西方财务会计1

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简评美国财务会计概念框架

简评美国财务会计概念框架作者：胡巍来源：《管理观察》2010年第29期摘要:财务会计概念框架(Conceptual Framework of Financial Accounting,简称CF)是由若干说明财务会计并为财务会计所应用的基本概念所组成的理论体系,是指导和评价会计准则的理论依据。

本文从美国财务会计概念框架的基本内容、特点及其局限性对其进行简单探讨。

关键词:美国财务会计概念框架财务报表报表要素确认计量财务会计概念框架(Conceptual Framework of Financial Accounting,簡称CF)是由若干说明财务会计并为财务会计所应用的基本概念所组成的理论体系,是指导和评价会计准则的理论依据。

利用CF作为沟通财务会计理论和财务会计准则的桥梁,已经成为国际会计准则委员会和西方主要国家在制定会计准则中采用的普遍做法。

美国是首先建立CF的国家,1978年以来,美国财务会计准则委员会先后发布的7份“财务概念公告”构成了概念框架体系,内容涵盖:企业财务报告的目标、会计信息的质量特征、企业财务报表的要素、企业财务报表要素的确认与计量等。

各份财务会计概念公告基本内容如下:SFAC No.1——《企业编制财务报告的目标》主要讨论企业财务报告的目标问题,提出财务报告在性质上必须是为“通用目的”服务的,而不是为特定使用者团体的特殊目的服务的,虽然它比较注重投资者和信贷人的利益。

值得注意的是,在SFAC No.1中所讨论的是“财务报告”的目的,而不再仅仅是“财务报表”的目的。

SFAC No.2——《会计信息的质量特征》主要涉及会计信息的质量特征。

虽然SFAC No.1已经提出财务报表主要是针对使用者的共同需要的,并且也已假定使用者能够理解财务报表和财务信息的内容。

然而,财务信息本身亦应达到一定的可读程度。

因此,“可理解性”是受财务信息使用者和编制者两方面因素的影响的特征。

由于SFAC No.2在“决策有用性”的观点下继续强调决策者以及他们的需要。

目录--财务会计学1

销售百分比法及帐龄分析法
直接冲销法
应收票据
应收票据的核算
加速现金流动的方法
利用会计信息作出决策
酸性测试比率
平均收额期
应收款项与短期投资事项在现金流量表中的反映
复习难点
第六章存货、销货成本、毛利
复习要点
依据比率高低作出决策
衡量公司短期偿债能力的比率
衡量公司销货和收回帐款能力的比率
衡量公司长期偿债能力的比率
衡量公司盈利能力的比率
衡量公司投资报酬的比率
财务分析的局限：经营决策的复杂性
经济评估的介入--一种新的方法
有效的市场、管理活动和投资决策
通过现金流量来分析企业投资情况及信用分析，合理计量现金--自由现金流
复习要点
第十三章财务报表分析
财务报表分析
财务报表分析的客观性
横向分析法
趋势分析法
纵向分析法
结构百分比法
比较分析法
与行业平均水平比较
与主要竞争对手比较
依据现金流量表作出决策
发行日与到期日之间的利息支付日
折价发行
按实际利率法摊销折价
溢价发行
按直线法摊销溢价
可提前兑换债券
可转换债券
负债经营中的优点：债券和股票
应付租赁款
经营性租赁
融资性租赁
负债在资产负债表上的列示
复习难点
附：会计在企业中的地位
第二章会计信息的处理
会计科目
资产
负债
所有者权益
交易的会计处理
企业交易活动与财务报表
预习难点
复习难点

财务会计专业英语 (1)

©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives-Conceptual
C1: Explain the purpose and importance of accounting in the information age C2: Identify users and uses of accounting C3: Identify opportunities in accounting and related fields C4: Explain why ethics are crucial in accounting C5: Explain GAAP, and define and apply several key accounting principles
Introduction
Textbook

Principles of Accounting (Nineteenth Edition), by John J. Wild, Ken W. Shaw, Barbara Chiappetta, 崔学刚，饶菁改编，中国人民大学出版社，2009年7月出版
©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved
©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives-Analytical
A1: Define and interpret the accounting equation and each of its components A2: Analyze business transactions using the accounting equation

西方财务会计第六章答案

chapter 6 Accounting for merchandising businessesClass Discussion Questions1. Mercha ndising businesses acquire merchandise for resale to customers. It is the selling ofmerchandise, instead of a service, that makes the activities of a merchandising business dif-ferent from the activities of a service business.2. Yes. Gross profit is the excess of (net) sales over cost of merchandise sold. A net loss ariseswhen operating expenses exceed gross profit. Therefore, a business can earn a gross profit but incur operating expenses in excess of this gross profit and end up with a net loss.3. a. Incr ease c. Decreaseb. Increase d. Decrease4. U nder the periodic method, the inventory records do not show the amount available for saleor the amount sold during the period. In contrast, under the perpetual method of accounting for merchandise inventory, each purchase and sale of merchandise is recorded in the invento-ry and the cost of merchandise sold accounts. As a result, the amount of merchandise availa-ble for sale and the amount sold are continuously (perpetually) disclosed in the inventory records.5. The multiple-step form of income statement contains conventional groupings for revenuesand expenses, with intermediate balances, before concluding with the net income balance. In the single-step form, the total of all expenses is deducted from the total of all revenues, with-out intermediate balances.6. The major advantages of the single-step form of income statement are its simplicity and itsemphasis on total revenues and total expenses as the determinants of net income. The major objection to the form is that such relationships as gross profit to sales and income from opera-tions to sales are not as readily determinable as when the multiple-step form is used.7. a. 2% discount allowed if paid within ten days of date of invoice; entire amount of invoicedue within 60 days of date of invoice.b. Payment due within 30 days of date of invoice.c. Payment due by the end of the month in which the sale was made.8. a. A credit memorandum issued by the seller of merchandise indicates the amount for whichthe buyer's account is to be credited (credit to Accounts Receivable) and the reason for the sales return or allowance.b. A debit memorandum issued by the buyer of merchandise indicates the amount for whichthe seller's account is to be debited (debit to Accounts Payable) and the reason for the purchases return or allowance.9. a. The buyerb. The seller10. E xamples of such accounts include the following: Sales, Sales Discounts, Sales Returns andAllowances, Cost of Merchandise Sold, Merchandise Inventory.Ex. 6–1a. $490,000 ($250,000 + $975,000 – $735,000)b.40% ($490,000 ÷ $1,225,000)c. No. If operating expenses are less than gross profit, there will be a net income. On the otherhand, if operating expenses exceed gross profit, there will be a net loss.Ex. 6–2 : $15,710 million ( $20,946 million – $5,236 million )Ex. 6–3a. Purchases discounts, purchases returns and allowancesb. Transportation in;c. Merchandise available for saled. Merchandise inventory (ending)Ex. 6–41. The schedule should begin with the January 1, not the December 31, merchandise inventory.2. Purchases returns and allowances and purchases discounts should be deducted from (notadded to) purchases.3. The result of subtracting purchases returns and allowances and purchases discounts frompur chases should be labeled ―net purchases.‖4. Transportation in should be added to net purchases to yield cost of merchandise purchased.5. The merchandise inventory at December 31 should be deducted from merchandise availablefor sale to yield cost of merchandise sold.A correct cost of merchandise sold section is as follows:Cost of merchandise sold:Merchandise inventory, January 1, 2006 ........ $132,000 Purchases ........................................................... $600,000Less: Purchases returns and allowances$14,000Purchases discounts .............................. 6,000 20,000 Net purchases ..................................................... $580,000Add transportation in ....................................... 7,500Cost of merchandise purchased ................. 587,500 Merchandise available for sale ......................... $719,500 Less merchandise inventory,December 31, 2006....................................... 120,000 Cost of merchandise sold .................................. $599,500 Ex. 6–5Net sales: $3,010,000 ( $3,570,000 – $320,000 – $240,000 )Gross profit: $868,000 ( $3,010,000 – $2,142,000 )Ex. 6–6THE MERIDEN COMPANYIncome StatementFor the Year Ended June 30, 2006Revenues:Net sales ................................................................................. $5,400,000Rent revenue ......................................................................... 30,000Total revenues................................................................... $5,430,000 Expenses:Cost of merchandise sold ..................................................... $3,240,000Selling expenses .................................................................... 480,000Administrative expenses ...................................................... 300,000Interest expense .................................................................... 47,500Total expenses ................................................................... 4,067,500Net income ..................................................................................... $1,362,500Ex. 6–71. Sales returns and allowances and sales discounts should be deducted from (not added to)sales.2. Sales returns and allowances and sales discounts should be deducted from sales to yield "netsales" (not gross sales).3. Deducting the cost of merchandise sold from net sales yields gross profit.4. Deducting the total operating expenses from gross profit would yield income from operations(or operating income).5. Interest revenue should be reported under the caption ―Other income‖ and should be addedto Income from operations to arrive at Net income.6. The final amount on the income statement should be labeled Net income, not Gross profit.A correct income statement would be as follows:THE PLAUTUS COMPANYIncome StatementFor the Year Ended October 31, 2006Revenue from sales:Sales .................................................................... $4,200,000Less: Sales returns and allowances ............... $81,200Sales discounts ....................................... 20,300 101,500Net sales ........................................................ $4,098,500 Cost of merchandise sold ........................................ 2,093,000 Gross profit .............................................................. $2,005,500 Operating expenses:Selling expenses ................................................. $ 203,000Transportation out ............................................ 7,500Administrative expenses ................................... 122,000Total operating expenses ............................ 332,500 Income from operations .......................................... $1,673,000 Other income:Interest revenue ................................................. 66,500Net income ................................................................ $1,739,500 Ex. 6–8a. $25,000 c. $477,000 e. $40,000 g. $757,500b. $210,000 d. $192,000 f. $520,000 h. $690,000Ex. 6–9a. Cash ......................................................................................... 6,900Sales ................................................................................... 6,900 Cost of Merchandise Sold ...................................................... 4,830Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 4,830b. Accounts Receivable ............................................................... 7,500Sales ................................................................................... 7,500 Cost of Merchandise Sold ...................................................... 5,625Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 5,625c. Cash ......................................................................................... 10,200Sales ................................................................................... 10,200 Cost of Merchandise Sold ...................................................... 6,630Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 6,630d. Accounts Receivable—American Express ........................... 7,200Sales ................................................................................... 7,200 Cost of Merchandise Sold ...................................................... 5,040Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 5,040e. Credit Card Expense (675)Cash (675)f. Cash ......................................................................................... 6,875Credit Card Expense (325)Accounts Receivable—American Express ..................... 7,200Ex. 6–10It was acceptable to debit Sales for the $235,750. However, using Sales Returns and Allow-ances assists management in monitoring the amount of returns so that quick action can be taken if returns become excessive.Accounts Receivable should also have been credited for $235,750. In addition, Cost of Mer-chandise Sold should only have been credited for the cost of the merchandise sold, not the selling price. Merchandise Inventory should also have been debited for the cost of the merchandise re-turned. The entries to correctly record the returns would have been as follows: Sales (or Sales Returns and Allowances) ............................. 235,750Accounts Receivable ......................................................... 235,750 Merchandise Inventory .......................................................... 141,450Cost of Merchandise Sold ................................................ 141,450Ex. 6–11a. $7,350 [$7,500 – $150 ($7,500 × 2%)]b. Sales Returns and Allowances .............................................. 7,500Sales Discounts (150)Cash ................................................................................... 7,350Merchandise Inventory .......................................................... 4,500Cost of Merchandise Sold ................................................ 4,500Ex. 6–12(1) Sold merchandise on account, $12,000.(2) Recorded the cost of the merchandise sold and reduced the merchandise inventory account,$7,800.(3) Accepted a return of merchandise and granted an allowance, $2,500.(4) Updated the merchandise inventory account for the cost of the merchandise returned,$1,625.(5) Received the balance due within the discount period, $9,405. [Sale of $12,000, less return of$2,500, less discount of $95 (1% × $9,500).]Ex. 6–13a. $18,000b. $18,375c. $540 (3% × $18,000)d. $17,835Ex. 6–14a. $7,546 [Purchase of $8,500, less return of $800, less discount of $154 ($7,700 × 2%)]b. Merchandise InventoryEx. 6–15Offer A is lower than offer B. Details are as follows:A BList price ............................................................................... $40,000 $40,300Less discount ......................................................................... 800 403$39,200 $39,897 Transportation (625)$39,825 $39,897Ex. 6–16(1) Purchased merchandise on account at a net cost of $8,000.(2) Paid transportation costs, $175.(3) An allowance or return of merchandise was granted by the creditor, $1,000.(4) Paid the balance due within the discount period: debited Accounts Payable, $7,000, and cre-dited Merchandise Inventory for the amount of the discount, $140, and Cash, $6,860.Ex. 6–17a. Merchandise Inventory .......................................................... 7,500Accounts Payable ............................................................. 7,500b. Accounts Payable ................................................................... 1,200Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 1,200c. Accounts Payable ................................................................... 6,300Cash ................................................................................... 6,174Merchandise Inventory (126)a. Merchandise Inventory .......................................................... 12,000Accounts Payable—Loew Co. ......................................... 12,000b. Accounts Payable—Loew Co. ............................................... 12,000Cash ................................................................................... 11,760Merchandise Inventory (240)c. Accounts Payable*—Loew Co. ............................................. 2,940Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 2,940d. Merchandise Inventory .......................................................... 2,000Accounts Payable—Loew Co. ......................................... 2,000e. Cash (940)Accounts Payable—Loew Co. (940)*Note: The debit of $2,940 to Accounts Payable in entry (c) is the amount of cash refund due from Loew Co. It is computed as the amount that was paid for the returned merchandise, $3,000, less the purchase discount of $60 ($3,000 × 2%). The credit to Accounts Payable of $2,000 in en-try (d) reduces the debit balance in the account to $940, which is the amount of the cash refund in entry (e). The alternative entries below yield the same final results.c. Accounts Receivable—Loew Co. .......................................... 2,940Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 2,940d. Merchandise Inventory .......................................................... 2,000Accounts Payable—Loew Co. ......................................... 2,000e. Cash (940)Accounts Payable—Loew Co. ............................................... 2,000Accounts Receivable—Loew Co. .................................... 2,940Ex. 6–19a. $10,500b. $4,160 [($4,500 – $500) ⨯ 0.99] + $200c. $4,900d. $3,960e. $834 [($1,500 – $700) ⨯ 0.98] + $50Ex. 6–20a. At the time of sale c. $4,280b. $4,000 d. Sales Tax PayableEx. 6–21a. Accounts Receivable ............................................................... 9,720Sales ................................................................................... 9,000Sales Tax Payable (720)Cost of Merchandise Sold ...................................................... 6,300Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 6,300b. Sales Tax Payable ................................................................... 9,175Cash ................................................................................... 9,175a. Accounts Receivable—Beta Co. ........................................... 11,500Sales ................................................................................... 11,500 Cost of Merchandise Sold ...................................................... 6,900Merchandise Inventory .................................................... 6,900b. Sales Returns and Allowances (900)Accounts Receivable—Beta Co. (900)Merchandise Inventory (540)Cost of Merchandise Sold (540)c. Cash ......................................................................................... 10,388Sales Discounts (212)Accounts Receivable—Beta Co. ...................................... 10,600Ex. 6–23a. Merchandise Inventory .......................................................... 11,500Accounts Payable—Superior Co. ................................... 11,500b. Accounts Payable—Superior Co. (900)Merchandise Inventory (900)c. Accounts Payable—Superior Co. ......................................... 10,600Cash ................................................................................... 10,388Merchandise Inventory (212)Ex. 6–24a. debit c. credit e. debitb. debit d. debit f. debitEx. 6–25(b) Cost of Merchandise Sold (d) Sales (e)Sales Discounts(f) Sales Returns and Allowances (g) Salaries Expense (j) Supplies ExpenseEx. 6–26a. 2003: 2.07 [$58,247,000,000 ÷ ($30,011,000,000 + $26,394,000,000)/2]2002: 2.24 [$53,553,000,000 ÷ ($26,394,000,000 + $21,385,000,000)/2]b.These analyses indicate a decrease in the effectiveness in the use of the assets to generateprofits. This decrease is probably due to the slowdown in the U.S. economy during 2002–2003. However, a comparison with similar companies or industry averages would be helpful in making a more definitive statement on the effectiveness of the use of the assets.Ex. 6–27a. 4.13 [$12,334,353,000 ÷ ($2,937,578,000 + $3,041,670,000)/2]b. Although Winn-Dixie and Zales are both retail stores, Zales sells jewelry at a much slowervelocity than Winn-Dixie sells groceries. Thus, Winn-Dixie is able to generate $4.13 of sales for every dollar of assets. Zales, however, is only able to generate $1.53 in sales per dollar of assets. This makes sense when one considers the sales rate for jewelry and the relative cost of holding jewelry inventory, relative to groceries. Fortunately, Zales is able to counter its slow sales velocity, relative to groceries, with higher gross profits, relative to groceries. Appendix 1—Ex. 6–28a. and c.SALES JOURNALCost of MerchandiseSold Dr.Invoice Post.Accts. Rec. Dr. MerchandiseDate No. Account Debited Ref.Sales Cr. Inventory Cr.2006Aug. 3 80 Adrienne Richt ................... ✓12,000 4,0008 81 K. Smith .............................. ✓10,000 5,50019 82 L. Lao .................................. ✓9,000 4,00026 83 Cheryl Pugh ........................ ✓14,000 6,50045,000 20,000b. andc.PURCHASES JOURNALAccounts Merchandise OtherPost Payable Inventory Accounts Post.Date Account Credited Ref.Cr. Dr. Dr. Ref. Amount2006Aug. 10 Draco Rug Importers ................. ✓8,000 8,00012 Draco Rug Importers ................. ✓3,500 3,50021 Draco Rug Importers ................. ✓19,500 19,50031,000 31,000d.Merchandise inventory, August 1 ............................................... $ 19,000Plus: August purchases ................................................................ 31,000Less: Cost of merchandise sold ................................................... (20,000)Merchandise inventory, August 31 ............................................. $ 30,000ORQuantity Rug Style Cost2 10 by 6 Chinese* $ 7,5001 8 by 10 Persian 5,5001 8 by 10 Indian 4,0002 10 by 12 Persian 13,000$ 30,000*($4,000 + $3,500)。

斯科特财务会计理论PPT课件第一章

• E.g., 2007-2008 market meltdowns
– Lack of transparency of asset-backed securities – Excessive risk encouraged by off-balance-sheet activities – Excessive risk encouraged by manager compensation
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc
1 - 15
1.10 The Fundamental Problem Of Financial Accounting Theory
• The best measure of net income to control adverse selection not the same as the best measure to motivate manager performance
– Fair value accounting for financial instruments
• Complicated by liquidity pricing
– High leverage of financial institutions
• Off-balance sheet financing liabilities • Use of expected loss notes to avoid consolidation of
• Response of standard setters
– Stopgap measures in response to government pressure
• Fair value accounting guidance during liquidity pricing • Increased use of internal estimates (value-in-use) • Increased use of cost-based valuation

知识点财务会计(一)

知识点财务会计(一)一、财务会计的基本概念1. 财务会计的定义财务会计是指对企业经济活动进行记录、分类、汇总和报告的一种会计工作。

其主要目的是为外部利益相关者（如投资者、债权人、政府等）提供有关企业财务状况、经营成果和现金流量的信息，以帮助他们做出经济决策。

2. 财务会计的基本假设（1）会计主体假设：企业是一个独立的经济实体，与其他经济实体相区分。

（2）持续经营假设：企业在可预见的将来会持续经营下去。

（3）会计分期假设：企业将经营周期划分为若干个相等的时间段，以便进行定期的财务报告。

（4）货币计量假设：企业经济活动可以用货币来衡量和表达。

3. 财务会计的基本原则（1）权责发生制原则：收入和费用应当在其发生时予以确认，无论款项是否已经收付。

（2）历史成本原则：资产和负债以其购入或发生时的成本作为入账价值。

（3）一致性原则：企业在会计处理方法上应保持前后一致，不得随意变更。

（4）实际成本原则：企业在会计处理过程中，应以实际发生的成本作为资产和负债的计价基础。

二、会计要素1. 资产资产是指企业拥有或控制的、预期能够给企业带来经济利益的资源。

资产分为流动资产和非流动资产。

（1）流动资产：包括现金、银行存款、应收账款、存货等。

（2）非流动资产：包括长期投资、固定资产、无形资产、其他资产等。

2. 负债负债是指企业过去的交易或事项形成的，预期会导致经济利益流出企业的现时义务。

负债分为流动负债和非流动负债。

（1）流动负债：包括短期借款、应付账款、预收账款、应付职工薪酬等。

（2）非流动负债：包括长期借款、应付债券、长期应付款等。

3. 所有者权益所有者权益是指企业资产扣除负债后，由所有者享有的剩余权益。

所有者权益包括实收资本、资本公积、盈余公积、未分配利润等。

4. 收入收入是指企业在日常经营活动中产生的，会导致所有者权益增加的经济利益的总流入。

收入分为销售收入、投资收益、其他收入等。

5. 费用费用是指企业在日常经营活动中发生的，会导致所有者权益减少的经济利益的流出。

西方财务会计 chapter1

1.3-2 Overview of the Conceptual Framework ---- Three levels of objectives elements and principles
The first level consists of objectives.
The second level explains financial elements and characteristics of information.
When revenues exceed expenses, net income results.
When expenses exceed revenues, a net loss results.
Gains and losses(con.)
Gains: increase in equity from incidental or peripheral transactions not associated with the company’s major or central lines of business, e.g. gain from disposal of fixed asset.
transactions
Assets: Probable future economic benefits
Liabilities: Probable future sacrifices of economic benefits
Equity: Residual or ownership interest
Investment by Owners: Increases in net assets
Distributions to Owners: Decreases in net assets

财务会计用语(1)

abnormal cost特别成本，非常成本aboriginal cost原始成本absolute cost of production绝对生产费用absolute fixed cost绝对固定成本absorption cost全部成本accidental cost事故费用［支出］accounting cost记帐成本acquisition cost取得成本，购置成本，招揽成本,照原价acquisition cost of assets资产的购置成本acquisition cost of inventory存货的购置成本actual cost实际代价additional cost(s)额外费用，追加成本adjusted original cost调整原价adjustment cost理算费用administrative cost管理费用advertising cost广告费用afforestation cost造林费用after cost后续成本aggregate cost of coverage 承保总值all-in cost总费用allocable fixed cost可分摊的固定费用allowed cost容许成本alternative cost替代成本amortized cost已摊销成本annuity cost年金成本anticipated cost预期成本apportioned cost分派费用，摊派成本appraisal cost鉴定费用approximate cost约计成本assembly cost组装成本assessed cost摊派费用assumed cost假定成本available cost可控成本avoidable cost可避免成本B back-stopping cost 支助费用basic cost原始价值，基额成本basic shop cost 基本制造成本basic standard cost 基本标准成本betterment costs 固定资产改良费用binding cost装订费用，装帧成本bona fide cost真实成本bond issue cost债券发行费用，债券发行成本book cost帐面成本break-even cost收支两平成本，损益两平成本budget(ed) cost 预算成本，计划成本building cost ofprojects 工程造价bunched cost整批成本burden cost一般费用；杂费business cost企业成本buying cost购入原价capacity cost能力维持费用；足量成本capital cost资本成本，资本费用capitalized cost资本化费用carrying cost 储囤成本，财产维持费circulation cost 流动费用clerical cost 办公费用collision costs 碰撞事件诉讼费combined cost 联合成本，合并成本committed capacity cost 折旧费common cost 共同成本;联合成本compiling cost 收集成本compliance cost 税务执行费用component cost 个别成本constant cost 不变成本construction cost 工程费用consumed cost 耗用成本container cost 容器成本contingent cost临时成本continuous-process cost连续步序成本contractual printing cost订约承印费controllable cost可控制成本conversion cost加工成本cover cost期货保证金，找补费用crush cost赶工成本current cost时价，市价，流动成本，日常开支current cost of funds资金的现时成本Ddebris cleaning cost清除残余损物费用declining average variable cost平均变动成本下降decreasing cost递减成本deferred cost递延成本degressive cost递减费用delivery cost 运送费用demolition cost 拆毁成本departmental cost 分部成本；部门成本;车间费用depleted cost 扣除折耗后成本depreciable cost 应计折旧价值depreciated cost 折余成本depreciation cost 折旧费development cost 开发成本differential cost 差等成本;差量成本direct cost直接成本；可变成本;直接费用direct and indirect process cost 直接与间接分步成本discounted cost 折扣费用discretionary costs 可控制成本managed costs 可控制成本programmed costs 可控制成本displacement cost 代替成本disposal cost 处理费用distributed cost 已分摊成本distributive cost 发行成本，销售成本divisional cost 分部成本，部别成本economic cost 经济成本effective cost 实际成本efficiency cost 效率费用electric power cost 电力成本employment cost 雇佣费energy cost能量消耗enterprise cost企业成本environmental cost环境？。

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And to individuals who reasonably understand business and economic activities.
Level II. Basic Elements And Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting information
GAAP
Generally accepted accounting principles are the measurement rules used to develop the information in financial statement. They are those guidelines which indicate how to report economic events. They consist of a number of concepts,principles and procedures.
The first level consists of objectives.
The second level explains financial elements and characteristics of information.
The third level incorporates recognition and measurement criteria.
ASSETS
Assets are resources owned by a business. They are things of value used in carrying out
such activities as production, consumption and exchange. The common characteristics possessed by all assets is the capacity to provide future services or benefits to the entities that use them.
Owner’s equity
Claim on net assets Owner’s equity = total assets - total liabilities Different OE Proprietorship and partnership: Capital (subdivisions: Capital; Drawing) Corporation: Stockholders’ equity (subdivisions: Paid-in capital; Retained earnings)
西方财务会计1
Accounting information and decision makers
Accounting information
Financial accounting
External Decision makers
Management Accounting
Internal Decision makers
When revenues exceed expenses, net income results.
When expenses exceed revenues, a net loss results.
Gains and losses(con.)
Gains: increase in equity from incidental or peripheral transactions not associated with the company’s major or central lines of business, e.g. gain from disposal of fixed asset.
The Conceptual Framework
The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issues Statements of Financial Accounting Concepts. These statements constitute the conceptual framework of accounting.
1.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN FINANCIAL AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTInting ---- The process of developing and reporting accounting information for internal users who have direct access to the information preparing.
income statement balance sheet
REVENUES
Revenues are the gross increases in owners’ (stockholders’) equity that result from operating the business.
Generally, revenues result from the sale of merchandise, the performance of services, the rental of property, or the lending of money.
Level I. Basic Objectives of Financial Reporting
To provide information:
about economic resources, the claims on those resources and changes in them
that is useful to those making investment and credit decisions, such as present and future investors, creditors in assessing future cash flows;
They are the cost of assets consumed or services used in the process of earning revenue.
Examples of expenses include utility expense, rent expense, supplies expense, and tax expense.
Losses: Decreases in equity from incidental
transactions
Assets: Probable future economic benefits
Liabilities: Probable future sacrifices of economic benefits
Elements in financial statements
1. Revenues 2. Expenses 3. Gains 4. Losses 5. Comprehensive income 6. Assets 7. Liabilities 8. Owner’s equity 9. Investment by the owners 10. Distributions to owners
Revenues usually result in an increase in an asset.
EXPENSES
Expenses are the decreases in owners’ (stockholders’) equity that result from operating the business.
Gains and losses
Losses: decrease in equity from incidental or peripheral transactions not associated with the company’s major or central lines of business,e.g. loss from disposal of fixed asset.
1.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN FINANCIAL AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
Financial Accounting ---- The process of developing and reporting financial information for external users who do not have direct access to the information preparing which should be in accordance with General Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).
1.3 THE FASB’S FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1.3-1 Objectives of the Conceptual Framework
The Framework is to be the foundation for building a set of coherent accounting standards and rules.
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has the authority to determine the financial statements to be provided to stockholders and the measurement rules applied in producing the statements. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is currently recognized as the group responsible for establishing GAAP.