划（World Wide FITness Programme），以度过经济的“暴风骤雨"。
1998年，东南亚市场崩溃，随即俄罗斯市场步其后尘，导致乐高公司税后亏损超过2，400万美元。
这次危机使乐高清楚的认识到问题所在：船大难掉头，大规模的扩张妨碍了调整方向的速度和应对动荡局势的能力。
此时此刻，最关键的问题是公司使命的确立：乐高究竟代表什么？如何进行创新来重塑品牌形象，和重新树立该公司长期以来在孩子们以及父母心目中所占据的位置？乐高所代表的价值观是恒久不变的，但是必须找到新的途径来实现这种价值观，比如借助现代媒体。
国际企业跨文化管理的概念模型与策略分析
国际企业跨文化管理的概念模型与策略分析1. 本文概述本文旨在深入探讨国际企业在全球化进程中面临的跨文化管理挑战，并构建一套系统化的概念模型，用于指导企业在多元文化环境中有效运营及管理。
我们将对跨文化管理的基本理论框架进行综述，包括关键概念、重要原则以及跨文化差异对企业经营管理的影响机制。
针对国际企业实际运作中的案例研究，剖析跨文化冲突、沟通障碍、人力资源管理、市场营销策略等方面的实践问题，提炼出一套具有普适性的跨文化管理策略。
结合现代管理理念和前沿研究成果，本研究将尝试构建一个适用于不同文化背景下的跨国企业管理模型，并就如何实施该模型提出具体的操作建议和改进措施，以为国际企业的长远发展提供有力的战略支持和决策参考。
通过全文的研究与讨论，预期能够增进对跨文化管理复杂性的理解，并为企业在全球范围内的成功经营提供实用且前瞻性的解决方案。
2. 跨文化管理理论基础跨文化管理理论基础是理解和实施有效国际企业管理的关键构成部分。
该理论体系源自多个学科领域，包括社会学、心理学、人类学以及管理学等，它旨在帮助企业领导者和管理者适应并利用不同文化背景下的差异性来优化组织绩效。
霍夫斯泰德的文化维度理论（Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Theory）是最具影响力的理论之一。
该理论通过五个基本维度——权力距离、不确定性规避、个人主义与集体主义、男性度与女性度（现改为MASculinityFemininity，更正为AssertivenessTemperance）、长期取向与短期取向，对全球不同国家和地区的文化差异进行了量化评估，为企业理解文化差异对组织行为和决策的影响提供了框架。
蒂莫西杜宁（Trompenaars）和查尔斯哈迪（Charles HampdenTurner）提出的文化动态模型则关注文化价值观在具体情境中的相对性，提出了诸如普遍主义与特殊主义、个人主义与关系主义、具体主义与抽象主义、线性时间观与循环时间观等对比概念，这些概念有助于跨国企业调整其管理模式以适应不同文化环境。