语言学3
语言学概论第三章
第三章语音四、分析题1．根据发音特点描述，写出下列元音：①舌面后半低不园唇元音——[V]②舌面前半高不园唇元音——[e]③舌面前低不园唇元音——[a]④舌面后高园唇元音——[u]⑤舌面前高园唇元音——[y]⑥舌面后半高不园唇元音——[+]2．分析下列辅音的发音特点：①[?]：舌面后、不送气、浊塞音。
②[v]：唇齿、浊檫音。
③[x]：舌面后、清檫音。
④[p']：舌尖前、送气、清塞音。
⑤[Φ]：双唇、清檫音。
⑥[ts']：舌尖前、清、塞檫音。
⑦[m]：双唇、浊、鼻音。
⑧[b]：双唇、浊、塞音。
3．说明下面各组音素的区别特征:①[p]－[p']：发音方法不同，[p']是送气音，[p]是不送气音。
②[g]－[k]：发音方法不同，[g]是浊塞音，[k]是清塞音。
③[m]－[n]：发音部位不同，[m]是双唇鼻音，[n]是舌尖前鼻音。
④[p]－[k]：发音部位不同，[p]是双重音，[k]是舌尖后音。
⑤[s]－[z]：发音方法不同，[s]是清檫音，[z]是浊檫音。
⑥[u]－[o]：舌位高低不同，[u]是后高圆唇元音，是后半高圆唇元音。
⑦[ts]－[ts']：发音方法不同，[ts ]是清不送气塞檫音，[ts']是清送气塞檫音。
⑧[y]－[i]：唇的圆展不同，[y]是圆唇元音，[i]是不圆唇元音。
四．问答题1．什么是音标？什么是国际音标？记录音素的标音符号就是音标。
国际音标是国际上目前通用的一套行之有效的记音符号。
2．汉语拼音是不是音标？为什么？汉语拼音字母也是一种音标，从基本情况来看，它是用来标写汉语音素的一种符号。
3．汉语拼音方案中的p、h、ü、ê、z、d、k，国际音标中是怎样写的？[pʰ]，[x]，[y]，[ɛ]，[ts]，[t]，[kʰ]4．音高在汉语中具有区别意义的作用，请举例说明。
汉语的声调，是音节的高低升降变化，其实就是音高的变化形式，同样的音素组合，声调不同，音高不一样，代表的意义也不一样。
《语言学教程》3形态学
《语言学教程》3形态学首先，形态学研究的对象是词汇，形态是词汇的基本组成单位。
词汇是语言中具有独立意义和语法功能的最小单位，而形态则是构成词汇的最小单位，形态可以分为词素和词位。
词素是具有独立意义的最小语言单位，而词位则是构成词素的最小单位。
形态学研究的内容包括词素的构成，不同词素之间的关系，以及词素如何组合形成词汇。
其次，形态学关注词形变化，即词汇在不同语法环境下的形态变化。
形态变化是词汇的一种重要特征，可以通过词的词缀、词尾、词根等来表达。
形态变化可以分为屈折变化和派生变化。
屈折变化是指在词形变化中，词的词素不变，只有词尾发生变化，如英语中的单复数变化（cat -> cats）。
派生变化是指新词的形成通过在词根或词素上加入新的词缀，如英语中的派生词（friend -> friendship）。
第三，形态学还研究了不同语言之间的形态差异。
不同语言在形态结构上存在差异，有些语言形态丰富，有着复杂的形态系统，例如拉丁语和梵语；而有些语言形态简单，词形变化较少，例如英语。
形态学通过对不同语言形态系统的比较研究，可以揭示不同语言之间的共性和差异，对于语言分类和语言接触研究起到重要的作用。
最后，形态学的研究方法包括描述方法和比较方法。
描述方法是通过对语言实例的描述和分析，揭示语言的形态结构和形态变化规则。
比较方法是通过比较不同语言之间的形态差异，探索语言发展和语言接触的历史和机理。
形态学的研究方法不仅有助于理解语言的基本结构和变化规律，还对于语言教学和语音识别等应用领域有着重要的指导作用。
总之，《语言学教程》第三章形态学介绍了形态学的基本概念、研究对象和内容，着重讨论了词汇结构和词形变化的特征和规律。
通过学习形态学，可以更好地理解词汇的构成和变化，为进一步深入语言学研究奠定扎实的基础。
语言学概论第三章
第二节 语言意义7
• 5.连带意义
连带意义—— 一种能引起听众或读者联想的附加意义。
例如: 人们在交际时都尽量避免使用禁忌语。会用委婉语代替。 修辞中的比喻，有的就是运用连带意义取得效果的。
第二节 语言意义8
“龙”在中国人看来是至高无上的象征， 在圣经中却是“邪恶的动物”。
第二节 语言意义5
• 3.风格意义
风格意义
是由不同的人在不同的交际场合使用语言时所带给语言
风格或语体上的附加意义。
（1）个人的语言风格
语
不以人的意志
言 风
（2）某一地区和社会阶层的语 言风格
为转移的较为 持久的风格
格
（3）某一世纪的语言风格
第二节 语言意义12
• （2）明晰性和模糊性
词义的明晰性和模糊性都是人脑用词概括反映客观事物 时所带来的结果。（主客观原因 P90）
明晰性 模糊性
指词义概括的范围具有较明确的界限。例如： 数字1,2,3，······ 时间，重量，体积等
指某些词义概括的范围没有明确的界限。 例如：早晨、中午、下午、黄昏
3.句义结构模式的组合关系
第二节 语言意义2
词义的类型及特点
1.概念意义
概念意义
利
奇 （
2.内涵意义
英 国
3.风格意义
著
名
4.感情意义
语
非概念意义
义 学
5.连带意义
（附加意义或附加色彩）
家
）
6.搭配意义
7.主题意义
第二节 语言意义3
• 1.概念意义
词的概念意义是指词中表达概念的部分，是客 观事物经 过人脑的概括并反映柱塞语言中的 意义。
语言学概论(3)
第3章语音第1节语音研究的诸方面一、语音的最小单位声音是一种物理现象,语音又是具有一定意义的声音.因此，作为语音一定是无限可分的。
但我们在研究物质时，完全有必要也只能根据研究的需要把物质分解到相应的最小单位.如从一般物理的角度，我们只把物质看成是最小的单个存在体.而从一般化学的角度，我们又把物质分析到分子、原子甚至原子内部。
对于语音，我们则分析到根据语音学家分析、比较了人类多种语言以后概括出来的最小语音单位——音素。
二、音标虽然我们已经确定语音的最小单位是音素，但它仍旧是一种声音。
而我们一般对一种事物进行描写，总要把它用书面文字写下来，才能保存并仔细琢磨。
但一般字母的数量远远不够用来描写音素,而汉字则更只能用来描写比音素要大得多的音节.因此，人们编制了各种各样的书写符号来描写音素。
其中最通行的是“国际音标”。
国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的。
国际音标的制定原则是“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”。
国际音标采用大写拉丁字母、小写拉丁字母、希腊字母,或者将拉丁字母倒写，或者将两个拉丁字母合写在一起，甚至在字母上再加一些符号等方法，保证了音标和人类语言中所有音素的一一对应.我们在书写国际音标时，一般把它放在方括号中，如同我们在大多数英语词典中所看到的情形,例如how[hau]。
汉语拼音和英语字母都不能满足对其所记录语言的音素进行详细描写的要求。
如汉语的方言中有许多音素是普通话中没有的,而汉语拼音是专为记录普通话语音服务的，即使是普通话的音素,在语流中也可能产生汉语拼音无法记录的变化，所以在学习语音学时一定要掌握常用国际音标的使用。
三、应该从哪些方面去研究语音?语音共有三个环节，这就是发音——传递--感知.这三个环节分别对应于语音的生理--物理—-心理三个方面的属性。
语音的发音当然是从人的口腔(包括鼻腔)中发出的.这就不可避免地要研究人的与发音有关的生理现象，否则就不可能弄清楚语音发音的本质。
语言学纲要 第三章-语音和音系ppt课件
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3.口腔 鼻腔 咽腔
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二、两类音素：元音和辅音
元音和辅音的区别可以从以下几个方面来考察： 1.发元音的时候，气流通过声门使声带发生振动，
发音器官的其他部位不形成任何阻碍，因而气流经过 咽腔、口腔时畅通无阻。发辅音的时候都是在发音器 官的某一部位造成阻碍，呼出的气流只有克服这种阻 碍才能发出音来。
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国际音标记录语音有宽式和严式的区别 。宽式标音又叫做音位标音。音位标音 放在双斜线中。
严式标音又叫做音素标音。音素标音放 在方括号中。
举例：普通话的“挡”，国际音标的音 位标音为/taŋ/，音素标音为[tɑŋ]。
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标音的宽式并不是绝对两分的，比如普 通话的严式标音可以只严到音素符号， 也可以更加严格地在音素符号上再加附 加符号。
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国际音标的发音练习可到 /computing/ipahelp/ipahelp_downl oad.htm（语言学国际暑期学院网页）下载免 费有声软件。
国际音标输入法下载地址： /resource.htm
课后请同学掌握汉语拼音的国际音标写法。
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音强 音强是人们对声音强弱的感知，它与声波的 振幅相关。
发音时用力大，气流强，声音就强；反之就弱。
音强也有区别意义的作用，一个词或一句话，音强 不同，意义往往有很大差别。
例如汉语的“大意”一词，后一音节念去声，含义 是“主要意思”。念轻声，含义是“疏忽、粗心” ，又如英语单词concent，重音在第一音节，含义 是“内容、容量”，重音在第二音节，含义是“满 足、满意”。
语言学第三章笔记和习题
Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of wordWordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chin ese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,prepositi on and pronouns.Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desireboy+ish, desir(e)+bleboy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+itygen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ismMorph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In otherin sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:map----maps_ [s]dog----dogs _[z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen_[ n]tooth----teethsheep——sheep_Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are alwaysattached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem eDerivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.a) number: tables apples cars _ _b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talkedc) case: Joh n/John 'sInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wordIn flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ionalCon clusi on: classificati on of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesIn flexi onalDerivati on al: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rulesThe rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compo undsNoun compo undsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)Verb compo undsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compo undsma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Prepositi on compo undsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compo undsWhenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formati on of new words1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivati onDerivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.3. CompoundingCompounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.6. BlendingBlending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also aninteresting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).7. Back-formati onBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then peopleconsider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbtelevise .Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his foodbetwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.10. Coi nageCoin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requiresa word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowingwords from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played anactive role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,“violin, pizza ” from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unitin the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb inedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it maycase change its part of speech.17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixesto stems to form new words.20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivationalaffix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.A. SyntaxC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root43.What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independentlybut have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to anexisting form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:IV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Boundmorphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be dividedinto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。
语言学名词解释 (3)
.'.国际音标记录音素的标写符号叫音标。
音标和文字不同，它记录的是语音单位，而文字记录的是语音和语义结合的口语单位。
国际音标遵守一个音素与一个音标对应的原则，所以能够确保证记音的相对准。
音位聚合群音位的区别特征不仅可以使不同的音位互相区别，形成对立，而且还可以使不同的音位通过区别特征联系在一起，聚合成群。
语流音变在连续的语流中，一个音可能由于邻近音的影响，或自身所处地位的不同，或说话的快慢、高低、强弱的不同而在发音上产生一些变化，称之为“语流音变”。
同化，异化，弱化，脱落，增音 组合的层次性组合的层次性指语法单位在相互组合时不是简单的线性排列，而是一层层套合起来的。
线性关系序列相同的语法单位，有时会由于组合层次的不同，表达不同的意义，这种现象叫做句法歧义。
形态在有些语言中，词与词组合时形式要发生变化。
同一个词与不同的词组合有不同的变化。
这些不同的变化形成一个聚合，叫做词形变化，或者叫做形态。
语义场是一批意义上有共同特征的词聚在一起形成的聚合体。
亲属语义场、色彩语义场、工具语义场等。
语义场也可以据此层层建立，形成层次，把词汇系统有层次地展现出来。
文字的基本性质文字是用书写形式（或视觉形式）对语言进行再编码的符号系统。
文字在语言的基础上产生。
文字要通过“形” 对语言的音、义进行再编码，所以文字有形、音、义三个部分。
借词语言成分的借用涉及语音、词汇、语法各个方面，其中以词语的借用最为突出。
借词通常是随着一个民族引进另一个民族的事物和现象时，同时借用指称这些事物和现象的词语而出现的。
借词也叫外来词，它指的是音和义都借自外语的词。
借词可以直接从借出语言里借入，也可以是经过其他语言的中介而转借。
语言替换语言的替换是指多种语言统一成一种语言，就是某一个或某几个民族放弃自己的语言而选用其他族语言作为交际工具的现象。
语言替换是不同民族深度但不平衡接触的结果。
民族共同语和国家共同语的区别在于： 民族共同语是一个民族的通用交际语，而国家共同语是一个国家各民族共同的通用交际语。
高中英语语言学之3.句法学
三、主语-动词-宾语 （SVO） 这一句型中的谓语动词是及物动词，那么 它必须带有自己的宾语。在英文中，当一 个动词（包括单个动词和动词短语）作及 物动词用时，它必须要有自己的宾语（除 非是宾语在上下文里很明确地提到过，为 避免不必要的重复，才会省去。），否则 会视为"句子不完整"。 He has a sister. They wanted to have a rest. She successfully carried out her plan.
表语 是用来说明主语的性质,身份,特征 和状态。表语须和连系动词一起构成句 子的复合谓语。表语一般放在系动词之 后。表语可以由名词,形容词或起名词和 形容词作用的词和短语担任。 These desks are yellow. We are happy now. The dictionary is in the bag. My question is how you knew him.
宾语 是谓语动作所涉及的对象,它是动 作的承受者。宾语可以由名词或起名词 作用的成分担任，宾语一般放在谓语动 词后面。 I saw a cat in the tree. I want to go shopping. We think you are right.
有些及物动词可以有两个宾语,其中一个宾 语多指人,另一个宾语指物,指人的宾语叫做 间接宾语,指物的宾语叫做直接宾语,可以带 两个宾语的动词有 bring, give, show, send, pass, tell等。间接宾语一般放在直 接宾语的前面,如果强调直接宾语可把直接 宾语放在间接宾语的前面, 但间接宾语前须 加"to"。 My father bought me a book. Give the rubber to me. Please give the letter to XiaoLi.
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grammatical words lexical words
grammatical words
function words. closed class words
The class of words whose role is largely or wholly grammatical
inflectional affixes
cats cat’s walks walked walking happier
derivational affixes
unfair anti-social modernize threaten sweetness lovely
19
morpheme, morph, allomorph
Chapter
3
Morphology
Morphology
morphe (Greek) = shape, form -ology = "science of" The study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words. The study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed.
8
grammatical words lexical words
lexical words
content words open class words Nouns, pronouns, full verbs, adjectives,
adverbs and numerals always denote objects, happenings, ideas, their properties and other lexical meanings
Inflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a
word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language. Compared with other Indo-European languages, Modern English has relatively few inflectional morphemes, including:
(surface forms) in different environments. These morphs are called allomorphs.
A phoneme is manifested as one or more phones
Prefix
en +
stem
ROOT large
13
bound morpheme
According to their position in relation to the
stem, affixes can be further divided into
prefixes suffixes infixes
The relationship between a morpheme and its morphs
and allomorphs is parallel to the relationship between a phoneme and its phones and allophones.
A morpheme is manifested as one or more morphs
3
morpheme
A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.
it cannot be further divided into smaller grammatical
units
e.g. un accept able
the plural ｛s｝ the –ing participle ｛ing｝ the comparative ｛er ｝. the genetive case ｛’s｝ the third-person singular ｛s｝ the past form and past participle ｛ed｝ the superlative ｛est｝ the geminine gender ｛ess｝(as in “actress”)
semantic meaning
work, in correct
5
free morpheme and bound morpheme
whether they can be used independently as
free forms or not.
If a morpheme can constitute a word (free form)
a morpheme can be a complete word or an affix.
boy, sun -s, un-, -able, -hood carries grammatical or semantic meaning
4
grammatical meaning
she works in she is working
17
As a result, Modern English is no longer an
inflectional language, as Old English used to be. Instead, it is roughly an analytic language, which depends largely on the word order rather than the inflectional grammatical markers to express the grammatical meanings.
10
root (morpheme that contains the core meaning of a
Байду номын сангаас
word, to which changes can be affected by the attachment of other morphemes) stem (root plus all derivation affixes; unit to which inflectional affixes can be attached) “a stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. ” (胡壮麟， 《语言学教程》， 2001：86)
by itself, it is called a free morpheme.
"room", "bottle", "stand", "large".
If a morpheme has meaning only when
connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound morpheme.
In English, the derivational morphemes mainly
include prefixes and suffixes, inflectional morphemes are all suffixes.
18
derivational morpheme inflectional morphemes
base (any unit to which any affix can be attached:
can be root, stem or root plus any affix)
11
胡壮麟，《语言学高级教程》，2002,北京大
学出版社：131
12
enlargements
word stem stem suffix + ment INFL +s + PL
un- in "unlucky", and the plural -s in "bags".
6
free morpheme
word
open class words
LEXICAL WORDS CONTENT WORDS
closed class words
GRAMMATICAL WORDS FUNCTION WORDS,
affixes) that carries the primary lexical content of the word,
Stem is called when the last affix is deleted. the core
part of a word to which affixes are attached a stem is a root or root plus an affix (thus, each affix creates a new stem).
9
stem, root, base
Both root and stem belong to the category of base
morpheme.
Root is called when all of the affixes are deleted. A root is the innermost morpheme of a word (no