Heavy Fermion Quantum Criticality
2015国际青年物理学家锦标赛(IYPT)赛题翻译
Problems for the 28th IYPT 20151. PackingThe fraction of space occupied by granular particles depends on their shape. Pour non-spherical particles such as rice, matches, or M&M’s candies into a box. How do characteristics like coordination number, orientational order, or the random close packing fraction depend on the relevant parameters?1.堆积(Packing)被颗粒状物体(particles)占据的小部分空间取决于它们的形状。
将例如米、火柴或M&M糖果的非球状物体倾倒进一个盒子里，相关参量如何影响配位数(coordination number)、秩序性排列(orientational order)和随机紧密堆积分数(random close packing fraction)这样的特征？2. Plume of SmokeIf a burning candle is covered by a transparent glass, the flame extinguishes and a steady upward stream of smoke is produced. Investigate the plume of smoke at various magnifications.2.羽状的烟/烟羽(Plume of smoke)如果一支燃烧着的蜡烛被一块透明玻璃板覆盖，火焰会熄灭，并且产生一缕稳定的向上流动的轻烟。
研究在各种放大倍数下的羽状的烟。
Singularity of the density of states in the two-dimensional Hubbard model from finite size
a r X i v :c o n d -m a t /9503139v 1 27 M a r 1995Singularity of the density of states in the two-dimensional Hubbard model from finitesize scaling of Yang-Lee zerosE.Abraham 1,I.M.Barbour 2,P.H.Cullen 1,E.G.Klepfish 3,E.R.Pike 3and Sarben Sarkar 31Department of Physics,Heriot-Watt University,Edinburgh EH144AS,UK 2Department of Physics,University of Glasgow,Glasgow G128QQ,UK 3Department of Physics,King’s College London,London WC2R 2LS,UK(February 6,2008)A finite size scaling is applied to the Yang-Lee zeros of the grand canonical partition function for the 2-D Hubbard model in the complex chemical potential plane.The logarithmic scaling of the imaginary part of the zeros with the system size indicates a singular dependence of the carrier density on the chemical potential.Our analysis points to a second-order phase transition with critical exponent 12±1transition controlled by the chemical potential.As in order-disorder transitions,one would expect a symmetry breaking signalled by an order parameter.In this model,the particle-hole symmetry is broken by introducing an “external field”which causes the particle density to be-come non-zero.Furthermore,the possibility of the free energy having a singularity at some finite value of the chemical potential is not excluded:in fact it can be a transition indicated by a divergence of the correlation length.A singularity of the free energy at finite “exter-nal field”was found in finite-temperature lattice QCD by using theYang-Leeanalysisforthechiral phase tran-sition [14].A possible scenario for such a transition at finite chemical potential,is one in which the particle den-sity consists of two components derived from the regular and singular parts of the free energy.Since we are dealing with a grand canonical ensemble,the particle number can be calculated for a given chem-ical potential as opposed to constraining the chemical potential by a fixed particle number.Hence the chem-ical potential can be thought of as an external field for exploring the behaviour of the free energy.From the mi-croscopic point of view,the critical values of the chemical potential are associated with singularities of the density of states.Transitions related to the singularity of the density of states are known as Lifshitz transitions [15].In metals these transitions only take place at zero tem-perature,while at finite temperatures the singularities are rounded.However,for a small ratio of temperature to the deviation from the critical values of the chemical potential,the singularity can be traced even at finite tem-perature.Lifshitz transitions may result from topological changes of the Fermi surface,and may occur inside the Brillouin zone as well as on its boundaries [16].In the case of strongly correlated electron systems the shape of the Fermi surface is indeed affected,which in turn may lead to an extension of the Lifshitz-type singularities into the finite-temperature regime.In relating the macroscopic quantity of the carrier den-sity to the density of quasiparticle states,we assumed the validity of a single particle excitation picture.Whether strong correlations completely distort this description is beyond the scope of the current study.However,the iden-tification of the criticality using the Yang-Lee analysis,remains valid even if collective excitations prevail.The paper is organised as follows.In Section 2we out-line the essentials of the computational technique used to simulate the grand canonical partition function and present its expansion as a polynomial in the fugacity vari-able.In Section 3we present the Yang-Lee zeros of the partition function calculated on 62–102lattices and high-light their qualitative differences from the 42lattice.In Section 4we analyse the finite size scaling of the Yang-Lee zeros and compare it to the real-space renormaliza-tion group prediction for a second-order phase transition.Finally,in Section 5we present a summary of our resultsand an outlook for future work.II.SIMULATION ALGORITHM AND FUGACITY EXPANSION OF THE GRAND CANONICALPARTITION FUNCTIONThe model we are studying in this work is a two-dimensional single-band Hubbard HamiltonianˆH=−t <i,j>,σc †i,σc j,σ+U i n i +−12 −µi(n i ++n i −)(1)where the i,j denote the nearest neighbour spatial lat-tice sites,σis the spin degree of freedom and n iσis theelectron number operator c †iσc iσ.The constants t and U correspond to the hopping parameter and the on-site Coulomb repulsion respectively.The chemical potential µis introduced such that µ=0corresponds to half-filling,i.e.the actual chemical potential is shifted from µto µ−U412.(5)This transformation enables one to integrate out the fermionic degrees of freedom and the resulting partition function is written as an ensemble average of a product of two determinantsZ ={s i,l =±1}˜z = {s i,l =±1}det(M +)det(M −)(6)such thatM ±=I +P ± =I +n τ l =1B ±l(7)where the matrices B ±l are defined asB ±l =e −(±dtV )e −dtK e dtµ(8)with V ij =δij s i,l and K ij =1if i,j are nearestneigh-boursand Kij=0otherwise.The matrices in (7)and (8)are of size (n x n y )×(n x n y ),corresponding to the spatial size of the lattice.The expectation value of a physical observable at chemical potential µ,<O >µ,is given by<O >µ=O ˜z (µ){s i,l =±1}˜z (µ,{s i,l })(9)where the sum over the configurations of Ising fields isdenoted by an integral.Since ˜z (µ)is not positive definite for Re(µ)=0we weight the ensemble of configurations by the absolute value of ˜z (µ)at some µ=µ0.Thus<O >µ= O ˜z (µ)˜z (µ)|˜z (µ0)|µ0|˜z (µ0)|µ0(10)The partition function Z (µ)is given byZ (µ)∝˜z (µ)N c˜z (µ0)|˜z (µ0)|×e µβ+e −µβ−e µ0β−e −µ0βn (16)When the average sign is near unity,it is safe to as-sume that the lattice configurations reflect accurately thequantum degrees of freedom.Following Blankenbecler et al.[1]the diagonal matrix elements of the equal-time Green’s operator G ±=(I +P ±)−1accurately describe the fermion density on a given configuration.In this regime the adiabatic approximation,which is the basis of the finite-temperature algorithm,is valid.The situa-tion differs strongly when the average sign becomes small.We are in this case sampling positive and negative ˜z (µ0)configurations with almost equal probability since the ac-ceptance criterion depends only on the absolute value of ˜z (µ0).In the simulations of the HSfields the situation is dif-ferent from the case of fermions interacting with dynam-ical bosonfields presented in Ref.[1].The auxilary HS fields do not have a kinetic energy term in the bosonic action which would suppress their rapidfluctuations and hence recover the adiabaticity.From the previous sim-ulations on a42lattice[3]we know that avoiding the sign problem,by updating at half-filling,results in high uncontrolledfluctuations of the expansion coefficients for the statistical weight,thus severely limiting the range of validity of the expansion.It is therefore important to obtain the partition function for the widest range ofµ0 and observe the persistence of the hierarchy of the ex-pansion coefficients of Z.An error analysis is required to establish the Gaussian distribution of the simulated observables.We present in the following section results of the bootstrap analysis[17]performed on our data for several values ofµ0.III.TEMPERATURE AND LATTICE-SIZEDEPENDENCE OF THE YANG-LEE ZEROS The simulations were performed in the intermediate on-site repulsion regime U=4t forβ=5,6,7.5on lat-tices42,62,82and forβ=5,6on a102lattice.The ex-pansion coefficients given by eqn.(14)are obtained with relatively small errors and exhibit clear Gaussian distri-bution over the ensemble.This behaviour was recorded for a wide range ofµ0which makes our simulations reli-able in spite of the sign problem.In Fig.1(a-c)we present typical distributions of thefirst coefficients correspond-ing to n=1−7in eqn.(14)(normalized with respect to the zeroth power coefficient)forβ=5−7.5for differ-entµ0.The coefficients are obtained using the bootstrap method on over10000configurations forβ=5increasing to over30000forβ=7.5.In spite of different values of the average sign in these simulations,the coefficients of the expansion(16)indicate good correspondence between coefficients obtained with different values of the update chemical potentialµ0:the normalized coefficients taken from differentµ0values and equal power of the expansion variable correspond within the statistical error estimated using the bootstrap analysis.(To compare these coeffi-cients we had to shift the expansion by2coshµ0β.)We also performed a bootstrap analysis of the zeros in theµplane which shows clear Gaussian distribution of their real and imaginary parts(see Fig.2).In addition, we observe overlapping results(i.e.same zeros)obtained with different values ofµ0.The distribution of Yang-Lee zeros in the complexµ-plane is presented in Fig.3(a-c)for the zeros nearest to the real axis.We observe a gradual decrease of the imaginary part as the lattice size increases.The quantitative analysis of this behaviour is discussed in the next section.The critical domain can be identified by the behaviour of the density of Yang-Lee zeros’in the positive half-plane of the fugacity.We expect tofind that this density is tem-perature and volume dependent as the system approaches the phase transition.If the temperature is much higher than the critical temperature,the zeros stay far from the positive real axis as it happens in the high-temperature limit of the one-dimensional Ising model(T c=0)in which,forβ=0,the points of singularity of the free energy lie at fugacity value−1.As the temperature de-creases we expect the zeros to migrate to the positive half-plane with their density,in this region,increasing with the system’s volume.Figures4(a-c)show the number N(θ)of zeros in the sector(0,θ)as a function of the angleθ.The zeros shown in thesefigures are those presented in Fig.3(a-c)in the chemical potential plane with other zeros lying further from the positive real half-axis added in.We included only the zeros having absolute value less than one which we are able to do because if y i is a zero in the fugacity plane,so is1/y i.The errors are shown where they were estimated using the bootstrap analysis(see Fig.2).Forβ=5,even for the largest simulated lattice102, all the zeros are in the negative half-plane.We notice a gradual movement of the pattern of the zeros towards the smallerθvalues with an increasing density of the zeros nearθ=πIV.FINITE SIZE SCALING AND THESINGULARITY OF THE DENSITY OF STATESAs a starting point for thefinite size analysis of theYang-Lee singularities we recall the scaling hypothesis forthe partition function singularities in the critical domain[11].Following this hypothesis,for a change of scale ofthe linear dimension LLL→−1),˜µ=(1−µT cδ(23)Following the real-space renormalization group treatmentof Ref.[11]and assuming that the change of scaleλisa continuous parameter,the exponentαθis related tothe critical exponentνof the correlation length asαθ=1ξ(θλ)=ξ(θ)αθwe obtain ξ∼|θ|−1|θ|ναµ)(26)where θλhas been scaled to ±1and ˜µλexpressed in terms of ˜µand θ.Differentiating this equation with respect to ˜µyields:<n >sing =(−θ)ν(d −αµ)∂F sing (X,Y )ν(d −αµ)singinto the ar-gument Y =˜µαµ(28)which defines the critical exponent 1αµin terms of the scaling exponent αµof the Yang-Lee zeros.Fig.5presents the scaling of the imaginary part of the µzeros for different values of the temperature.The linear regression slope of the logarithm of the imaginary part of the zeros plotted against the logarithm of the inverse lin-ear dimension of the simulation volume,increases when the temperature decreases from β=5to β=6.The re-sults of β=7.5correspond to αµ=1.3within the errors of the zeros as the simulation volume increases from 62to 82.As it is seen from Fig.3,we can trace zeros with similar real part (Re (µ1)≈0.7which is also consistentwith the critical value of the chemical potential given in Ref.[22])as the lattice size increases,which allows us to examine only the scaling of the imaginary part.Table 1presents the values of αµand 1αµδ0.5±0.0560.5±0.21.3±0.3∂µ,as a function ofthe chemical potential on an 82lattice.The location of the peaks of the susceptibility,rounded by the finite size effects,is in good agreement with the distribution of the real part of the Yang-Lee zeros in the complex µ-plane (see Fig.3)which is particularly evident in the β=7.5simulations (Fig.4(c)).The contribution of each zero to the susceptibility can be singled out by expressing the free energy as:F =2n x n yi =1(y −y i )(29)where y is the fugacity variable and y i is the correspond-ing zero of the partition function.The dotted lines on these plots correspond to the contribution of the nearby zeros while the full polynomial contribution is given by the solid lines.We see that the developing singularities are indeed governed by the zeros closest to the real axis.The sharpening of the singularity as the temperature de-creases is also in accordance with the dependence of the distribution of the zeros on the temperature.The singularities of the free energy and its derivative with respect to the chemical potential,can be related to the quasiparticle density of states.To do this we assume that single particle excitations accurately represent the spectrum of the system.The relationship between the average particle density and the density of states ρ(ω)is given by<n >=∞dω1dµ=ρsing (µ)∝1δ−1(32)and hence the rate of divergence of the density of states.As in the case of Lifshitz transitions the singularity of the particle number is rounded at finite temperature.However,for sufficiently low temperatures,the singular-ity of the density of states remains manifest in the free energy,the average particle density,and particle suscep-tibility [15].The regular part of the density of states does not contribute to the criticality,so we can concentrate on the singular part only.Consider a behaviour of the typedensity of states diverging as the−1ρsing(ω)∝(ω−µc)1δ.(33)with the valueδfor the particle number governed by thedivergence of the density of states(at low temperatures)in spite of thefinite-temperature rounding of the singu-larity itself.This rounding of the singularity is indeedreflected in the difference between the values ofαµatβ=5andβ=6.V.DISCUSSION AND OUTLOOKWe note that in ourfinite size scaling analysis we donot include logarithmic corrections.In particular,thesecorrections may prove significant when taking into ac-count the fact that we are dealing with a two-dimensionalsystem in which the pattern of the phase transition islikely to be of Kosterlitz-Thouless type[23].The loga-rithmic corrections to the scaling laws have been provenessential in a recent work of Kenna and Irving[24].In-clusion of these corrections would allow us to obtain thecritical exponents with higher accuracy.However,suchanalysis would require simulations on even larger lattices.The linearfits for the logarithmic scaling and the criti-cal exponents obtained,are to be viewed as approximatevalues reflecting the general behaviour of the Yang-Leezeros as the temperature and lattice size are varied.Al-though the bootstrap analysis provided us with accurateestimates of the statistical error on the values of the ex-pansion coefficients and the Yang-Lee zeros,the smallnumber of zeros obtained with sufficient accuracy doesnot allow us to claim higher precision for the critical ex-ponents on the basis of more elaboratefittings of the scal-ing behaviour.Thefinite-size effects may still be signifi-cant,especially as the simulation temperature decreases,thus affecting the scaling of the Yang-Lee zeros with thesystem rger lattice simulations will therefore berequired for an accurate evaluation of the critical expo-nent for the particle density and the density of states.Nevertheless,the onset of a singularity atfinite temper-ature,and its persistence as the lattice size increases,areevident.The estimate of the critical exponent for the diver-gence rate of the density of states of the quasiparticleexcitation spectrum is particularly relevant to the highT c superconductivity scenario based on the van Hove sin-gularities[25],[26],[27].It is emphasized in Ref.[25]thatthe logarithmic singularity of a two-dimensional electrongas can,due to electronic correlations,turn into a power-law divergence resulting in an extended saddle point atthe lattice momenta(π,0)and(0,π).In the case of the14.I.M.Barbour,A.J.Bell and E.G.Klepfish,Nucl.Phys.B389,285(1993).15.I.M.Lifshitz,JETP38,1569(1960).16.A.A.Abrikosov,Fundamentals of the Theory ofMetals North-Holland(1988).17.P.Hall,The Bootstrap and Edgeworth expansion,Springer(1992).18.S.R.White et al.,Phys.Rev.B40,506(1989).19.J.E.Hirsch,Phys.Rev.B28,4059(1983).20.M.Suzuki,Prog.Theor.Phys.56,1454(1976).21.A.Moreo, D.Scalapino and E.Dagotto,Phys.Rev.B43,11442(1991).22.N.Furukawa and M.Imada,J.Phys.Soc.Japan61,3331(1992).23.J.Kosterlitz and D.Thouless,J.Phys.C6,1181(1973);J.Kosterlitz,J.Phys.C7,1046(1974).24.R.Kenna and A.C.Irving,unpublished.25.K.Gofron et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.73,3302(1994).26.D.M.Newns,P.C.Pattnaik and C.C.Tsuei,Phys.Rev.B43,3075(1991);D.M.Newns et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.24,1264(1992);D.M.Newns et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.73,1264(1994).27.E.Dagotto,A.Nazarenko and A.Moreo,Phys.Rev.Lett.74,310(1995).28.A.A.Abrikosov,J.C.Campuzano and K.Gofron,Physica(Amsterdam)214C,73(1993).29.D.S.Dessau et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.71,2781(1993);D.M.King et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.73,3298(1994);P.Aebi et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.72,2757(1994).30.E.Dagotto, A.Nazarenko and M.Boninsegni,Phys.Rev.Lett.73,728(1994).31.N.Bulut,D.J.Scalapino and S.R.White,Phys.Rev.Lett.73,748(1994).32.S.R.White,Phys.Rev.B44,4670(1991);M.Veki´c and S.R.White,Phys.Rev.B47,1160 (1993).33.C.E.Creffield,E.G.Klepfish,E.R.Pike and SarbenSarkar,unpublished.Figure CaptionsFigure1Bootstrap distribution of normalized coefficients for ex-pansion(14)at different update chemical potentialµ0for an82lattice.The corresponding power of expansion is indicated in the topfigure.(a)β=5,(b)β=6,(c)β=7.5.Figure2Bootstrap distributions for the Yang-Lee zeros in the complexµplane closest to the real axis.(a)102lat-tice atβ=5,(b)102lattice atβ=6,(c)82lattice at β=7.5.Figure3Yang-Lee zeros in the complexµplane closest to the real axis.(a)β=5,(b)β=6,(c)β=7.5.The correspond-ing lattice size is shown in the top right-hand corner. Figure4Angular distribution of the Yang-Lee zeros in the com-plex fugacity plane Error bars are drawn where esti-mated.(a)β=5,(b)β=6,(c)β=7.5.Figure5Scaling of the imaginary part ofµ1(Re(µ1)≈=0.7)as a function of lattice size.αm u indicates the thefit of the logarithmic scaling.Figure6Electronic susceptibility as a function of chemical poten-tial for an82lattice.The solid line represents the con-tribution of all the2n x n y zeros and the dotted line the contribution of the six zeros nearest to the real-µaxis.(a)β=5,(b)β=6,(c)β=7.5.。
Quantum entanglement
Quantum entanglementMaciej LewensteinMaciej Lewenstein has obtained his degree in Physics from Warsaw University. From 1980 he worked at the Center for Theoretical Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences. He received his doctoral degree in 1983 at the University of Essen and habilitation in 1986 in Warsaw. He became a full Professor in Poland in 1993. In 1995 he joined “Service de Photones, Atomes et Molecules” of CEA in Saclay. In 1998 he became a full professor and a head of the quantum optics theory group at the University of Hannover. In 2005 he started a new theory group at the “Insitut de Ciencias Fotoniques” in Barcelona. His research interests include: quantum optics, quantum information and statistical physics.Chiara MacchiavelloChiara Macchiavello finished her degree in Physics in 1991 and her PhD in 1995 at the University of Pavia. She held a post-doctoral for two years at the University of Oxford. Since 1998 she has been an Assistant Professor at the University of Pavia.Her research interests include quantum information processing and quantum optics.Dagmar BrussSince 2003 Dagmar Bruss is a professor at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Duesseldorf, Germany. Her research interests include the foundations of quantum information theory, classification of entanglement and quantum optical implementations of quantum computation.AbstractEntanglement is a fundamental resource in quantum information theory. It allows performing new kinds of communication, such as quantum teleportation and quantum dense coding. It is an essential ingredient in some quantum cryptographic protocols and in quantum algorithms. We give a brief overview of the concept of entanglement in quantum mechanics, and discuss the major results and open problems related to the recent scientific progress in this field.IntroductionEntanglement is a property of the states of quantum systems that are composed of many parties, nowadays frequently called Alice, Bob, Charles etc. Entanglement expresses particularly strong correlations between these parties, persistent even in the case of large separations among the parties, and going beyond simple intuition.Historically, the concept of entanglement goes back to the famous Einstein-Podolski-Rosen (EPR) “paradox”. Einstein, who discovered relativity theory and the modern meaning of causality, was never really happy with quantum mechanics. In his opinion every reasonable physical theory should exhibit a so called local realism.Suppose that we consider two particles, one of which is sent to Alice and one to Bob, and we perform independent local measurements of “reasonable” physical observables on these particles. Of course, the results might be correlated, because the particles come from the same source. But Einstein wanted really to restrict the correlations for “reasonable” physical observables to the ones that result from statistical distributions of some hidden (i.e. unknown to us and not controlled by us) variables that characterize the source of the particles. Since quantum mechanics did not seem to produce correlations consistent with a local hidden variable (LHV) model, Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory. Erwin Schrödinger, in answer to Einstein’s doubts, introduced in 1935 the term “Verschränkung” (in English “entanglement”) in order to describe these particularly strong quantum mechanical correlations.Entanglement was since then a subject of intense discussions among experts in the foundations of quantum mechanics and philosophers of science (and not only science). It took, however, nearly 30 years until John Bell was able to set the framework for experimental investigations on the question of local realism. Bell formulated his famous inequalities, which have to be fulfilled in any multiparty system described by a LHV model. Alain Aspect and coworkers in Paris have demonstrated in their seminal experiment in 1981 that quantum mechanical states violate these inequalities. Recent very precise experiments of Anton Zeilinger’s group in Vienna confirmed fully Aspect’s demonstrations. All these experiments indicate the correctness of quantum mechanics, and despite various loopholes, they exclude the possibility of LHV models describing properly the physics of the considered systems.Entanglement has become again the subject of cover pages news in the 90’s, when quantum information was born. It was very quickly realized that entanglement is one of the most important resources for quantum information processing. Entanglement is a necessary ingredient for quantum cryptography, quantum teleportation, quantum densecoding, and if not necessary, then at least a much desired ingredient for quantum computing.At the same time the theory of entanglement is related to some of the open questions of mathematics, or more precisely linear algebra and functional analysis. A solution of the entanglement problem could help to characterize the so called positive linear maps, i.e. linear transformations of positive definite operators (or physically speaking quantum mechanical density matrices, see below) into positive definite operators.Entanglement of pure statesIn quantum mechanics (QM) a state of a quantum system corresponds to a vector |Psi> in some vector space, called Hilbert space. Such states are called pure states. One of the most important properties of QM is that linear superpositions of state-vectors are also legitimate state-vectors. This superposition principle lies at the heart of the matter-wave dualism and of quantum interference phenomena.Entanglement is also a result of superposition, but in the composite space of the involved parties. Let us for the moment focus on two parties, Alice and Bob. It is then easy to define states which are not entangled. Such states are product states of the form |Φ>= |a>|b>, i.e. Alice has at her disposal |a>, while Bob has |b>. Product states obviously carry no correlations between Alice and Bob. Entangled pure states may be now defined as those which are superpositions of at least two product states, such as|Φ> = α1|a1>|b1> + α2|a2>|b2> + etc.but cannot be written as a single product state in any other basis. All entangled pure states contain strong quantum mechanical correlations, and do not admit LHV models.Entanglement of mixed states and the separability problemVerify whether a given state-vector is a product state or not is a relatively easy task. In practice, however, we often either do not have full information about the system, or are not able to prepare a desired state perfectly. In effect in everyday situations we deal practically always with statistical mixtures of pure states. There exists a very convenient way to represent such mixtures as so called density operators, or matrices. A density matrix rho corresponding to a pure state-vector |Φ> is a projector onto this state. More general density matrices can be represented as sums of projectors onto pure state-vectors weighted by the corresponding probabilities.The definition of entangled mixed states for composite systems has been formulated by Reinhard Werner from Braunschweig in 1989. In fact, this definition determines which states are not entangled. Non-entangled states, called separable states, are mixtures of pure product states, i.e. convex sums of projectors onto product vectors:ρ = Σι pi|ai>|bi><ai|<bi|, (*)where 0 ≤ pi ≤ 1 are probabilities, i.e. Σιpi= 1. The physical interpretation of thisdefinition is simple: a separable state can be prepared by Alice and Bob by using local operations and classical communication. Checking whether a given state is separable or not is a notoriously difficult task, since one has to check whether the decomposition (*) exists or not. This difficult problem is known under the name of “separability or entanglement problem”, and has been a subject of intensive studies in the recent years.Simple entanglement criteriaThe difficulty of the separability problem comes from the fact that rho admits in general an infinite number of decompositions into a mixture of some states, and one has to check whether among them there exists at least one of the form (*). One of the most powerful necessary conditions for separability has been found by one of the fathers of quantum information, the late Asher Peres. Peres (Technion, Haifa) observed that since Alice and Bob may prepare separable states using local operations, Alice may safely reverse the time arrow in her system, which will change the state, but will not produce something unphysical. In general, such a partial time reversal is not a physical operation, and can transform a density operator (which is positive definite) into an operator that is no more positive definite. In fact this is what happens with all pure entangled states. Mathematically speaking partial time reversal corresponds to partial transposition of the density matrix (only on Alice's side). We arrive in this way at the Peres criterion: If a stateρis separable then its partial transposition has to be positive definite.This criterion is usually called positive partial transpose condition, or shortly PPT condition. Amazingly, the PPT condition is not only necessary for separability, but it is also a sufficient condition for low dimensional systems such as two qubits (dimension 2x2)and a system composed of one qubit and one qutrit (dimension 2x3). In higher dimensions, starting from 2x4 and 3x3, this is no longer true: there exist entangled states with positive partial transpose, which are called PPT entangled states.There exist several other necessary or sufficient separability criteria which have been established and frequently discussed in recent years. For example, states that are close to the completely chaotic state (whose density operator is equal to the normalized identity) are necessarily separable. There exist also other criteria that employ entropic inequalities, uncertainty relations, or an appropriate reordering of the density matrix (so called realignment criterion) etc. There exists, however, no general simple operational criterion of separability that would work in systems of arbitrary dimension.Entanglement witnessesThe set of all states P is obviously compact and convex. If ρ1 and ρ2are legitimate states,so is their convex mixture. The set of separable states S is also compact and convex (seeFigure 1). From the theory of convex sets and Hahn-Banach theorem we conclude that for any entangled state there exists a hyperplane in the space of operators separating rhofrom S. Such a hyperplane defines uniquely a Hermitian operator W (observable) which has the following properties: The expectation value of W on all separable states, <W> ≥ 0, whereas its expectation value on ρ is negative, i.e. <W>ρ< 0.Figure 1Such an observable is for obvious reasons called entanglement witness, since it “detects” the entanglement of ρ. Every entangled state has its witnesses; the problem obviously is to find appropriate witnesses for a given state. To find out whether a given state is separable one should check whether its expectation value is non-negative for all witnesses. Obviously this is a necessary and sufficient separability criterion, but unfortunately it is not operational, in the sense that there is no simple procedure to test for all witnesses.Nevertheless, witnesses provide a very useful tool to study entanglement, especially if one has some knowledge about the state in question. They provide a sufficient entanglement condition, and may be obviously optimized (see Figure 2) by shifting the hyperplane in a parallel way towards S.Figure 2Bell inequalitiesAfter introducing the concept of separability and entanglement for mixed states, it is legitimate to ask what is the relation of mixed state entanglement and the existence of a LHV model, which requires that the state cannot violate any of the Bell-like inequalities. Let us discuss an example of such inequalities, the so called Clauser-Horne-Shimony- Holt inequality for two qubits. Let us assume that Alice and Bob measure two binary observables each, namely A 1, A 2, and B 1, B 2. The observables are random variables taking the values +1 or − 1, correlated possibly through some dependence on local hidden variables. It is easy to see that in the classical world, if B 1 + B 2 is zero, then B 1 − B 2 is either +2 or −2, and vice versa. Therefore if we define s = A 1(B 1 + B 2 ) + A 2 (B 1 − B 2 ) , we obtain that 2 ≥ s ≥ −2. This inequality holds also after averaging over various realizations. On the other hand, it can be shown that by taking suitable sets of observables for Alice and Bob we can find pure and even mixed quantum states that violate this inequality.Are Bell-like inequalities similar in this respect to witnesses, i.e. for a given entangled state can one always find a Bell-like inequality that “detects” it? The answer to this question is no, and has been already given by R. Werner in 1989. Even for two qubits there exist entangled states that admit an LHV model, i.e. cannot violate any Bell-like inequality.This observation indicates already that there is more structure in the “eggs” of Figure 1 and Figure 2. Separable states are evidently inside the PPT egg, according to the Peres condition. They admit an LHV model, i.e. they are also inside the LHV egg. But what about PPT entangled states? Do they violate some Bell-like inequality? Peres has formulated a conjecture that this not the case, and there is a lot of evidence that this conjecture is correct, although a rigorous proof is still missing.The distillability problem and bound entanglement Above we have classified quantum states according to the property of being either separable or entangled. An alternative classification approach is based on the possibility of distilling the entanglement of a given state. In a distillation protocol the entanglement of a given state is increased by performing local operations and classical communication on a set of identically prepared copies. In this way one obtains fewer, but “more entangled”, copies. This kind of technique was originally proposed in 1996 by Bennett and coworkers in the context of quantum teleportation, in order to achieve faithful transmission of quantum states over noisy channels. It also has applications in quantum cryptography as a method for quantum privacy amplification in entanglement based protocols in the presence of noise, as pointed out by David Deutsch and coworkers from Oxford.The distillability problem poses the question whether a given quantum state can be distilled or not. A separable state can never be distilled because the average entanglement of a set of states cannot be increased by local operations. Furthermore, the positivity of the partial transpose ensures that no distillation is possible. Thus, a given PPT entangled state is not distillable, and is therefore called bound entangled. There mayeven exist undistillable entangled states which do not have the PPT property. However, this conjecture is not proved at the moment.The first example of a PPT entangled state has been found by Pawel Horodecki from Gdansk in 1997. These states are so called edge states, which means that they cannot be written as a mixture of a separable state and a PPT entangled state. Particularly simple families of states have been suggested by Charles Bennett and coworkers at IBM, New York. They have found the so called unextendible product bases (UPB), i.e. sets of orthogonal product state-vectors, with the property that the space orthogonal to this set does not contain any product vector. It turns out that the projector onto this space is a PPT state, which obviously has to be entangled since it does not contain any product vector in its range (note that all state-vectors in the decomposition of a separable state ρinto a mixture of product states belong automatically to the range of ρ).The existence of bound entanglement is a mysterious invention of Nature. It is an interesting question to ask whether bound entanglement is a useful resource to perform quantum information processing tasks. It was shown so far that this is not the case for communication protocols such as quantum teleportation and quantum dense coding (i.e.a protocol that allows to enhance the transmission of classical information, using entanglement). However, surprisingly, it is possible to distill a secret key in quantum cryptography, starting from certain bound entangled states.Entanglement detectionAs discussed above, entanglement is a precious resource in quantum information processing. Typically in a real world experiment noise is always present and it leads to a decrease of entanglement in general. Thus, it is of fundamental interest for experimental applications to be able to test the entanglement properties of the generated states. A traditional method to this aim is represented by the Bell inequalities, a violation of which indicates the presence of entanglement. However, as mentioned above, not every entangled state violates a Bell inequality. So, not all entangled states can be detected by using this method.Another possibility is to perform complete state tomography, which allows determining all the elements of the density matrix. This is a useful method to get a complete knowledge of the density operator of a quantum system, but to detect entanglement it is an expensive process as it requires an unnecessary large number of measurements. If one has certain knowledge about the state the most appropriate technique is the measurement of the witness observable, which can be achieved by few local measurements. A negative expectation value clearly indicates the presence of entanglement.All these methods have been successfully implemented in various experiments. Recently another method for the detection of entanglement was suggested based on the physical approximation of the partial transpose. It remains a challenge to implement this idea in the laboratory because it requires the implementation of non local measurements.Entanglement measuresWhen classifying a quantum state as being entangled, a natural question is to quantify the amount of entanglement it contains. For pure quantum states there exists a well defined entanglement measure, namely the von Neumann entropy of the density operator of a subsystem of the composite state. For mixed states the situation is more complicated. There are several different possibilities to define an entanglement measure. The so called entanglement cost describes the amount of entanglement one needs in order to generate a given state. An alternative measure is the entanglement of formation, which is a more abstract definition. A further possibility to quantify entanglement is given by the minimum distance to separable states. Finally, motivated by physical applications, one can introduce the distillable entanglement which quantifies the extractable amount of entanglement.Unfortunately all of these quantities are very difficult to compute in general. For example, in order to determine the entanglement of formation one has to find the decomposition of the state that leads to the minimum average von Neumann entropy of a subsystem and this is a very challenging task. So far a complete analytical formula for the entanglement of formation only exists for composite systems of two qubits.Entanglement in multipartite systemsSo far, we have restricted ourselves to the case of composite systems with two subsystems, so called bipartite systems. When considering more than two parties, i.e multipartite systems, the situation becomes much more complex. For example, for the most simple tripartite case of three qubits, a pure state can be either completely separable, or biseparable (i.e. one of the three parties is not entangled with the other two), or genuinely entangled among all three parties. The latter class again consists of inequivalent subclasses, the so called GHZ and W states. This concept can be generalized to mixed states. For more than three parties it is easy to imagine that the number of subclasses grows fast.In recent years there has been much progress in the creation of multipartite entangled states in the laboratory. The existence of genuine multipartite entanglement has also been demonstrated experimentally by using the concept of witness operators.Even if the full classification of multipartite entanglement is a formidable task, certain classes of states, the so called graph states, have been completely characterized and shown to be useful both for quantum computational and quantum error correction protocols. Moreover, a deeper understanding of entanglement has proved to be very fruitful in connection with statistical properties of physical systems. All of these problems are discussed in more details in other sections of this publication.References[1] Einstein, P. Podolsky and N. Rosen, Phys. Rev. 47, 777 (1935)[2] J.S. Bell, Physics 1, 195 (1964)[3] P. Horodecki, Phys. Lett. A 232, 333 (1997)[4] M. Lewenstein et al., J. Mod. Opt. 47, 2481 (2000)[5] A. Peres, Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 1413 (1996)[6] E. Schrödinger, Naturwissenschaften 23, 807 (1935)[7] R.F. Werner, Phys. Rev. A 40, 4277 (1989) Contact information of the author of this article Maciej LewensteinInstitut de Ciènces Fotòniques (ICFO)C/Jordi Girona 29, Nexus 2908034 BarcelonaSpainEmail: maciej.lewenstein@icfo.esChiara MacchiavelloIstituto Nazionale di Fisicadella Materia, Unita' di Pavia Dipartimento di Fisica "A. Volta"via Bassi 6I-27100 PaviaItalyEmail: chiara@unipv.itProf. Dr. Dagmar BrussInst. fuer Theoretische Physik IIIHeinrich-Heine-Universitaet Duesseldorf Universitaetsstr. 1, Geb. 25.32D-40225 Duesseldorf,GermanyEmail: bruss@thphy.uni-duesseldorf.de。
量子相变中的量子纠缠度量研究-英文版
RG flow
• c-theorem:
cUV cIR
fixed point
(Zamolodchikov, 1986)
UV
fixed point
IR
• Massive theory (off critical) Block entropy saturation
fixed point
RG flow
UV
Irreversibility of RG trajectories
Loss of entanglement
Open Systems & Quantum Information Milano, 10 Marzo 2006
• Local Entropy: when the subsystem A is a single site.
• The concurrence measures the entanglement between two sites after having traced out the remaining sites. • The transition is signaled by the first derivative of the concurrence, which diverges logarithmically (specific heat).
h 1 lnh 1
S1 has the same singularity as
Local (single site) entropy: 1 ρ1 = I + σ z σ z S1 = Tr ρ1lnρ1 2
σz
Local measures of entanglement based on the 2-site density matrix depend on 2-point functions
超导材料发展历程及现行理论解释与应用.pptx
6
发展历程
• 1911年，荷兰科学家H. K. Ones 利用低温技术研究金属的电阻特性时发现Hg在温度 低至4.2K时电阻降为零。后人把这种状态叫超导态。并把电阻突然降为零的温度 称为临界温度，记为Tc。
• 但由于早期的超导体存在于液氦极低温度条件下，极大地限制了超导材料的应用。 人们一直在探索高温超导体，从1911年到1986年，75年间从水银的4.2K提高到铌 三锗的23．22K，才提高了19K,科学家们用乌龟来形容这个程度。
• 一个比较形象的理解：当一个电子在晶格中运动时，由于异性电荷相吸而导 致局域晶格畸变，当另外一个电子通过时，会感受到第一个电子通过时导致 的晶格畸变的影响，从而在两个电子之间产生间接吸引相互作用，这就是 “库珀对”，其总动量和总自旋为零。所有电子对在运动过程中能够保持 “步调一致”（相位相干，即相位相同），即使受到杂质等散射也将保持总 动量不变，从而在外加电场作用下能够不损失能量而运动——这种现象就是 超导。所以说，超导是微观量子凝聚态的宏观表现。
• （3）临界电流密度Jc：当通过超导体的电流密度超过临界电流密度Jc时， 超导体由超导体恢复为正常状态。临界电流密度Jc与温度、磁场强度有关。
4
实验检验
为了证实（超导体）电阻为零，科学家将一 个铅制圆环，放入温度低于Tc=7.2K的空间， 利用电磁感应使环内激发起感应电流。结果 发现，环内电流能持续下去，从1954年3月16 日始，到1956年9月5日止，在两年半的时间 内的电流一直没有衰减，这说明圆环内的电 能没有损失，当温度升到高于Tc时，圆环由 超导状态变正常态，材料的电阻骤然增大， 感应电流立刻消失，这就是著名的昂尼斯持 久电流实验。
的崔田教授组在“传统
高温超导体”的研究上
基于微波消解-_ICP-OES_法测定植物中5_种重金属元素
宁夏农林科技，Ningxia Journal of Agri.and Fores.Sci.&Tech.2023，64（06）：54-58基金项目：宁夏回族自治区重点研发计划项目（2021BEG03017）、中央引导地方科技发展专项（2021FDG020）、宁夏绿创生态修复创新中心科研项目“贺兰山乡土植物引选及在矿山生态修复中的应用研究”、宁夏回族自治区312人才计划资助。
作者简介：马丽慧（1978—），女，宁夏隆德人，硕士，工程师，主要从事化学分析及质量管理研究。
收稿日期：2022-08-04修回日期：2022-11-17基于微波消解-ICP-OES 法测定植物中5种重金属元素马丽慧1，2，许浩1，2，张蕾蕾1，2，王文帆1，2，吴旭东1，21.宁夏农林科学院林业与草地生态研究所，宁夏银川7500022.宁夏防沙治沙与水土保持重点实验室，宁夏银川750002摘要：土壤重金属是城市环境污染的一个重要方面，部分植物对土壤重金属具有吸收富集功能，是土壤重金属污染修复的有效途径。
采用HNO 3-H 2O 2微波消解法对植物样品进行消解处理，然后采用电感耦合等离子体发射光谱仪（ICP-OES）测定植物样品中的铜、锌、镉、铬、铅5种重金属元素含量。
结果表明，该方法的线性范围为0～1mg/L 时，相关系数均在0.999以上，加标回收率在88.8%～104.0%，可满足植物中重金属元素测定的要求。
对银川市不同绿化树种枝干与叶片中重金属含量检测结果显示，各种金属元素最高值出现在不同植物中，红瑞木和垂柳枝条Cd 含量最高（0.51mg/kg），小檗叶片中Cr 含量最高（40.72mg/kg±6.25mg/kg），白蜡枝条Cu 含量最高（16.26mg/kg±2.52mg/kg），小檗叶片Pb 含量最高（4.49mg/kg±1.01mg/kg），垂柳枝条Zn 含量最高（97.41mg/kg±13.22mg/kg），表明这几种植物对相应的重金属元素具有较高的吸收积累能力。
Two-dimensional Quantum Field Theory, examples and applications
Abstract The main principles of two-dimensional quantum field theories, in particular two-dimensional QCD and gravity are reviewed. We study non-perturbative aspects of these theories which make them particularly valuable for testing ideas of four-dimensional quantum field theory. The dynamics of confinement and theta vacuum are explained by using the non-perturbative methods developed in two dimensions. We describe in detail how the effective action of string theory in non-critical dimensions can be represented by Liouville gravity. By comparing the helicity amplitudes in four-dimensional QCD to those of integrable self-dual Yang-Mills theory, we extract a four dimensional version of two dimensional integrability.
2 48 49 52 54 56
5 Four-dimensional analogies and consequences 6 Conclusions and Final Remarks
The-Universe
Passage 5The Universe's Invisible HandBy Christopher J. ConseliceDark energy (暗能量) does more than hurry along the expansion of the universe. It also has a stranglehold on the shape and spacing of galaxiesWhat took us so long? Only in 1998 did astronomers discover we had been missing nearly three quarters of the contents of the universe, the so-called dark energy--an unknown form of energy that surrounds each of us, tugging at us ever so slightly, holding the fate of the cosmos in its grip, but to which we are almost totally blind. Some researchers, to be sure, had anticipated that such energy existed, but even they will tell you that its detection ranks among the most revolutionary discoveries in 20th-century cosmology. Not only does dark energy appear to make up the bulk of the universe, but its existence, if it stands the test of time, will probably require the development of new theories of physics.Scientists are just starting the long process of figuring out what dark energy is and what its implications are. One realization has already sunk in: although dark energy betrayed its existence through its effect on the universe as a whole, it may also shape the evolution of the universe's inhabitants--stars, galaxies, galaxy clusters. Astronomers may have been staring at its handiwork for decades without realizing it.暗能量不仅仅会加速宇宙膨胀。
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a r X i v :0807.1325v 2 [c o n d -m a t .s t r -e l ] 13 J u l 2008Heavy Fermion Quantum CriticalityZaira Nazario †and David I.Santiago ⋆†Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex systems,N¨o thnitzer Strasze 38,01187Dresden,Germany⋆Instituut-Lorentz for Theortical Physics,Universiteit Leiden,P.O.Box 9506,NL-2300RA Leiden,The Netherlands(Dated:July 13,2008)During the last few years,investigations of Rare-Earth materials have made clear that not only the heavy fermion phase in these systems provides interesting physics,but the quantum criticality where such a phase dies exhibits novel phase transition physics not fully understood.Moreover,attempts to study the critical point numerically face the infamous fermion sign problem,which limits their accuracy.Effective action techniques and Callan-Symanzik equations have been very popular in high energy physics,where they enjoy a good record of success.Yet,they have been little exploited for fermionic systems in condensed matter physics.In this work,we apply the RG effective action and Callan-Symanzik techiques to the heavy fermion problem.We write for the first time the effective action describing the low energy physics of the system.The f -fermions are replaced by a dynamical scalar field whose nonzero expected value corresponds to the heavy fermion phase.This removes the fermion sign problem,making the effective action amenable to numerical studies as the effective theory is bosonic.Renormalization group studies of the effective action can be performed to extract approximations to nonperturbative effects at the transition.By performing one-loop renormalizations,resummed via Callan-Symanzik methods,we describe the heavy fermion criticality and predict the heavy fermion critical dynamical susceptibility and critical specific heat.The specific heat coefficient exponent we obtain (0.39)is in excellent agreement with the experimental result at low temperatures (0.4).PACS numbers:71.27.+a,73.43.Nq,71.10.HfFor a couple of decades,heavy fermion materials have attracted the focus of a large part of the experimental and theoretical condensed matter community[1,2].There are many reasons for such a spotlight on these materi-als.They exhibit exotic superconductivity,interesting magnetism,but most importantly heavy quasiparticles with an enlarged Fermi surface.This heavy quasipar-ticle phase perishes into a quantum critical point with interesting,puzzling and not yet understood nature[3,4].It is quite striking to see the fermionic quasiparticle with masses from tenths to about thousandths of an el-ementary electron mass.This has been understood as arising from Kondo-like physics of the almost localized f −electrons when they hybridize with the lower atomic angular momentum bands of the material[2,5].This hy-bridization gives rise to an enlarged Fermi surface as the f −electrons now contribute to the Fermi volume,and to the large quasiparticle mass and large specific heat coeffi-cient,through enhanced collective Kondo-like low energy scattering.Of course,the f −electrons have a strong ten-dency to localize due to their large U which fights the hybridization V .Some of these materials can be tuned (by apply-ing pressure,etc.)so that a critical value (U/V )c is reached such that,for values larger than the critical value,the f −electrons localize and there is no heavy fermion phase.Instead,there is a small Fermi surface metal that usually exhibits magnetic order mediated via RKKY interactions[6].For subcritical values of U/V ,the system is in the heavy fermion phase with large Fermi surface and no magnetism.At the critical value,a continous quantum phase tran-sition occurs as corroborated via scaling experiments.This transition is not understood.The lack of under-standing is a barrier to the full characterization of the physical properties,phase diagram and experimental re-sponse features of these materials.In this work,we turn our attention to understanding this heavy fermion quan-tum criticality[3,7].We start from the partition function for f −electron hybridizing with metallic c −electrons,i.e.the periodic Anderson ModelZ =D c †D c D f †D f e −SS =Mdω(2π)3−ω f †M (ω, k )f M (ω, k )+c †M (ω, k )c M (ω, k ) +(ǫ k−µ)+ Mdω(2π)3E 0−UMdω(2π)3f †M (ω, k )c M (ω, k )+h.c.+U(2π)3d 3kd 3 k 2d 3 k 3idτ n 2i −n i .We can decouple this interaction term by using the Hubbard-Stratonovichidentity e−R dτP i U [ϕ2i +2iϕi n i ]which in Euclidean time and momentum spacereads D ϕe−R dτd 3 k [ϕk ϕ− k +2in k ϕ−k ].Using n k =d 3k(2π)3f †kM ∂f † kM fkM +U∂τc kM +(ǫ k −µ)(2π)3VMdτd 3kd 3 q 2πd 3 k 2πd 3 q+Λ−2g 4dω2dω3(2π)6˜ϕ0(ω, k )˜ϕ0(ω2, k 2)˜ϕ0(ω3, k 3)˜ϕ0(−ω−ω2−ω3,− k − k 2− k 3)where˜ϕ0(ω, k )=πD 3ϕ0(ω, k )g 2=D 24NU Λ (|E 0|+U )g 3=2Λ2(E 0−U )5;g 4=πD 32πd 3 k 2πd 3 q (2π)2d 3 k 2d 3 k 38π4(1−µ/Λ)1−(ω−k r )2π(1−µ/Λ)(2π)4(1−µ/Λ)1g 2−1−4g 22Λ+(ω−k r )2g 2Λ(g 2−1)2lng 2+14into −µ−1/2g R 3Z ϕZ 2c =−Λ−1/2(g 3+Γc ),whereΓc =g 23(g 42−1)−2πg 2(g 22−1)2arctan124π4Λ2(1−µ/Λ)+......g 24g 2+12+164π4(1−µ/Λ),Z k =g 23µ1/2≃g 3(2π)3g3µ2≃g 4(2π)4Λ2−g 43m2(2π)4Λ2(1−µ/Λ).To this order of approximationβ3=µ∂g R 32g 3−g 238π−1g c 3=4π 1+∂µµ=Λ=2g 4−6g 248π4+3g 23g 44+(2π)433g c 4336+(2π)4∂µµ=Λ=g 232π21+π2+∂µ+γϕωγϕ/2∼11+2π2]/(4π2)F (ω, k =0)∼i ϕ(ω, k =0) =iG (1)(ω)χ(ω)=lim ǫ→0Im [F (ω+iǫ)]∼1Tγϕ/2(6)We obtain a specific heat coefficient exponent γϕ/2=0.39.This is in excellent agreement withthe exponent 0.4found for YbRh 2Si 2at low temperatures[3].Via renormalization group studies and effective ac-tion techniques common to field theories of particle physics,we have obtained the effective field theory for heavy fermion quantum criticality.This marks impor-tant progress as the effective field theory is bosonic,viti-ating the fermion sign problem and thus being amenable to numerical studies and high order ǫexpansion studies.The critical field theory can be studied using the renor-malization group.We did so via one-loop renormalization studies,improved by means of Callan-Symanzik resuma-tions to access some of the nonpertrubative effects.We thus make predictions for the exponents that character-ize the critical divergence of the specific heat coefficient and the critical charge susceptibility.Our specific heat coefficient exponent of 0.39is in excellent agreement with the 0.4found in experiments at low temperatures[3].[1]Stewart,G.R.Heavy-fermion systems.Rev.Mod.Phys.56,755-787(1984).[2]P.Coleman,Phys.Rev.B 29,3035(1984);N.Read,J.Phys.C:Solid State Phys 18,2651(1985).[3]P.Gegenwart,Q.Si and F.Steglich,Nature Physics 4,186(2008).[4]H.V.L¨o hneysen,T.Pietrus,G.Portisch,H.G.Schlager,A.Schr¨o der,M.Sieck,and T.Trappmann,Phys.Rev.Lett.72,3262(1994);A.Schr¨o der,G.Aeppli,E.Bucher,5R.Ramazashvili and P.Coleman,Phys.Rev.Lett.80, 5623(1998); A.Schr¨o der,G.Aeppli,R.Coldea,M.Adams,O.Stockert,H.V.L¨o hneysen,E.Bucher,R.Ramazashvili and P.Coleman,Nature407,351(2000);P.Gegenwart,J.Custers,C.Geibel,K.Neumaier,T.Tayama,K.Tenya,O.Trovarelli,and F.Steglich,Phys.Rev.Lett.89,056402(2002);J.Custers,P.Gegenwart,H.Wilhelm,K.Neumaier,Y.Tokiwa,O.Trovarelli,C.Geibel,F.Steglich,C.P´e pin and P.Coleman,Nature 424,524(2003).[5]N.Nagaosa,Quantum Field Theory in Strongly Cor-related Electronic Systems,Chapter4,Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg,Germany(1999).[6]C.Kittel,Solid State Phys.22,1(1968);Solid StatePhys.23,184(1969);A.J.Heeger,Solid State Phys.23,248(1969).[7]P.Coleman et.al.,J.Cond.Matt.13,R723(2001).[8]K.Wilson and J.Kogut,Phys.Rep.C12,75(1974).[9]D.J.Gross and F.Wilczek,Phys.Rev.Lett.30,1343(1973);H.D.Politzer,Phys.Rev.Lett.30,1346(1973);D.J.Gross and F.Wilczek,Phys.Rev.D8,3633(1973).[10]D.J.Gross and A.Neveu,Phys.Rev.D10,3235(1974).[11]J.Zinn-Justin,Quantum Field Theory and Critical Phe-nomena,Fourth Edition,Oxford Univ.Press,Oxford, UK(2002).[12]S.Weinberg,Phys.Rev.D8,3497(1973).[13]C.G.Callan,Phys.Rev.D2,1541(1970);K.Symanzik,Comm.Math.Phys.18,227(1970).。