语言学复习
语言学复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
语言学复习
导言语言语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具，它是以语言为物质外壳，以词汇为建筑材料，以语法结构规律而构成的符号系统。
语言学广义的语言学值得是研究语言的科学。
狭义的语言学指的是以语言为研究对象，揭示语言的自身规律和面貌的学科。
语文学指研究古代书面语的学科。
普通语言学指通过多种语言比较探求所有人类语言的语音、语法、语汇在共时结构上的共性，探寻所有人类语言在历史发展中的共同规律。
共时语言学描写语言每个子系统在某一特定时期的共时状态和不同子系统间的关联。
历史语言学研究语言每个子系统在不同时期发生的变化及其变化中不同子系统之间的关联。
结构主义语言学或称结构语言学，是指20世纪以索绪尔的语言学理论为代表以及受这种理论影响而进行的语言理论的研究。
1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》的出版，标志着结构主义语言学的诞生，其反对语言现象进行孤立分析，主张系统的研究。
历史比较语言学是语言学中一个重要的部类，它以历史比较法为基础，研究语言的亲属关系。
历史比较语言学是历史语言学的重要组成部分，它为现代语言学的建立奠定了坚实的基础，是语言学走上发展道路的标志。
第一章语言习得的临界期：指当人出生后过了一定的期限，如果没有后天正常的社会环境，其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了，最迟到十二三岁。
论述语言的功能语言的功能是多方面的，从宽泛意义上来讲，大致分为语言的社会功能和思维功能。
信息传递功能，是语言社会功能中最基本的功能，这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。
信息的传递是社会中人与人交流的基本方式。
语言所传递的信息可以没有穷尽、超越时空。
语言的信息传递功能优于其他一切工具。
人机互动功能，是指语言具有建立或保持某种社会关联的作用。
互动包括：一是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一是这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行为上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
思维功能体现在语言是人类思维的工具。
无论是思维的形式、思维的过程、心理机制都和语言密切相关。
语言学总复习
Origin of language
Divine- origin theory 神授说 Bow-wow theory 汪汪理论 摹声说 Pooh-pooh theory 噗噗理论 感叹说 Yo-he-ho theory 呦嘿吼理论 劳动叫喊说
Functions of language
The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔)
Table
2.1 A chart of English consonants
English vowels(RP)
Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
The classification of word 词的分类
1 variable and invariable words可变词与不 变词 2 grammatical (functional) and lexical (content) words词汇词和语法词 3 closed-class and open-class words 封闭 类词和开放类词 4 word class词类
Important distinctions in linguistics
语言学概论复习资料(全)
语言学概论复习资料（全）一、知识题（填空与选择）：1、语言的客观存在形式，首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为。
2、口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
3、瑞典、挪威、丹麦三个国家使用同一个语言。
4、口语和书面语包括物理现象和心理现象。
5、口头交际活动有两个因素：语言和言语。
6、瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。
7、语言系统是由语音系统、语汇系统、语法系统、语义系统组成。
8、在任何语言中，音调变化都是语调的主要构成因素。
9、音强变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。
10、音质是由声波的形式决定的。
11、音质是声音四要素中最重要的。
12、人体的发音器官包括发音的动力源、发音体、共鸣腔。
13、口腔、鼻腔和咽腔是人类共鸣腔。
14、语音的物理属性和生理属性是语音的自然属性。
15、[e][ ε][a][ u ][o ][ ][ ɑ]八个音被称作定位元音或标准元音。
16、辅音的音质决定于发音部位和发音方法。
17、音位变体分条件变体和自由变体。
18、音素之间存在着对立关系和互补关系。
19、韵母分成韵头、韵腹、韵尾。
20、常见的语流音变现象有同化、异化、脱落、弱化、增音。
21、同化又可分顺同化和逆同化。
22、从音位理论的角度看，最小的音段是音位。
音位的组合又可进一步划分为音节、音节组合、语句。
23、汉藏语系包括汉语、藏语、苗语。
印欧语系一般都是非声调语言，包括英语、法语、俄语等。
24、声调可从调值和调位两方面来分析。
25、重音可分为词重音和句重音。
26、语汇学包括语汇的类聚系统和语汇的构造形式。
27、根据音节的数量将词分成单音节词、双音节词和多音节词。
根据包含语素的数量将词分成单纯词和合成词。
28、古语词包括历史词语和文言词语。
根据词的不同来源分成新造词、古语词、方言词和外来词。
29、语法分为词法部分和句法部分。
30、语法单位通常分成语素、词、词组和句子。
31、语法手段分成词法手段和句法手段。
语言学复习资料
第一章绪论A.Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. linguistics2. langue3. parole4. arbitrariness5. displacement6. language7. design features 8. performance 9. competence 10. semanticsB.Fill in each blank with one word.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of ＿＿＿.2.In professional usage, the ＿＿＿is a scholar who studies language objectively,observing it scientifically, recording the facts of language, and generalizing from them.3.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, itbecomes another branch of linguistic study called ＿＿＿.4.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from thecore of the branch is called ＿＿＿.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is ＿＿＿.6.The branch of study related to sounds is called ＿＿＿.7.＿＿＿relates the study of language to psychology. Modern linguistics carried out inthe century is mostly ＿＿＿, it differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar”.nguage refers to the ＿＿＿linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.9.Chomsky defines ＿＿＿as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and＿＿＿of the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.Five of the design features of human language are ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿,＿＿＿.C.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1.The study of language as a whole is often called ＿＿＿.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics2.The study of language meaning is called ＿＿＿.A. syntaxB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics3.The description of a language at some point in time is a ＿＿＿.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive4.＿＿＿made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. HallD. Saussure5.Which of the following isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. Displacement6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is known as ＿＿＿.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics7.＿＿＿refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing8.The definition “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicat ing ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”was proposed by ＿＿＿.A. SapirB. HallC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield9.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the ＿＿＿nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmission10.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechD.Indicate the following statements true or false.1.Linguistics studies a particular language.nguage is an isolated phenomenon.3.The language a person uses often reveals his social background.nguage is human-specific.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, and it is possible forlinguists to deal with it all at once.6.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.7.The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society is calledsociolinguistics.8.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive, so modernlinguistics is mostly prescriptive.9.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.10.The distinction between langue and parole is the same as the distinction betweencompetence and performance.11.Linguists Sapir and Hall both treated language as a purely human institution.12.“lblk” is not a possible sound combination in English.参考答案：B. 1. language 2. linguist 3. pragmatics 4. sociolinguistics5.descriptive6. phonology7. psycholinguistics, descriptive8. abstract9. competence, performance 10. arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement,cultural transmissionC. 1-5ACBDB 6-10CBAADD. 1-5FFTTF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TT第二章音系学A.Define the following terms, giving examples if necessary:1.Phonetics2.Stops3.Voicing4.Allophone5.Suprasegmental features6.Phonology7.Tone8.Consonant9.Vowel10.Narrow transcriptionB.Indicate the following statements true or false:1.Of the media of language, writing is more basic than speech.2.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have nothad written form.3.Speech sounds are limited in number.4.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the mosthighly developed, is acoustic phonetics.5.Sound [l] in the word leaf is a dark [\].6.Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.7.In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.8.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a language; it aims to discover howspeech sounds form patterns and how they differ from each other.9.In English, the position of word stress distinguishes meaning.10.English is a typical tone language.11.Phonetics is of a general nature.12.Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense andloose vowels.C.Fill in each of following blanks.1.In linguistic evolution, ＿＿＿prior to writing.2.The three branches of phonetics are: ＿＿＿phonetics, ＿＿＿phonetics and ＿＿＿phonetics.3.The major suprasegmental features in English are: ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.4.The major rules in phonology are ＿＿＿rule, ＿＿＿rule, and ＿＿＿rule.5.Clear [l] and dark [\] are the ＿＿＿of the phoneme [l].6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ＿＿＿.7.The transcription with letter-symbols only is called ＿＿＿＿＿, the transcription withdiacritics is called ＿＿＿＿＿＿.8.In English these are two affricates, ＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.9.All the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are ＿＿＿.10.＿＿＿can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.D.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The ＿＿＿is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulationthan any other.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity2.Liquids is classified in the light of ＿＿＿.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above3.In English, there is only one glottal. It is ＿＿＿.A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]4.The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is ＿＿＿.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [m]5.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by ＿＿＿.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above6.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-factstatements?A. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above7.In a sentence, which of the following is usually not stressed?A. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above8.Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above9.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ＿＿＿.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. None of the above10.The sound [v] can be described as ＿＿＿.A．voiced, labiodental, fricativeB．voiceless, labiodental, affricateC．voiced, alveolar, fricativeD．None of the above参考答案: A. 1-5 FTTFF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TF C. 1-5 CABAC 6-10 BCBBAB. 1. speech 2. articulatory, auditory, acoustic 3. word stress, sentence stress,intonation 4.sequential, assimilation, deletion 5. allophone 6. voicing 7. broadtranscription, narrow transcription 8. [] [] 9. rounded 10. Phone第3章形态学A.Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false).（）1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（）2. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.（）3. The structure of words is not governed by rules.( ) 4. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.( ) 5. Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.( ) 6. Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.( ) 7. There is only one type of affixes in the English language.( ) 8. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.( ) 9. Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.( ) 10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.B.Fill in each blank below with one word.1. __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2. The affix "-es" conveys a __________ meaning.3. __________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.4. __________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such asnumber, degree, and case.5. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called __________.6. The combination of two or sometimes more that two words to create new words is called__________7. Semantically, the meaning of a __________ is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.8. __________ morphology studies word-formation.9. A __________ can never stand by itself although it bears clears, definite meaning.10. __________ are added to the end of stems.C.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.( ) 1. The word "boyish" contains two ____________.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs( ) 2. Inflectional ____________ studies inflections.A. derivationB. inflectionC. phonologyD. morphology( ) 3. ____________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix( ) 4. ____________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes( ) 5. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ____________to froma new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word参考答案：A．1-5 TTFTF 6-10 FFTFTB. 1. Morpheme 2. grammatical 3. Free 4. Inflectional5. prefixes6. derivation7. compound8. Derivational9. root 10. SuffixesC．1-5 CDBAC第5章语义学A．Indicate the following statements T (true) or F (false).( ) 1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the meditation of concepts in the mind.( ) 2. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.( ) 3. There are words with more or less the same meaning based in different regional dialects. ( ) 4. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can not be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.( ) 5. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. ( ) 6. Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others.( ) 7. Kid and child are stylistic synonyms.( ) 8. "furniture" is the superordinate of "bed".( ) 9. Antonyms contrast each other only on a single dimension, such as "live" and "die".( )10. "Cold" and "hot" are complementary antonyms.( )11. In English, there is no argument in some sentences.( )12.The sentence "Tom, smoke!" and "Tom smokes." have the same semantic predication. ( )13. The sentences that contain the same words are same in meaning.( )14. The meaning of a word is the combination of all its elements, and so is the sentence. ( )15. The meaning of the word we often use is the primary meaning.( )16. Meaning is central to the study of communication.( )17. The naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.( )18. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.( )19. Sense and reference are the same.( )20. Complete synonyms are rare in language.( )21. Stylistic synonyms differ in style because they come from different regions.( )22. Polysemy is the same as homonymy.( )23. Homophones are words which are identical in sound.( )24. The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.( )25. In a pair of gradable antonyms, the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.( )26. In componential analysis, the plus sign is used to indicate that a certain semantic feature is present.( )27. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.( )28. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( )29. A predicate is something said about an argument.( )30. There is only one argument in the sentence "Kids like apples".B. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.In semantic analysis, ___________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.2.___________ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.3.___________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components4.___________ is a relation of inclusion.5.For ___________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.6.There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair of ___________antonyms.7.The various meanings of a ___________ word are related to some degree.8.Synonyms which differ in the words they go together with are called___________synonyms.9.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different ___________ in differentsituations.10.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.11.___________ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observablecontexts.12.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to according to the___________ view.13.According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is its___________ in the language.14.In the study of meaning, ___________ focus their interest on understanding the human mindthrough language.15.According to the ___________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to belabels of the objects they stand for.16.Autumn and Fall are two ___________ ___________.17.The words of English are classified into ___________ words and ___________ words.18.Hyponymy is the relation of ___________, superordingate entails all ___________.19.“Father” and “son” are ___________ ___________.20.In the sentences of entailment, if X is true, Y is ___________.21.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.22.___________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.23.The same one word may have more that one meaning, this is what we called ___________,and such a word is called ___________ word.24.___________ refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.25.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ___________.C．Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:( ) 1. “Lorry” and “truck” are ____________.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. synonyms that differ in their emotive meaningD. none of the above( ) 2. Which pair is the emotive synonyms ____________.A. dad, fatherB. flat, apartmentC. mean, frugalD. charge, accuse( ) 3. In the collocational synonyms, "rebuke" is collocated by ____________.A. withB. forC. ofD. against( ) 4. The noun tear and the verb tear are ____________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above( ) 5. The sentence John likes ice-cream contains ____________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. noneD. three( ) 6. The classic semantic triangle reflects ____________.A. the naming theoryB. the conceptual viewC. the contextualist viewD. the behaviorist view( ) 7. ____________ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it's abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. SemanticC. SenseD. none of the above( ) 8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ____________.A. synonymyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. polysemy( ) 9. ____________ analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above( )10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called ____________.A. selectional restrictionsB. grammatical rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. all of the above( ) 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of ____________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. context( ) 12. In the study of meaning, the ____________ are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world.A. linguistsB. philosophersC. psychologistsD. phoneticians( ) 13. The linguistic ____________ is sometimes known as co-text.A. contextB. situationC. contextualizationD. situation of context( ) 14. Bloomfield drew on _____________ psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming( ) 15. Sense and reference are two related ______________ different aspects of meaning.A. butB. andC. orD. as well as( ) 16. ____________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. MeaningD. Semantics( ) 17. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ____________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional( ) 18. Hyponyms of the same ____________ are co-hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy( ) 19. Words that are opposite in meaning are ____________.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. antonymsD. homophones( ) 20. An ____________ is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. predicationD. agentD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. semantics2. the naming theory3. superordinate4. complete homonym5. hyponymy参考答案：A. 1-5 TTTFT 6-10 FFTFF 11-15 TTFFF 16-20 TTFFT21-25 FFTTF 26-30 TTFTFB. 1. predication 2. Selectional 3. componential 4. Entailment5. complementary6. gradable7. polysemic8. collocational9. references 10. Sense 11. Contextualization 12. conceptualist13. use 14. psychologists 15. naming 16. stylistic synonyms17. native, loan 18. entailment, hyponyms 19. relational opposites20. true 21. Sense 22. Reference 23. polysemy, polysemic24. Hyponymy 25. predicationC. 1-5 ACBBB 6-10 BCDBA 11-15 BBACA 16-20 BBCCA第6章语用学A．Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false). ( ) 1. The contextualist view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.( ) 2. Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.( ) 3. The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.( ) 4. All utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 5. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s ofthe 20th century.( ) 6. Grice made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". ( ) 7. A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.( ) 8. In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by thehearer.( ) 9. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.( ) l0. The Cooperative Principle was proposed by John Searle.( ) 11. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.( ) 12. The violations of the maxims make our language indirect.( ) 13. All the utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 15. According to the speech act theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguisticcommunication consists of a sequence of acts.( ) 16. All the acts that belong to the same category of illocutionary act share the same purpose or the same illocutionary act, and they are the same in their strength or force.( ) 17. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in the syntactic form.( ) 18. Conversation participants nearly always observe the CP and the maxims of the CP. ( ) 19. A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.( ) 20. Utterance is based on sentence meaning, it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.( ) 22. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.( ) 23. Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.( ) 24. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.( ) 25. Without the shared knowledge both by the speaker and the hearer, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a semantic sense. ( ) 26. An perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.( ) 27. According to Paul Grice's idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. ( ) 28. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.B. Fill each of the following blanks with one word.1. The shared knowledge which constitutes context is of two types; the knowledge of the _____they use, and the knowledge about the _____, including the general knowledge aboutthe word and specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communicationis taking place.2. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an _____, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actuallyused.3. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to _____; otherwise, if would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. Thegeneral principle is called the ______ ______, abbreviated as CP.4. There are four maxims under the CP: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of ______, themaxim of relation and the maxim of ______.5. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be ______.6. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certaincontext, ______can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.7. If ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.8. The meaning of an _______is concrete and context-dependent.9. An ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.10. According to Searle, ______ acts fall into five general categories.11. ______ are those speech acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction.12. To ask someone to pass a book is obviously a ______.13. According to Paul Grice, in making ______, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate.14. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to ______ implicatures.15. The significance of Grice’s ______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey more than is literally said.C．There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.( ) 1. __________ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism( ) 2. Once the notion of __________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content( ) 3. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes __________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance( ) 4. A __________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to do with it.A. semanticB. syntacticC. pragmaticD. grammatical( ) 5. __________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken( ) 6. __________ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech( ) 7. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of __________ acts.A. IocutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech( ) 9. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their __________ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic( ) 10. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by __________.A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Paul GriceD. John Lyons( ) 11. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the __________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. brevityB. contextC. accuracyD. none of the above( ) 12. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above( ) 13. The maxim of quantity requires: __________A. make your contribution as informative as required.B. do not make contribution more informative than is required.C. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.D. Both A and B.( ) 14. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be __________.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly( ) 15. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicatureD. all of the above( ) 16. The significance of Grice's CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey __________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the aboveD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration:1. context2. utterance meaning3. locutionary act4. illocutionary act5. perlocutionary art参考答案：A. 1-5 TTFFT 6-10 FTFTF 11-16 TTFTT 16-20 FTFTT 21-25 FTFTF 26-28 FTFB. 1. language, world 2. utterance 3. cooperate, Cooperative Principle4. quality, manner5. relevant6. pragmatics7. context8. utterance 9. illocutionary 10. speech 11. Commissives12. directive 13. conversation 14. conversational 15. CooperativeC. 1-5ABDCB 6-10 CBCAC 11-15 BCDAC 16 A。
语言学基础复习(全)
语言学基础复习(全)
1. 什么是语言学？
语言学是研究语言的科学领域。
它探究语言的结构、性质和使用，并研究语言之间的相互关系。
2. 语音学
语音学是语言学的一个分支，研究语言中的音素、音系和语音规律。
它涉及到语音的产生、传播和感知。
3. 语法学
语法学是研究语言中的句法结构和规则的学科。
它研究句子的结构、词类和句法关系等。
4. 语义学
语义学研究语言中词语、短语和句子的意义。
它关注词义、义项和语义关系等。
5. 语用学
语用学研究语言的使用方式和交际功能。
它研究语言的意图、推理和上下文等因素。
6. 语言变异和语言变化
语言变异和语言变化是研究语言不同方言、变体以及语言演变过程的学科。
7. 语言学与其他学科的关系
语言学与其他学科如心理学、认知科学、社会学和人机交互等有紧密的联系和应用。
8. 语言学的研究方法
语言学采用多种研究方法，包括实地调查、语料库研究、实验
研究和理论推导等。
9. 语言学的应用领域
语言学的应用领域包括教育、语言教学、翻译、语音识别、自
然语言处理等。
10. 语言学的发展前景
随着科技的进步和社会的发展，语言学在多个领域将继续发展，如自然语言处理、人机交互、机器翻译等。
以上是对语言学基础的简要复习，希望能够帮助你加深对语言
学的理解。
语言学概论复习
语⾔学概论复习语⾔学概论第⼀章语⾔及其发展1．试从语⾔的结构体系和交际功能谈谈什么叫语⾔？（⼀）结构体系：（1）词汇是语⾔的建筑材料，由词和熟语组成。
（2）语法是语⾔的组织规律。
语法规则可以把词素组成词或词形，把词构成词组，把词和词组构成句⼦。
（3）语⾔体系是⾳义结合的，语⾔体系是客观存在的，具有稳固性、民族性和普遍性。
（⼆）语⾔的社会功能：（1）语⾔作为交际⼯具是⼀种特殊的社会现象。
（2）语⾔是社会现象，它是全民性的，没有阶级性。
（3）语⾔的社会作⽤：帮助⼈们脱离动物界、结成社会、发展思维、组织社会⽣产，是促进⼈类⽂明的⼒量之⼀。
（4）语⾔对社会具有依赖性，是为了满⾜社会的交际需要⽽产⽣、存在和发展的。
（5）语⾔是交流思维和传递信息的⼯具。
（6）语⾔具有⾃我调节功能，个体之间的调节功能，个体与群体、群体之间的调节功能，族际交际功能（涉及双语现象）和⼈机之间的调节功能。
2．谈谈语⾔和⾔语的关系。
（⾔语是在特定的⾔语环境中为完成特定的交际任务对语⾔的使⽤，语⾔存在于⾔语之中。
）（1）语⾔体系是⾔语的基础，⾔语活动要选择语⾔中的词汇和语法⼿段，组成话语。
（2）⾔语活动中，说写活动建构话语，听读活动理解话语。
（3）⾔语活动中产⽣的、存在于话语中的新的语⾔现象不断补充到语⾔体系中，使语⾔处于构建和不断丰富和发展之中。
（4）在语⾔体系中，词汇和语法处于经常的相互作⽤之中。
3．什么叫语⾔的分化和统⼀？（1）语⾔的分化：是指⽅⾔之间和亲属语⾔之间差别扩⼤、语⾔增多的过程。
以社会的分化为前提。
（2）语⾔的统⼀：是指各⽅⾔、各亲属语⾔之间差别缩⼩，不同语⾔相互混合，语⾔减少的过程。
社会政治、经济、⽂化的接近导致语⾔的统⼀。
4．语⾔的统⼀有哪⼏种情况？（⼀）⽅⾔集中为民族共同语。
（如：现代汉语普通话就是以北⽅⽅⾔为基础的汉民族共同标准语。
）（⼆）语⾔交融。
（1）侵略者的语⾔同化了当地居民的语⾔；（2）侵略者的语⾔被同化；（3）两种语⾔同时使⽤，形成双语制。
语言学概论复习重点
音位是一定的语言或方言系统中，能区别不同语言符号的最小语音单位，是根据语音的社会性质划分出来的。
(斜线／／是音位标记。
)音位是最小的语音形式，不能再切分。
音位虽能再分成若干区别性语音特征，但一个单一的语音特征不能构成一种语音形式。
非音质音位是以音高、音长、音强为语音形式的音位，又叫超音质音位或超音段音位。
非音质音位包括调位、时位和重位三种。
国际音标是国际语音协会于 1888 年指定并开始使用的。
它的指定原则是“一个因素只用一个音标表示。
一个音标只表示一个因素”，因素和标写符号一一对应。
不会出现混淆或两可的现象。
为了与一般的字母相区别。
通常把国际音标所用的标写符号放在方括号[ ]里。
国际音标所代表的音是全世界一致的，我们不要把它和具体语言中形状相同的字母的读音混为一谈。
在连续的语流中，由于受邻近音的影响或由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同所引起的语音变化叫做语流音变。
常见的语流音变现象主要有同化、异化、弱化、脱落四种。
一种语言内部分成几种不同的方言，或者这些方言进而分成几种不同的语言，这种现象，叫做语言分化。
语言是随着社会的分化而分化的，也就是说，社会的分化是语言分化的原因。
主要表现为三种形式：社会方言、地域方言和亲属语言。
聚合关系在语言学上聚合关系指在结构的某个特殊位置上可以相互替代的成分之间的关系或者是共现的成分和非共现的成分之间的关系，同一聚合关系语句只受句法关系限制语义因素不在考虑范围处于聚合关系中的语句与共同的句法特征但在语义上不能互相替换聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位(如音位、词)之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。
几个词，一组词，他们性质相同，具有同样的组合功能，在语言结构的同一个位置上可以互相替换，替换后生成不同的句子，这些词之间的这种替换关系，就是聚合关系。
语言的替换是随着不同民族的接触或融合而发生的不同语言系统的排挤和替代，是不同语言统一为一种语言的一条重要途径。
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引言不用看，但要知道：语言学是研究语言的科学。
它的研究对象是语言。
第一章：1. 语言的功能：社会功能（信息传递功能，人际互动功能），思维功能2. 语言与思维的关系（理解）语言和思维是相互依存，共同发展的。
语言是思维的工具，思维离不开语言，同时语言也离不开思维。
二者如影随形，谁也离不开谁。
一方面，没有语言，思维活动无法进行，思维成果无法表达，思维实际上就不可能存在；另一方面，语言作为思维的工具，只有具有思维活动，只有在思维过程中运用才有存在的意义，如果没有思维活动，无所谓交际和思想，语言工具也就失去了存在的价值，没有必要存在了。
所以，语言和思维是相辅相成的，二者各以对方为存在条件。
思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行，哪里有思维活动，哪里就有语言活动。
再有：语言和思维的密切关系还表现在，语言和思维是互相适应的，思维发展水平有多高，语言的发展水平就有多高。
3. 思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性思维是大脑的功能。
人类大脑的生理构造都是一样的，没有民族性，因而大脑的功能——思维能力也没有民族性，全人类都一样。
不同的语言在语音、词汇、语法各个方面都有自己的特点，这正是思维方式不同的反映。
正是因为思维方式的不同，世界上才有如此丰富多彩的语言；正是因为人类有共同的思维基础，人类语言才可能互相翻译，不同民族的交流才有可能进行。
4. 语言学习的临界期：4岁第二章：1. 符号的定义：符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。
符号包括了形式和意义两个方面的要素，是一定形式和一定意义的统一体，二者缺一不可。
2. 语言与符号的关系：语言需要形式和意义，符号包括形式和意义，语言符号是一个系统。
3. 语言符号的性质：任意性和线条性。
4. 人类语言与动物语言的差别：1)社会性2）单位的明晰性3) 任意性4）能产性5) 传授性6) 不受时、地环境的限制5. 任意性和线条性（重要）任意性：指单个语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系。
语言符号的最大侍点是它的音与义的结合是任意的，由社会约定俗成。
音与义之间没有必然的联系。
线条性：语言符号在使用中以符号序列的形式出现，符号只能一个跟着一个依次出现，在时间的线条上绵延，不能再空间的面上铺开。
6. 组合关系：就是两个同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。
简单地说，组合关系就是符号与符号组合起来的关系。
聚合关系：在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用的符号之间的关系就是聚合关系。
第三章1. 音位与音素的（非常重要）音位和音素都是最小的语音单位，但两者不是同一回事。
它们既有不同又有联系。
区别：音素是从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，也就是说是从语言的物理属性和生理属性角度划分出来的。
音质不同,音素也就不同。
音位则是具体语言中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小语音单位。
是从语音的社会属性角度划分出来的。
联系：（1）音位的划分必须以音素为基础，离开具体的音素就谈不上归纳音位了。
任何一个音位，都必须具体的音素形式体现出来。
音位是对音素的概括，音素可以说是音位的具体体现。
（2）一个音位可以由一个音素构成，也可以由一组音素构成（即不同的变体构成的一个音位），因而，音位实际上是一个抽象的音类，是由一组彼此的差别没有区别词的语音形式作用而音感上又相似的音素概括而成的音类。
2. 音标：音标是记录音素的标写符号。
音标中最通行的是国际音标。
3．元音和辅音（主要考发音部位和发音方法，即给出音标，写出其发音部位和发音方法，所以，首先，必须得认得音标）ɑ[а] 舌面前低不圆唇元音ɑ[A] 舌面央低不圆唇元音ɑ[α] 舌面后低不圆唇元音e [e] 舌面前半高不圆唇元音 e [ə] 舌面央中不圆唇元音 e [ε] 舌面前半低不圆唇元音o [o] 舌面后半高圆唇元音o [ɔ] 舌面后半低圆唇元音i [i] 舌面前高不圆唇元音u [u] 舌面后高圆唇元音ü[y] 舌面前高圆唇元音b [p] 双唇不送气清塞音p [ pʰ] 双唇送气清塞音m [m] 双唇浊鼻音f [f] 唇齿清擦音 d [t] 舌尖中不送气清塞音t [ tʰ ]舌尖中送气清塞音n [n] 舌尖中浊鼻音l [l] 舌尖中浊边音g [ k] 舌面后不送气清塞音k [kʰ] 舌面后送气清塞音h [x] 舌面后清擦音j [ʨ] 舌面前不送气清塞擦音q [ʨʰ] 舌面前送气清塞擦音x [ɕ] 舌面前清擦音zh [tʂ] 舌尖后不送气清塞擦音ch [tʂʰ] 舌尖后送气清塞擦音sh [ʂ] 舌尖后清擦音r [ʐ] 舌尖后浊擦音z [ʦ] 舌尖前不送气清塞擦音 c [ʦʰ] 舌尖前送气清塞擦音s [s] 舌尖前清擦音4. 音位的对立和互补原则：（理解）音素间的对立关系是指不同的音素可以出现在相同的语音环境中,它们的差别能够区别词的语音形式和意义。
互补关系是指几个不同的音素各有自己的出现环境,它们从不在相同的语音环境中出现和互相替换。
处在互补关系之中的几个音素不可能出现在相同的语言环境里,因而不能起区别意义的作用,我们就有可能把它们归并为一个音位,使它们成为这个音位的几个条件变体。
5. 音位变体：音位变体就是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表,分为条件变体和自由变体。
条件变体：条件变体指属于一个音位的各个变体，其出现的场合要受一定条件限制，必须具备一定的语音条件才出现。
自由变体：指处于同一位置上的几个音素相互可以自由替换，没有条件限制，这样的几个音素就是同一音位的自由变体。
6. 音质属于音质音位。
音高，音长，音强，调位，时位，重位属于非音质音位。
第四章1. 语法的组合规则和聚合规则（重要）语法的组合规则是指语法单位组合成更大的单位所遵循的规则。
包括语素组成词的规则和词组成词组或句子的规则。
聚合规则：聚合规则实际上就是语法单位的归类的规则，语法单位替换的规则。
语法的组合规则和聚合规则构成一种语言的语法规则。
聚合规则是潜在的，它储存于人们的脑子中，组合规则是现实的，它存在于话语中。
组合规则使得语言符号的结构呈现出有序性，聚合规则为句子的生成提供了无数的可能，大大地简化了语言系统。
说话时组合规则提出要求，聚合规则提供可能。
组合的规则要求和聚合的替换要求共同撑起了语言大夏的框架。
2. 组合关系：层级性，递归性，开放性3.语法单位：语素，词，词组，句子4. 形态：形态是指词与词组合时词的形式上发生的变化，是表达语法意义的重要手段。
词形变化主要有附加词尾、内部屈折、异根、零形式几个方面。
（重要）5. 语法范畴：语法范畴就是语法意义的归类，是对语法意义的类别的概括，是由词的变化形式所表示的语法意义方面的聚合。
常见的语法范畴有性、数、格、体、时、态、人称等。
（重要）6．语言的结构类型：孤立语（汉语），屈折语（英语），粘着语（日语），复综语（美洲印第安人语）我听到这就走了，因为要上文学理论课，所以，后面的几章是从3班同学那打听的，比较模糊。
第六章1. 文字：“文字”一词有两个意思，一是指一个个的字，一是指记录语言的文字符号的体系。
文字是记录语言的书写符号系统，文字是语言最重要的辅助性交际工具。
2. 文字的基本性质：文字是用书写/视觉形式对语言进行再编码的符号系统，是人类最重要的辅助性交际工具。
3. 文字：表音文字（音位文字，辅音文字，音节文字），意音文字。
4．文字的产生：实物记事，图画计事，刻画符号，原始的图画文字（早期文字）5．他源文字和自源文字（知道）第七章1．语言演变的原因：社会，人际交流是基本条件。
语言系统中各种因素的相互影响是决定因素。
2.语言演变的特点：渐便性，不平衡性。
3. 社会方言：各个言语社团的语言是在全民语言的基础产生的各有自己的特点的语言分支或语言变体，这就是所谓的社会方言，上是言语社团的一种标志。
（较下面两个重要些）4. 地域方言：从同一语言分化出来的地域分支，如果处于不完全分化的社会条件和同一语言的心理认同之下，就叫做“地域方言”，也简称作方言。
5. 亲属语言：从同一种语言分化出来的几种独立的语言，彼此有同源关系，叫亲属语言。
如汉语和藏语来自史前的原始汉藏语，它们同出一源，是亲属语言。
6. 语言的“谱系分类”：就是根据语言的亲属关系对语言所作的分类。
谱系分类分出的最大的语言类别是语系，语系下面是语族，语支，语群，语言等。
7. 汉语属于汉藏语系，英语、法语属于印欧语系.第八章1. 洋泾兵”：是当地人在和外来的商人、水手、传教士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外语。
（“洋泾浜”的共同特点是：语音经过当地语言音系的适当改造，语法规则减少到最低限度，词汇的项目比较少，往往要借助于迂回曲折的说法指称事物。
）2. 混合语：洋泾浜的特点之一在于它是一定场合下使用的特殊语言，没有人把它当作母语来学习使用。
但是在一定条件下，它也可能被社会采用为主要的交际工具，由孩子们作为母语来学习。
在这种情况下，洋泾浜就变成了混合语，又叫克里奥耳语（Creole，是混血儿的意思）。
第一章1、语言与言语的关系？语言是人们用以说（写）和存在于所说（所写）中的音义结合的词汇系统和语法系统。
言语是利用语言进行交际的行为和结果。
区别：第一，从运用角度来说，语言是社会共有的交际工具，相对稳定，处于相对静止状态，语言是一个封闭的系统；言语是对语言的具体运用和由此产生的言语作品，是自由结合的，处于运用状态。
第二，从表现形式看，语言是个音义结合的符号系统，人们要遵照这个系统的规则来使用它，是社会的，社会因素是它的本质属性；言语是人们运用语言的过程和结果，除了具有社会的因素外，还具有个人的因素。
第三，语言系统的各个部分是有限的；但言语是无限的。
联系：语言和言语是相互依存的，语言既是言语的工具，又是言语的产物。
第一，言语是第一性的，语言是第二性的。
哪里有言语，哪里就有语言；哪里没有言语，哪里就没有语言。
第二，语言来源于言语，又反作用于言语。
语言对言语起着强制性的规范作用。
2，如何理解语言是人类社会独有的最重要的交际工具？A、语言是一种交际工具语言的交际功能是它最基本的社会功能。
我们可以从语言的起源和消亡两方面去观察。
语言是人与人之间的联系的纽带，只要有人群活动的地方就需要语言，所以，语言是人们的一种交际工具。
B、语言是最为重要的交际工具C、语言是人类独有的交际工具动物的所谓“语言”与人类有着根本的区别：1)社会性2）单位的明晰性3) 任意性4）能产性5) 传授性6) 不受时、地环境的限制D、语言是人类的、全民的交际工具语言是音义结合的词汇系统和语法系统，它作为一种交际工具，首先是一视同仁地为本民族的各个阶级、阶层的各种人服务的，同时也一视同仁地为全人类各个社会集团、各个民族服务的。