Part Ⅴ The Seventeenth Century
剑桥雅思阅读5原文翻译及答案（test1）
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READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Johnson’s DictionaryFor the centur y before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.There had, of course, been dictionaries in the past, the first of these being a little book of some 120 pages, compiled by a certain Robert Cawdray, published in 1604 under the title A Table Alphabeticall ‘of hard usuall English wordes’. Like the various dictionaries that came after it during the seventeenth century, Cawdray’s tended to concentrate on ‘scholarly’ words; one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine learning.Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos, the rise of dictionaries is associated with the rise of the English middle class, who were anxious to define and circumscribe thevarious worlds to conquer —lexical as well as social and commercial. it is highly appropriate that Dr Samuel Johnson, the very model of an eighteenth-century literary man, as famous in his own time as in ours, should have published his Dictionary at the very beginning of the heyday of the middle class.Johnson was a poet and critic who raised common sense to the heights of genius. His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely practical. Up until his time, the task of producing a dictionary on such a large scale had seemed impossible without the establishment of an academy to make decisions about right and wrong usage. Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language; he would write a dictionary himself and he would do it single-handed. Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holbom Bar on 18 June 1764.He was to be paid ￡1.575 in instalments, and from this he took money to rent Gou gh Square, in which he set up his ‘dictionary workshop’.James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as ‘fitted up like a counting house’ with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up. Johnson himself was stationed on a rickety chair at an ‘old crazy deal table’ surrounded by a chaos of borrowed books. He was also helped by six assistants, two of whom died whilst the Dictionary was still in preparation.The work was immense; filling about eighty large notebooks (and without a library to hand), Johnson wrote the definitions of over 40,000 words, and illustrated their many meanings with some 114,000 quotations drawn from English writing on everysubject, from the Elizabethans to his own time. He did not expect to achieve complete originality. Working to a deadline, he had to draw on the best of all previous dictionaries, and to make his work one of heroic synthesis. In fact, it was very much more. Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of meaning. He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law —according to precedent. After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a century.After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April 1775. It was instantly recognised as a landmark throughout Europe. ‘This very noble work,’ wrote the leading Italian lexicographer, ‘will be a perpetual monument of Fame to the Author, an Honour to his own Country in particular, and a general Benefit to the republic of Letters throughout Europe" The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English celebration.Johnson had worked for nine years, ‘with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow’. For all its faults and eccentricities his two-volume work is a masterpiece and a landmark, in his own words, ‘setting the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the significations of English words’. It is the cornerstone of Standard English an achievement which, in James Boswell’s words ‘conferred stability on the language of his country.’The Dictionary, together with his other writing, made Johnson famous and so well esteemed that his friends were able to prevail upon King George Ⅲ to offer him a pension. From then on, he was to become the Johnson of folklore.Questions 1-3Choose THREE letters A-H.Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.NB Your answers may be given in any order.Which THREE of the following statements are true of Johnson’s Dictionary?A It avoided all scholarly words.B It was the only English dictionary in general use for 200 years.C It was famous because of the large number of people involved.D It focused mainly on language from contemporary texts.E There was a time limit for its completion.F It ignored work done by previous dictionary writers.G It took into account subtleties of meaning.H Its definitions were famous for their originality.Questions 4-7Complete the summary.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet.In 1764 Dr Johnson accepted the contract to produce a dictionary. Having rented a garret, he took on a number of 4…………, who stood at a long central desk. Johnson did not have a 5………… available to him, but eventually produced definitions of in excess of 40,000 words written down in 80 large notebooks.On publications, the Dictionary was immediately hailed in many European countries as a landmark. According to his biographer, James Boswell, Johnson’s principal achievement was to bring 6……… to the English language. As a reward for his ha rd work, he was granted a 7………by the king.Questions 8-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this8 The growing importance of the middle classes led to an increased demand for dictionaries.9 Johnson has become more well known since his death.10 Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several years.11 Johnson set up an academy to help with the writing of his Dictionary.12 Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its completion.13 Not all of the assistants survived to see the publication of the Dictionary.READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.Nature or Nurture?A A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of lifefor their willingness to obey instructions given by a ‘leader’ in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform. Specifically M ilgram told each volunteer ‘teacher-subject’ that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils’ ability to learn.B Milgram’s expe rimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from ‘15 volts of electricity (slight shock)’ to ‘450 volts (danger —severe shock)’ in steps of 15 volts each. The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer. The supposed ‘pupil’ was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter. Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the moment.C As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond. Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the experiment. In these situations, Milgramcalmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil’s cries for mercy and carry on with the experiment. If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the end. His final argument was ‘you have no other choice. You must go on’. What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the experiment.D Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts.E What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit in repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one country. How can we possibly account for this vast discrepancy between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative ‘teachers’ actually do in the laboratory of real life?F One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teache-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.G An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects’ actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried out. As Milgram himself pointed out, ‘Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society —the pursuit of scientific truth. The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform there. An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation appears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this se tting.’H Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of authority.I Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authorityfigure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more plausible. This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology — to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their behaviour. Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all behaviour.Questions 14-19Reading Passage 2 has nine paragraphs, A-I.Which paragraph contains the following information?Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.14 a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects’ behaviour15 the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment16 the identity of the pupils17 the expected statistical outcome18 the general aim of sociobiological study19 the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continueQuestions 20-22Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.20 The teacher-subjects were told that were testing whetherA a 450-volt shock was dangerous.B punishment helps learning.C the pupils were honest.D they were suited to teaching.21 The teacher-subjects were instructed toA stop when a pupil asked them to.B denounce pupils who made mistakes.C reduce the shock level after a correct answer.D give punishment according to a rule.22 Before the experiment took place the psychiatristsA believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.B failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.C underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.D thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.Questions 23-26Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?In boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this23 Several of the subjects were psychology students at Yale University.24 Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behaviour could be explained as a positive survival mechanism.25 In a sociological explanation, personal values are more powerful than authority.26 Milgram’s experiment solves an important question in sociobiology.READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40,which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.The Truth about the EnvironmentFor many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more polluted.But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book ‘The Limits to Growth’ was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world’s population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient —associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution — the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming — does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it.Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: ‘Two thirds of the world’s forests lost forever.’ The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups. That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other fields. A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as self-interested. Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are clearly more curious about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. An example was America’s encounter with El Nino in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US$19 billion. These came from higher winter temperatures(which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America’s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12,000th of the area of the entire United States.So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to warm. The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3℃ in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000 billion.Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses clearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased temperatures. A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of 2.1 degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of 1.9 degrees. Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 2094 would be postponed to 2100.So this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six years. Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the world’s single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, andprevent half a billion people from becoming seriously ill.It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the future. It may be costly to be overly optimistic — but more costly still to be too pessimistic.Questions 27-32Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?In boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement ag rees with the writer’s claimsNO if the statement contradicts the writer’s clamsNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this27 Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world fora number of reasons28 Data on the Earth’s natural resources has only been collected since 1972.29 The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent years.30 Extinct species are being replaced by new species.31 Some pollution problems have been correctly linked to industrialisation.32 It would be best to attempt to slow down economic growth.Questions 33-37Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet.33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4?A the need to produce resultsB the lack of financial supportC the selection of areas to researchD the desire to solve every research problem34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate howA influential the mass media can be.B effective environmental groups can be.C the mass media can help groups raise funds.D environmental groups can exaggerate their claims.34 What is the writer’s main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6?A Some are more active than others.B Some are better organised than others.C Some receive more criticism than others.D Some support more important issues than others.35 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended toA educate readers.B meet their readers’ expec tations.C encourage feedback from readers.D mislead readers.36 What does the writer say about America’s waste problem?A It will increase in line with population growth.B It is not as important as we have been led to believe.C It has been reduced through public awareness of the issues.D It is only significant in certain areas of the country.Questions 38-40Complete the summary with the list of words A-I below.Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.GLOBAL WARMINGThe writer admits that global warming is a 38…………….challenge, but says that it will not have a catastrophic impact on our future, if we deal with it in the 39…………… way. If we try to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases, he believes that it would only have a minimal impact on rising temperatures. He feels it would be better to spend money on the more 40………… health problem of providing the world’s population with clean drinking water.A unrealisticB agreedC expensiveD rightE long-termF usualG surprisingH personalI urgent剑桥雅思阅读5原文参考译文(test1)TEST 1 PASSAGE 1参考译文：Johnson’s Dictionary约翰逊博士的字典For the century before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.约翰逊博士的《字典》于1775年出版，在此之前的一个世纪，人们一直对英语的发展状况担忧。
17poetry英国17世纪诗歌
when old
(2)
World view:
The world was sick; harmony was gone;
proportion was gone; beauty was gone; order was gone; there was little to do but wait for final dissolution.
Roughness of meter and irregular rhyme John Donne is generally regarded as the
leading figure of this school.
Other members include George Herbert,
Andrew Marvell and Abraham Cowley.
III. John Donne (1572-1631)
1.
Life and career
Born to wealthy Catholic parents In his youth, he struggled between Catholicism and Protestantism.
After converting to the Church of England, he became secretary to a wealthy man who planned to advance him.
(3)
View of love:
When young, love is an animal affair, a
matter of flesh and sensation; when old, the nature of love is a perfect union of body and mind.
The Seventeenth Century
47 scholars worked on it. The project was presided over by Bishop Lancelot Andrewes The basis: Tyndale text
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2.2 Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
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4. English Literature of the Restoration John Bunyan John Dryden
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4.1 John Bunyan (1628-1688)
Bunyan: a pilgrim; a man of innocence, diligent; With sensitive imagination Once enlisted in the Parliamentary army Bunyan lived at a time when political struggles adopted the form of religious struggles. The Pilgrim’s Progress from This World
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2.3 Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets
Two antagonistic camps: the Royalists and the Puritans. The Metaphysical Poets: John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert John Donne: “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (1611) The Cavalier Poets: Sir John Suckling, Robert Herrick, Ben Johnson Carpe Diem: a Latin phrase meaning “seize the day”. The philosophy of carpe diem asserts the notion that since life is short, one must make the most of one’s youth. This motif became very popular in the love poetry of the seventeenth century.
Chapter 5 The 17th century (The period of revolution)
John Donne (1571 – 1631)
Life experience: (P74) His literary career: Donne’s literary career can be divided into two periods. 1. 1st period: Most of The Elegies and Satires and a good many of the Songs and Sonnets were written. 2. In the later period: he mainly wrote religious poems and prose works, esp. sermons, which reveal his spiritual devotion to God as a passionate preacher.
Βιβλιοθήκη Parliament felt insecure and invited his brother-in-law, William Orange, in 1688 to come with an army to protect the English people. This was the “Glorious Revolution”, glorious because bloodless. The Bill of Rights which the new king signed with Parliament endowed Parliament as the de facto ruler of the nation and the king became a titular head. Now the struggle between king and Parliament came to an end, and no king or queen has ever again thought of competing with Parliament.
欧洲文化常识测试英语题型
《欧洲文化入门》复习题（一）Division One: Greek Culture and Roman CultureGreek CultureI.填空1.European culture is made up of many elements, two of these elements are consideredto be more enduring and they are the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian element.2.Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century.3.In the second half of the 4th century B. C., all Greece was brought under the ruleof Alexander, king of Macedon.4.In 146 B. C. the Romans conquered Greece.5.Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century.6.Revived in 1896, the Olympic Games have become the world’s foremost amateursports competition.7.Ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics.8.The Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece,led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy.9.The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home,island of Ithaca.10.Of the many lyric poets of ancient Greece, two are still admired by readers today:Sappho and Pindar.11.Sappho was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece.12.Pindar is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at the athletic games,such as the 14 Olympic odes.13.The three great tragic dramatists of ancient Greece are Aeschylus, Sophocles,and Euripides.14.Aeschylus wrote such plays as Prometheus Bound, Persians and Agamemnon.15.Sophocles wrote such tragic plays as Oedipus the King, Electra, and Antigone.16.Euripides wrote mainly about women in such plays as Andromache, Medea, and TrojanWomen.edy also flourished in the 5th century B. C.. Its best writer was Aristophanes,who has left eleven plays, including Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds.18.Herodotus is often called “Father of History”. He wrote about the wars be tweenGreeks and Persians.19.Thucydides described the war between Athens and Sparta and between Athens andSyracuse, a Greek state on the Island of Sicily.20.Pythagoras was a bold thinker who had the idea that all things were numbers.21.Pythagoras was the founder of scientific mathematics.22.Heracleitue believed fire to the primary element of the universe, out of whicheverything else had arisen.23.The greatest names in European philosophy are Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.24.Democritus was one of the earliest philosophical materialists and speculatedabout the atomic structure of matter.25.In the 4th century B. C., four schools of philosophers often argued with eachother, they arethe Cynics, the Sceptics, the Epicureans, and the Stoics.26.Euclid is well-known for his Elements, a textbook of geometry.27.To illustrate the principle of the level, Archimedes is said to have told theking: “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”28.Greek architecture can be grouped into three styles: the Doric style which isalso called the masculine style; the Ionic style which is also called the feminine style; and a later style that is called the Corinthian style.29.The Acropolis at Athens and the Parthenon are the finest monument of Greekarchitecture and sculpture in more than 2000 years.30.In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’smodernist masterpiece Ulysses.II.选择1.Which culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B. C.?A.Greek CultureB.Roman CultureC.Egyptian CultureD.Chinese Culture2.In ___________ the Roman conquered Greece.A.1200B.C.B.700 B.C.C.146 B. C.D.The 5th century3.Which of the following works described the war led by Agamemnon against the cityof Troy?A.Oedipus the KingB.IliadC.OdysseyD.Antigone4.Which of the following is NOT the plays written by Aeschylus?A.AntigoneB.AgamemnonC.PersiansD.Prometheus Bound5.Which of the following is NOT the plays written by Sophocles?A.ElectraB.AntigoneC.Trojan WomanD.Oedipus the King6.Which of the following is the play written by Euripides?A.AntigoneB.PersiansC.ElectraD.Medea7.Which of the following is NOT the greatest tragic dramatist of ancient Greece?A.AristophanesB.EuripidesC.SophoclesD.Aeschylus8.Who ever said that “You can not step twice into the same river”?A.PythagorasB.HeracleitusC.Aristotle9.Who was the founder of scientific mathematics?A.HeracleitusB.AristotleC.SocratesD.Pythagoras10.Who is chiefly noted for his doctrine that “man is the measure of all things”?A.ProtagorasB.PythagorasC.PyrrhonD.EpicurusIII.名词解释1.Aeschylus2.Plato3.The CynicsIV.简答与问答1.What are the major elements in European culture?2.What were the main features of ancient Greek society?3.Who were the outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece? What important plays dideach of them write?4.Tell some of Plato’s ideas. Why do people call him an idealist?5.Give some examples to show the enormous influence of Greek culture on Englishliterature.Roman CultureI.填空1.The burning of Corinth in 146 B. C. marked Roman conquest of Greece, which wasthen reduced to a province of the Roman Empire.2.The Roman writer Horace said: “Captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”.3.In 27 B. C. Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus.4.The Romans enjoyed a long period of peace lasting two hundred years, a remarkablephenomenon in history known as the Pax Romana.5.In the 4th century, the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome toByzantium, renamed it Constantinople ( modern Istanbul ).6.In 476 the last emperor of the west was deposed by the Coths and marked the endof the West Roman Empire.7.The East Roman Empire collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.8.Julius Caesar recorded what he did and saw in the various military campaignshe took part in and these writings, collected in his Commentaries, are models of succinct Latin.9.Virgil was the greatest of Latin poets and wrote the great epic, the Aeneid.10.The Pantheon is the greatest and the best preserved Roman temple, which was builtin 27 B. C. And reconstructed in the 2th century A. D..11.She-wolf is the statue which illustrates the legend of creation of Roman.II.选择1.Who wrote, “I came, I saw, I conquered”?A.HoraceB.Julius CaesarC.VirgilD.Marcus Tullius Cicero2.The author of the philosophical poem On the Nature of things is ___________.A.VirgilB.Julius CaesarC.HoraceD.Lucretius3.Which of the following is not Roman architecture?A.The ColosseumB.The PanthenonC.The ParthenonD.Pont du Gard4.Who wrote, “Captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”?A.SapphoB.PlatoC.VirgilD.HoraceIII.名词解释1.Julius Caesar2.The Pax RomanaIV.简答与问答1.What did the Romans have in common with the Greeks? And what was the chiefdifference between them?2.What is the book for which Virgil has been famous throughout the centuries? Inwhat way is the book linked with the Greek past?3.Why do we say Aeneas is a truly tragic hero?Division Two: The Bible and ChristianityThe Old TestamentⅠ填空题1.Among all the religions by which people seek to worship, Christianity is by farthe most influential in the West.2.Both Judaism and Christianity originated in Palestine the hub of migration andtrade routes, which led to exchange of ideas over wide areas.3.Some 3800 years ago the ancestors of the Jews –the Hebrews –wandered throughthe deserts of the Middle East.4.About 1300 B.C., the Hebrews came to settle in Palestine, known as Canaan atthat time, and formed small kingdoms.5.The king of the Hebrews was handed down orally from one generation to anotherin the form of folktales and stories, which were recorded later in the Old Testament.6.The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the OldTestament and the New Testament.7.The old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of whichare first five books, called Pentateuch.8.When the Hebrews left the desert and entered the mountainous Sinai, Moses climbedto the top of the mountain to receive from God message, which came to be known as the Ten Commandments.9.Chronologically Amos is the earliest prophet in the Old Testament.10.In Babylon in the 6th century B.C., the Hebrews, now known as Jews, formedsynagogues to practise their religion.II 选择题1.Which of the following is by far the most influential in the West?_______A. BuddismB. IslamismC. ChristianityD. Judaism2.The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of whichare the first five books, called __________.A. ExodusB. CommandmentsC. AmosD. Pentaeuch3.Which of the following is NOT the content of the Ten Commandments?_______A.Honour your father and your motherB.Do not commit suicideC.Do not desire your neighbour’s wifeD.Do not take the name of God in vain4.When in Babylon the Hebrews formed synagogues to practise their religion? ______A. in 169B.C. B. in the 4th centuryC. in 76 B.C.D. in the 6th centuryⅢ名词解释1.the Bible2.the Pentateuch3.Ten CommandmentsⅣ简答与问答1.What was the Hebrews major contribution to world civilization?2.Why do we say Judaism and Christianity are closely related?3.What are the Ten Commandments about?Rise of ChristianityⅠ填空题1.At the age of 30, Jesus received the baptism at the hands of John Baptist.2.Jesus spent most of his life in Galilee, where he apparently made a sensation.3.Jesus of Nazareth lived in Palestine during the reign of the first Roman EmperorAugustus.4.Jesus went with his disciples to Jerusalem for the Passover, but was betrayedby Juda.5.In 313 the Edict of Milan was issued by Constantine I and granted religiousfreedom to all and made Christianity legal.6.In 392 A.D, Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religions of theempire and outlawed all other religions.7.After Jesus died, St. Peter and St. Paul led the disciples of Jesus to spreadgospel in the Mediterranean regions.Ⅱ选择题1.After the _______ century Nestorianism reached China.A. sixthB. fifthC. secondD. third2.Which of the following emperors made Christianity the official religion of theempire and outlawed all other religions? __________A. TheodosiusB. AugustusC. Constantine ID. Nero Caesar3.Which of the following emperors issued the Edict of Milan and made Christianitylegal in 313? __________A. AugustusB. ThedosiusC. NeroD. Constantine I4.At the age of 30, Jesus Christ received the baptism at the hands of _________.A. St. PeterB. St. PaulC. John BaptistD. JohnWycliffⅢ名词解释1.The Edict of MilanⅣ简答与问答1.How did the relations between Christians and the Roman government change?The New TestamentⅠ填空题1.By 300 A.D. each local church was called a parish and had a full time leader2.Towards the end of he fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of theNew Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.3.When as Jesus’ mother Mary was espoused to Joseph, befor e they came together,she was found with child of the Holy Ghost4.Jesus went with his disciples to Jerusalem for the Passover, but was betrayedby Juda and caught at the Last Supper.Translations of the BibleⅠ填空题1.Except a few passages in the related Armaic dialect the Old Testament wasoriginally written in Hebrew. And the New Testament was originally written ina popular form of Greek.2.The oldest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as theSeptuagint, as according the fictional letter of Aristeas, it was translated by 72 translators in 72 days.3.The most ancient extant Latin version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition,which was done in 384 –405 A.D. by St. Jerome in common people’s language.4.The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgatein 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.5.The most important and influential of English Bible is the “Authorized” orKing James’ version, first published in 1611.Ⅱ选择题1.By 1693, the whole of the Bible had been translated in _________languages.A. 228B. 974C. 1202D. 1542.The oldest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as ________.A. the Latin VulgateB. the AristeasC. the “Authorized”D. the Septuagint3.When printing was invented in the 1500’s, the _______ Bible was the firstcomplete work printed.A. EnglishB. LatinC. AramaicD. Hebrew4.When did the standard American edition of the Revised Version appear? _______A. 1885B. 1611C. 1901D. 1979Division Three: The Middle AgesManor and ChurchⅠ填空题1.In European history, the thousand year period following the fall of the WestRoman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.2.Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, West Europe was the scene of frequentwars and invasions.3.The Middle Age is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritage merged.4.Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding – a system of holdingland in exchange for military service.5.In 732 Charles Martel, a Frankish ruler gave his soldiers estates known as fiefsas a reward for their service.6.The center of medieval life under feudalism was the manor.7.By the 12th century manor houses came to be called castle, which were made ofstone and designed as fortress.8.As a knight, he was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, tobe loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.9.In the medieval days a knight was trained for war by fighting each other in mockbatters called tournaments.10.After 1054, the Church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the EasternOrthodox Church.11.The most important of all the leaders of Christian thought was Augustine of Hippowho lived in North Africa in the fifth century.12.Under feudalism, people of western Europe were mainly divided into three classes:clergy, lords and peasants.13.The Pope not only ruled Roman and parts of Italy as a king, he was also the headof all Christian churches in western Europe.14.In the Medieval times the Church set up a church court – the Inquisition tostamp out so-called heresy.15.One of the most important sacraments was Holy Communion, which was to remindpeople that Christ had died to redeem man.16.To express their religious feelings, many people in the Middle Ages went onjourneys to sacred places where early Christian leaders had lived. The most important of all was Jerusalem.17.With a return attack against the Moslems, the Western Christians launched aseries of holy wars called the Crusades.Ⅱ选择题1.In the later part of the 4th century, which of the following tribes swept intoEurope from central Asia, robbing and killing a large numbers of the half civilized Germanic tribes? ________A. the MongoliansB. the HunsC. the TurkishD. the Syrians2.The Middle Ages is also called the _________.A. “Age of Christianity”B. “Age of Literature”C. “Age of Holy Spirit”D. “Age of Faith”3.According to the code of chivalry, which of the following is not pledged to dofor a knight? _______A. To be loyal to his lordB. To fight for the churchC. To obey without question the orders of the abbotD. To respect women of noble birth4.In 732, who gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as a reward for their service?_________A. Charles Martel, a Frankish rulerB. Charles I, a Turkish rulerC. Constantine I, a Frankish rulerD. St. Benedict, a Italian ruler5.When was the Church divided into the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern OrthodoxChurch?_________A. after 1066B. after 1296C. after 1054D. after4766.Which of the following about the knight or noble in the Middle Ages in WesternEurope is NOT true?____________A.Almost all nobles were knights in the Medieval days.B. A noble began his education as a page at the age of seven.C.As a knight, he was pledged to fight for the church.D.At about fourteen, the page became a knight.7.When was a noble crowned as a knight in the Middle Ages in Western Europe? _______A.At the age of 14.B.When he was taught to say his prayers, learned good manners and ran errandsfor the ladies.C.At a special ceremony known as dubbing.D.When he was pledged to fight for the church.8.Which of the following is NOT true about what the monks must do before enteringthe monastery according to the Benedictine Rule?A.They had to attend service 6 times during the day and once at midnight.B.They could promise to give up all their possession before entering themonastery.C.They were expected to work 5 hours a day in the fields surrounding themonastery.D.They had to obey without question the orders of the abbot.9.Under feudalism, what were the three classes of people of western Europe?________A. clergy, knights and serfsB. Pope, bishop and peasantsC. clergy, lords and peasantsD. knights, nobles and serfs10.By which year the Moslems had taken over the last Christian stronghold and wonthe crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the crusaders had fought to control? ________A. 1270B. 1254C. 1096D. 1291Ⅲ名词解释1.the Middle Ages2.Manor3.Code of Chivalry4.Benedictine Rule5.the CrusadesⅣ简答与问答1.Who was Charles Martel?2.What was the difference between a serf and a free man?3.Into what three groups were people divided under feudalism?4.What happened in Western Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire?Learning and Science, Literature, Art and ArchitectureⅠ填空题1.Charlemagne, who temporarily restored order in western and central Europe, wasperhaps the most important figure of the medieval period.2.Charlemagne was crowed “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope in 800.3.The Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas forms an enormous system and sumsup all the knowledge of medieval theology.4.Roger Bacon was one of the earliest advocates of Scientific research and calledfor careful observation and experimentation.5.“National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages – thatis, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages.6.Beowulf is an Anglo-Sexon epic, in alliterative verse, originating from thecollective efforts of oral literature.7.Dante Alighieri was the greatest poet of Italy, his masterpiece, The DivineComedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.8.Chaucer was a great English poet, The Canterbury Tales were his most popularwork for their power of observation, piercing irony, sense of humor and warm humanity.9.Chaucer writers in dialect used by Londoners, and by the sheer weight andpopularity of his writings he sets it firmly on the way towards Modern English.10.The style of architecture under Romanesque art is characterized by massiveness,solidity and monumentality with all overall blocky appearance.11.The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of westernEurope.Ⅱ选择题1.Which of the following was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope in 800?______A. St. Thomas AquinasB. CharlemagneC. ConstantineD. King James2.Who was the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex and contributed greatlyto the medieval European culture? _________A. Charles IB. Constantine IC. Alfred the GreatD. Charles the Great3.Does Song of Roland belong to which co untry’s epic? _________A. EnglishB. GermanicC. HebrewD. French4.Who is the author of the Opus Maius? ________A. Roger BaconB. Dante AlighieriC. ChaucerD. St. Thomas AquinasⅢ名词解释1.Carolingian Renaissance2.Beowulf3.Song of Roland4.The Canterbury tales5.Romanesque6.GothicⅣ简答与问答1.What was the merit which Charlemagne and Alfred the Great share?Division IV: Renaissance and ReformationRenaissance in ItalyⅠ填空题1.Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid17th century.2.Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance.3.In essence, Renaissance was a historical period in which the European humanistthinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of bourgeoisie, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman Church authorities. 4.Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings,sculpture and architecture.5.Beginning from the 11th century, cities began to rise in central and north Italy.6.Decameron is a collection of 100 tales told by 7 young ladies and 3 youngergentlemen on their way to escape the Black Death of 1348.7.Petrach was best known for Canzoniers, a book of lyrical songs written in hisItalian dialect.8.The Renaissance artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomyand perspective.9.The four representative artists of High Renaissance in Italy are Leonardo daVinci, michelangelo, Raphael and Titian.10.Loenardo da Vinci’s major works: Last Supper is the most famous of religiouspictures; Mona Lisa probably is the world’s most famous portrait.11.Michelangelo created a style of art in which he freed himself from the oldtradition of decoration on the one hand and documentary realism on the other.12.Titian’s painting is acknowledged to have established oil colour on canvas asthe typical medium of the pictorial tradition in western art.13.In world trade, Italy had lost its supremacy because of the discovery of Americain 1492 and the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, the opening of an all-water route to India which provided a cheaper means of transport.14.Petrach is looked up as the father of modern poetry.15.Italy is regarded as the birthplace of the Renaissance.Ⅱ选择题1.Where did the Renaissance start with the flowering of paintings, sculpture andarchitecture? _______A. in Greece and RomeB. in Florence and VeniceC. in Milan and FlorenceD. in Italy and Germany2.When did the Renaissance reach its height with its center moving to Milan, thento Rome, and created High Renaissance? ___________A. in the 11th centuryB. in the 15th centuryC. in the 16th centuryD. in the 17th century3.Which of the following works is written by Boccaccio? _______A. DecameronB. CanzoniersC. DavidD. Moses4.Who is the author of the painting, Betrayal of Judas? ________A. GiottoB. BrunelleschiC. DonatelloD. Giorgione5.Which of the following High Renaissance artists is the father of the modern modeof painting? _______A. RaphaelB. TitianC. da VinciD.Michelangelo6.Which of the following High Renaissance artists was best known for his Madona(Virgin Mary)?A. TitianB. da VinciC. MichelangeloD. Raphael7.Which of the following paintings was based on the story in the Bible with Mariariding on a donkey ready to face the hardship ahead? ________A. TempestaB. Sacred and Profane LoveC. Flight into EgyptD. The Return of the HuntersⅢ名词解释1.Renaissance2.DecameronⅣ简答与问答1.What made Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?2.What are the main elements of humanism? How are these elements reflected in artand literature during the Italian Renaissance?3.How did Italian Renaissance art and architecture break away from medievaltradition?4.In what way was Leonardo da Vinci important during the Renaissance?Reformation and Counter-ReformationⅠ填空题1.The Reformation led by Martin Luther which swept over the whole of Europe wasaimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible.2.Martin Luther was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation. His doctrinemarked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.3.When the Pope refused to recognized Henry’s mar riage with Anne Boleyn, BritishParliament, in 1534, passed the Act of Supremacy which marked the formal break of the British with the Papal authorities.4.Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Societyof Jesus.5.John Calvin put his theological thoughts in his Institutes of the ChristianReligion, which was considered one of the most influential theological works of all times.Ⅱ选择题1.Who took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time? ________A. Jan HusB. John WyliffC. Martin LutherD. John Calvin2.Who is the author Institutes of the Christian Religion?A. John WycliffB. Jan HusC. John CalvinD.Erasmus3.In whose reign did the formal break of the British with the papal authorities take place?____A. Elizabeth IB. William IC. Edward IIID. Henry VIII4.After the formal break of the British with the papal authorities, who was the head of the church? _______A. KingB. PopeC. BishopD. QueenⅢ名词解释1.Calvinism2.the Council of Trent3.Counter-ReformationⅣ简答与问答1.What are the doctrines of Martin Luther?2.What was the significance of the Reformation in European civilization?Renaissance in other CountriesⅠ填空题1.The Protestant group in France was known as the Huguenots whose rivalry withthe Catholic Church led to the wars of religion from 1562 to 1598.2.In 1492 the Moors that had ruled Spain for four centuries were driven out fromtheir last stronghold.3.In 1492 Columbus discovered American and claimed America for Spain.4.The author of Don Quixote is Cervantes.5.Albrecht Dürer was the leader of the Renaissance in Germany. His engravings areunsurpassed and his paintings of animals and plants are exceedingly sensitive.6.Under the reign of Elizabeth I, England began to embark on the road tocolonization and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday of capitalist development.7.Thomas More was a great humanist during the Renaissance. Among his writings thebest known is Utopia.8.Cervantes crowned literature of Spain and Shakespeare of England during theRenaissance.Ⅱ选择题1.Which of the following works was written by Rabelais, in which he praises thegreatness of man, expresses his love of love and his reverence and sympathy for humanist learning? _______A.Gargantua and PantagruelB. Don QuixoteC. The Praise of FollyD. Utopia2.Whose motto put down in his essays “What do Know” is world famous?________A. CervantesB. RabelaisC. MontaigneD. Shakespeare3.Which of the following works is worth reading for Montaigne’s humanist ideasand a style which is easy and familiar? ________A. SonnetsB. DecameronC. RabelaisD. Of Repentance4.Which of the following is NOT French writer poet? _______A. CervantesB. Pierre de RonsardC. RabelaisD. Montaigne5.In 1516 who published the first Greek edition of the New Testament?_________A. BruegelB. ErasmusC. El GrecoD. Rabelais6.“To be, or not to be, -- that is the question ” from whose works? _______A. ChaucerB. DanteC. Roger BaconD. ShakespeareⅢ简答与问答1.Why did England come later than other countries during the Renaissance? In whatway was English Renaissance different from that of other countries? Who were the major figures and what were their contributions?Science and Technology during the RenaissanceⅠ填空题1.The Renaissance was the golden age of geographical discoveries: by the year of1600 the surface of the known earth was doubled.2.Columbus was a Genoese-born navigator and discoverer of the New World.3.Dias was a Portuguese navigator who discovered the Cape of Good Hope.4.Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese navigator, who discovered the route to India roundthe Cape of Good Hope between the year of 1497 and 1498.5.Amerigo Vespucci was the Italian navigator in whose honor America was named6.Amerigo Vespucci discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon and acceptedSouth America as a new continent.7.Copernicus came to be known as father of modern astronomy.8.During his life time Leonardo da Vinci dissected more than thirty corpse and。
初中英语分析长难句
1. First put forward by the French mathematician Pierre de Format in the seventeenth century, the theorem had baffled and beaten the finest mathematical minds, including a French woman scientist who made a major advance in working out the problem, and who had to dress like a man in order to be able to study at the Ecolab polytechnique.这个定理，先是由十七世纪法国数学家皮尔法特提出，曾使一批杰出的数学大师为难，包括一位法国女科学家，她在解决这个难题方面取得了重大的进展，她曾女扮男装为了能够在伊科尔理工学院学习。
简析：夹杂过去分词短语，现在分词短语，动名词及两个定语从句。
2. It is difficult to measure the quantity of paper used as a result of use of Internet-connected computers, although just about anyone who works in an office can tell you that when e-mail is introduced, the printers start working overtime. That is, the growing demand for paper in recent years is largely due to the increased use of the Internet.由于因特网的使用，计算所使用的纸张的数量是很难的，然而几乎任何在办公室工作的人能告诉你，当引进电子邮件后，打印机就开始超时工作。
高考英语长难句100句精选
他们已有一千多年与外界没有联系，这给他们充足的时间来修建1000多座巨大的石
像，被称为莫艾，因为有这个东西这个岛屿极其出名。
简析：夹杂有现在分词短语，过去分词短语及定语从句。
15. Our parties are aimed for children 2 to 10 and they’re very interactive and creative in that they build a sense of drama based on a subject. （NMET2002. E篇）
直到有一天他在阿帕斯尔公园碰巧看见两个石制的十字架，他才懂得在1773年修建
这两个十字架是为了向她表示敬意。
简析：关键词come across碰巧遇见，in one’s honor纪念某人。
19. It is Sue Townsend’s musical play, based on her best-selling book. （NMET2002. C篇）
简析：关键词the mass media and government white papers大众传播媒介和政府白皮书
（正式报告）。
8.Tales from Animal Hospital will delight all fans of the programme and anyone who was a lively interest in their pet, whether it be a cat 、dog or snake! （NMET2003.C篇）
据盐湖城的ITA的观点，闪烁的棕色眼睛，摇着尾巴，并有无条件的爱心，狗能成
为无判断力的（忠实的）听者，这是刚开始搞阅读的小孩所需要的。
欧洲文化史--The-Seventeenth-Century
The Seventeenth CenturyGeneral IntroductionIn the 17th century, Europe advanced from the Middle Ages to the modern times."The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThis advance began in science, in astronomy, physics and pure mathematics, owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes. Their work helped to create modern science and in a sense the modern world.These scientists abandoned the traditional reliance on authority and the accepted method of deductive reasoning. Instead, they attached great importance to direct observation of nature and experimentation.Numerous revolutionary concepts and inventions were developed during this period."Almost everything that distinguishes the modern world from earlier centuries is attributable to science, which achieved its most spectacular triumphs in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThe outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of men's place in the universe which revived human pride.This new outlook shattered the deeply established Scholasticism and brought about modern philosophy, which was materialist in nature.The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and other classes.The 17th century saw the intense political struggle, shown in revolution in England and the end of absolute monarchy in France, which marked the growth of modern state power.ScienceThe sciences advanced in logical progression through modern history.First, a breakthrough in physics and mathematics in the 17th century, followed by rapid developments in the field of chemistry in the 18th century and then advances in biology in the 19th century and psychology in the 20th century.From Copernicus to KeplerThe first major advance of modern science occurred in astronomy and Italy was the scene with Copernicus(1473-1543) as the leading figure.Although he did not belong to the 17th century,Nicolaus Copernicus was the immediate forerunner of modern science.The Revolutions of Heavenly Orbs (1543)Copernicus put forward his theory that the sun, not the earth, is the center of the universe."In the middle of all sits the Sun enthroned. In this most beautiful temple, could we place this luminary in any better position from which he can illuminate the whole at once? He is rightly called the Lamp, the Mind, the Ruler of the Universe, ... So the Sun sits as upon a royal throne, ruling his children, the planets which circle round him."By this time, the Ptolematic system had been accepted by almost all learned men, which said that the earth was the center of the universe, which was in agreement with religious doctrines.Using logic and mathematics, Copernicus concluded that Ptolemy's system was wrong. Copernicus's hypothesis was regarded as heresy, for according to Scripture, Joshua had caused the sun to stand still in heaven.Copernicus had no wish to quarrel with the church. It was only at the urging of other scholars and scientists that he allowed his book to be published.The publication of the Copernican theory was the first serious irruption of science. It laid the foundation for many future scientific discoveries."The revolutionary act by which nature science declared its independence ... was the publication of the immortal work by which Copernicus threw down the gauntlet to ecclesiastical authority in the affairs of nature. The emancipation of natural science from theology dates from this act."----Engles, Dialectics of NatureHowever, Copernicus's heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis.No doubt, it was the boldest one in his own time, but Copernicus was not in a position to give any conclusive evidence in favor of his hypothesis.German scientist Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler's Law published in 1609 and 1619.Each planet moves in an ellipse, not a perfect circle, with the sun at one focus;Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it.The distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period the planet took to complete a revolution around the sun.A mathematical formula: the square of the period of revolution of a planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean distance of the planet from the sun.Kepler's laws supported, clarified and amended the Copernican system and turned the system from a general description of the sun and the planets into a precise mathematical formula.These three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton's discovery of the laws of gravitation.Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Galileo is the greates name in the field of physics of this period.His father, a Florentine, taught him Latin, Greek, mathematics and music. He also liked to draw and paint.At 17, he was sent to study medicine at the University of Pisa, but soon his interest was drawn to physics and mathematics.A convinced Copernican, Galileo was eager to use newly invented instruments to observe heavenly bodies.He was the first to apply the telescope to the study of the skies.His telescope magnified objects a thousand times.Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger), 1610"By the aid of a telescope anyone may behold this in a manner which so distinctly appeals to the senses that all the disputers which have tormented philosophers through so many ages are exploded aat once by the irrefragable evidence of our eyes, and we are freed from wordy disputesupon this subject, for the Galaxly is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in cluster...""Upon whatever part of it you direct the telescope straightway a vast crowd of stars presents itself to views; many of them are tolerably large and extremely bright, but the number of small ones is quite beyond determination".Proved that Ptolemy's geocentric system would not work and that Copernicus's powerful hypothesis had been right.Discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics.Every body, if left alone, will continue to move in a straight line with uniform velocity; any change, either in the rapidity or the direction of motion, requires to be explained as due to the action of some "force".This principle is called the law of inertia.The first to establish the law of falling bodies.When a body is falling freely, its acceleration is constant, except in so far as the resistance of the air may interfere, and the acceleration is the same for all bodies, heavy or light, great or small. The acceleration of a falling body does not depend on its mass.Galileo's discoveries proved the validity of the Copernican theory and struck a frightening blow at the holy establishment.Many theologians felt that Copernican astronomy was sharply incompatible with the Bible and that if this theory was widely accepted, the Bible would lose authority and Christianity would suffer.Galileo's disputes with the church finally led to his trial by the Inquisition.He was forced to give up his view in public declaration but later published a book about the Copernican and anti-Copernican systems.Put in prison, allowed to return home after falling ill, technically remained a prisoner.Died in the arms of his pupils, blind and deaf and still a prisoner.His findings had an unsettling and disturbing effect on the conventional thinking, but his impact on the thoughtful mind was overwhelming.Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)As a school boy, "idle" and "inattentive".Took his degree from Tirinity College, Cambridge and became a mathematics teacher (not successful).Few students went to his lectures and fewer could understand him, sometimes he had so few auditors that he read his lectures to the wall.As a mathematician, he invented calculus.In optics, he discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum.(red, orange, yellow, green, indigo, blue, violet)It was in the field of physics that Newton established his name as one of the most outstanding and influential figure in the history of natural science.The law of the universal gravitationEvery body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.To put it simply, all bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.From this law, Newton was able to deduce the orbits of comets, the tides, and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits on the part of the planet.The law of universal gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science.Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)His analytical method, the way he approached natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation, began to be applied to human society, to all branches of knowledge and thought.For centuries, Newton had been regarded as a perfect scientist, the greatest one that ever lived in the entire history of science."Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night,God said, "Let Newton be," and all was light."____ Alexander Pope However, since Einstein discovered the law of relativity, the Newtonian system has been questioned.As a matter of fact, modern theoretical physics has abandoned Newton's absolute space and time. As explained by Einstein, motion and space are relative too.Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, historian and diplomat.Early university studies made him familiar with the Aristotelian tradition and the ideas from the Scholastics, but later decided in favor of the modern thought.He and Newton invented independently the differential and integral calculus.he describes space and time as merely system of relationship or order, and calls Newton's treatment of time and space as absolute entities a reversion to medieval notions.In his book New Essays Concerning Human Understanding (1704), he refutes John Locke's major premise that the senses are the source of all understanding.He distinguishes three levels of understanding: the self-conscious, the conscious and the unconscious or subconscious.Many of his theories have given rise of important developments of modern science, ranging from Freudian psychology and Einsteinian physics.Discourse and Metaphysics (1686)New System of Nature (1695)Invention of New InstrumentsThe microscope was invented in 1590.the telescope in 1608 by a DutchmanGalileo invented the thermometer and one of his pupils made the barometer.The pendulum clock in 1656.Scientific observation became immensely more exact and more extensiveMerits Shared by ScientistsFirst, they showed boldness in framing hypotheses. They had the courage to challenge the deep-rooted beliefs and assume that what had been accepted as true since ancient times might be false.Second, they all had immense patience in observation. They put their hypotheses to tests and drew conclusions on the basis of patient observation and careful collection of facts. Modern scientific method emphasized observation and experimentation before formulating a final explanation or generalization.Philosophy and PoliticsFrancis Bacon (1561-1626)The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.In his Novum Organum, Bacon begins by declaring that "Man, being the servant and interpreter of Nature, can do and understand so much and so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything.""Nature to be commanded must be obeyed."Man can command and conquer nature, the power to do so is knowledge, therefore knowledge is power.He examined the contemporary logic and method and founded modern inductive method.He argued that the contemporary syllogism started by Aristotle did more harm than good. Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.The deductive method emphasizes reasoning from a known principle to the unkown and from the general to the specific.The Great InstaurationTo expect any great advancement in science, we must begin anew. The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconception, prejudices and assumptions, sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs, in a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world.Baconian Materialism"To Bacon, natural philosophy is the only true philosophy, and physics based upon the experience of the senses is the chiefest part of natural philosophy."___ Marx & Engels, The Holy FamilyThomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Author of Leviathan(1651), one of the most celebrated political treatises in European literature. During the English Revolution, he took refuge in France and wrote Leviathan on account of his royalist convictions.He argues that our knowledge comes from experience."The cause of sense is the external body, or object, which presseth the organ proper to each sense either immediately, as in the taste and touch; or mediately, as in seeing, hearing and smelling."He believes that only material things are perceptible, and knowable to us. Our own experience alone is ceratin.He said men could not know anything about the existence of God because they could not have any idea of Him in their minds answerable to His nature.Concerning motion, Hobbes said that when a thing lies still, unless sth. else stirs it, it will lie still for ever. When a body is once in motion, it moves (unless sth. else hinders it) eternally.Hobbes systematized Baconian materialism, but basically he was a mechanical materialist.The Natural State of WarHobbes held that men are by nature equal in bodily and mental capacity.From this equality of ability arises equality of hope in the attaining of their ends.If any two men desire the same thing, which they can not both enjoy, they become enemies.The fact that every individual seeks his own conservation and his own enjoyment leads to competition and mistrust of others. So, Hobbes believed that man is selfish by nature.Unless such times as men live under a common power, they are in a state of war with one another. This natural state of war, therefore, is the state of affairs in which the individual is dependent for his own security on his own strength and his own wits, and where "every man is enemy to every man."The Laws of NatureBecause the condition of man is a condition of war of every man against every man, it is obviously in man's interest to emerge from this natural state of war.The possibility of doing so is provided by nature itself; for by nature men have their passions and their reasons.It is human passions that bring about the state of war; the fear of death and need for security drive man to accept certain laws of nature.Reason tells men that peace is necessary for survival and also suggests certain articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These articles are called the Laws of nature.In Leviatha n, Hobbes stated nineteen laws of nature.According to Hobbes, the fundamental law of nature is the general rule of reason that every man ought to endeavor for peace.The Theory of Social ContractHobbes maintained that in order to get men out of the miserable condition of war, keep them in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their agreements, and observation of the laws of nature, it is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.Individuals should "confer all their power and strength upon one man or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills by plurality of voices, unto one will."The transfer of rights takes place "by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner, as if every man should say to every man, I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition that thou give gup thy right to him andauthorize all his actions in like manner. This done, the multitude so united in one person, is called a Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas. This is the generation of that great Laviathan".To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign. in return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security. In Hobbes' s thoery, the powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided.The sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract.The subjects cannot either change the form of government or repudiate the authority of the sovereign. Rebellion is wrong, which will lead men back to the natural state of war.As to the form of government, monarchy.Hobbes believed that government was not created by God, but by men themselves."The merits of Hobbes appear most clearly when he is contrasted with earlier political theorists. He is completely free from superstition; he does not argue from what happened to Adam and Eve at the time of the Fall."____Russell, A History of Western PhilosophyJohn Locke (1632-1704)Oxford, philosophyDisliked Scholasticism and regarded it as perplexed with obscure terms and useless questions. Locke inherited and developed the materialist views expounded by Bacon and Hobbes.Materialist ViewsEssay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)All our ideas are ultimately derived from sensation or from reflection, that these two make up experience and that all our knowledge springs from experience.Locke argued against Plato, Descartes and the scholastics, that neither principles nor ideas are innate.Political PhilosophyTreatises of Civil Government (1690)Rejected the theory of divine right of king.Ridiculed the theory of transmission of royal authority by saying that there was no evidence that Adam possessed a divinely granted royal authority, nor is there any evidence that his heirs had it. “All men are naturally free and equal in the state of nature.”“Men living together according to reason without a common superior on earth, with no authority to judge between them, is properly the state of nature”“The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone, and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty of possession”.The Social ContractLocke believed that society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, therefore, society is natural to man. Political society and government should rest on a rational foundation.The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent of those who are incorporated into political society and subject themselves to government.Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.The absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and the danger to liberty comes mainly from absolute monarchy.Locke believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If he violates the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved. In this case, rebellion is justified.As to who is to judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate, Locke replied, “The people shall be judge”, which is welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution.Question?Both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke used the term “social contract”, what is the difference between them?Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason.Hobbes argued that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. According to Locke, by majority vote, a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If the fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to ovethrow him.The English Revolutionin the middle of the 17th century.The causes:1) the growth of capitalism2) the break-up of serfdom3) the Puritan movementThe Growth of CapitalismCapitalism had started growing in England much earlier and faster than any other European country.The leading industry in the early development was textile, which pushed the development of coal-mining and other industries.The English bourgeoisie was not only economically powerful, but also politically strong.The English bourgeoisie had a political body, the parliament, to speak for them.SerfdomThe serfdom in the English countryside had begun breaking up from the 15th century as a result of the Enclosure Movement.Many serfs and poor peasants were driven out of their farm lands and homes, who went to the cities and became the source of cheap labor for the early capitalists.PuritansBy the end of the 16th century, Calvinism had spread to England. As a result,the Puritan Movement started in England.The Puritan principle emphasized the liberty of the individual soul before God, which reflected the desire of the early rising bourgeoisie for free development of capitalism.The Puritans were subjected to the suppression and persecution by the feudal monarchy. This was the religious cause of the English Revolution.MayflowerThe Land of the FreeThanksgivingThe English RevolutionIn 1642, Civil War broke out between the king and the Parliament.With the support of the people and the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory.Charles I was captured and beheaded in front of his own palace in 1649.A republic was born, Cromwell became the head of the government known as the Protector. Oliver CromwellAfter the death of Cromwell in 1658, the country was in confusion and revolutionary movement was again on the rise.Fearing that the people might take over power, the upper bourgeoisie and feudal nobles collaborated and staged the restoration of the Stuart.In 1660, Charles II returned from France and was put on the throne.During the restoration, many revolutionary leaders were persecuted.Charles II was planning to turn England into a Catholic country.In 1688, the representatives of the parliament went to Holland to negotiate withe Dutch King William and his wife Mary, a member of the English royal family and yet a Protestant.William and Mary were invited to be the joint ruler of England. Thus, the shortlived restoration ended.The Glorious RevolutionIn December, 1689, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the Parliament.It established the supremacy of the parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. The Bill of RightsThe power of suspending the laws by royal authority was declared to be illegal; Parliament was responsible for all the law making;The king levy no money except by grant of parliament;The king should not keep a standing army in time of peace without consent of Parliament.No Roman Catholic, nor anyone marrying a Roman Catholic should succeed to the throne.The Bill of Rights is the foundation on which the constitutional monarchy of England rests."The bourgeoisie was victorious in these revolutions, but the victory of the bourgeoisie was at thattime the victory of a new social order, the victory of bourgeois ownership over feudal ownership... These revolutions reflected the need of the world at that time rather than the needs of those parts of the world where they occurred, that is England and France".___ Collected Works of Marx and EnglesRene Descartes (1596-1650)Philosopher, physicist and mathematicianIt is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Francis Bacon in England and with Rene Descartes in France.He enlisted in the Dutch army and spent years of undisturbed quiet in Holland where he worked at geometry and philosophy.After serving in the army, he continued to live in Holland for twenty years as some of his contemporaries also found Holland a country of freedom of thought.Rules for the Direction of the Mind (1628)Discourse on Method(1637)Meditations Concerning First Philosophy and Objections and Replies (1642)His method of doubt is known as the method of Cartesian doubt.He believed that the overthrow of the present opinion and the break-up with the past philosophy, Scholasticism included, are necessary condition of establishing sth. first and lasting in eh science. "It is now some years since I detected how many were the false beliefs that I had from my earliest youth and admitted as true, and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed on this basis; and from that time I was convinced that I must once for all seriously undertake to rid myself of all the opinion which I had formerly accepted, and commence to build anew from the foundation, if i want to establish any firm and permanent structure in the science".In Discourse on Method, Descartes formulated four rules in expressing his method:The first was to accept nothing as true which i did not clearly recognize to be so.Carefully avoid precipitation and prejudice in judgments, and to accept in them nothing more than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly that I could have no occasion to doubt it. The second was to divide up each of the difficulties which I examined into as many parts as possible, and as seemed requisite in order that it might be resolved in the best manner possible. The third was to carry on my reflections in due order, commencing with objects that were the most simple and easy to understand, in order to rise little by little, or by degrees, to knowledge of the most complex.The last was in all cases to make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that i should be ceratin of having omitted nothing.Theory of KnowledgeDescartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth.He found his truth in this motto: "dubito ergo cogito; cogito ergo sum".I doubt, therefore I think; I think, therefore I am.This Cartesian doubt is the most important point in his philosophy.He believed that a thing that is thinking is one that doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, imagines, and feels.Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind.All things that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and theat knowledge of things must be by the mind.As to the senses, Descartes believed that they are not dependable.Innate IdeasDescartes believed that some ideas are innate.He claimed he discovered the first principles or first causes of everything which can be in the world without "deriving them from any other source than certain germs of truth which exist naturally in our souls".___ Discourse on MethodWe can construct metaphysics and physics by logic deduction from a number of innate ideas implanted in the mind by nature ,or by God.All clear and distinct ideas are innate. All scientific knowledge is knowledge of or by means of innate ideas.Knowledge of the universe and certain principles and laws of physics is innate.DualismDescartes turned his back on theological controversy and instead set out to apply the techniques of mathematical reasoning to questions of philosophy, attempting to build up a rigorous philosophy on the basis of reason alone.He argued that thought was the foundation of all knowledge while senses might deceive. (idealist) He believed that the external world existed, which is independent of the human mind. (materialist) In the Cartesian system, mind and matter are completely apart from one another.Descartes thus brought to completion the dualism of mind and matter which began with Plato.In mathematics, Descartes culminated in inventing analytical geometry.American linguist Noam Chomsky: "innate grammar".Pierre GassendiIn his early years, he began attacking Aristotelianism, and in 1641 he wrote his objections to Descartes's Meditation.He tried to show that the Cartesian criterion of true knowledge was useless, and insisted that our knowledge comes only from sensory experience."ambulo ergo sum" (I walk, therefore I am)French ClassicismSocial backgroundAfter the Hundred Years War between French and English invaders, France entered a period of comparatively steady development. In the latter half of the 17th century, Henry IV started a。
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to That Which Is to Come
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allegory: a work of art intending to be meaningful on at least two levels of understanding: a literal level and an abstract (figurative, or moral) level. The term derives from the Greek “allegorein”, meaning “to speak in other words”
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Beelzebub: A term used by both Jesus and his opponents for Satan, the chief of devils. The word comes from Baal-zebub, a Philistine god who was believed to be the creator of flies. n.魔王, 魔鬼 Apollyon: from Greek, meaning destroyer. n. 恶魔, 亚玻伦(《圣经》中的人物,无底坑的使者 Legion: represents immense power and force, for the demonic hosts of Satan.
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2. English Literature of the First Quarter of the 17th Century:
The King James Bible of 1611;
Francis Bacon; Metaphysical Poetry and Cavalier Poetry
Life: Born in London; studied at Cambridge; studied law later; appointed Lord Chancellor during the reign of James Ⅰ. Imprisoned for corruption. Bacon’s only predecessor in the field of the essay was Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), the French country squire; Bacon’s chief contribution lies in his role as the founder of materialism in philosophy and science in England. He employs what may be called the dialectical method by balancing opposing arguments before drawing his conclusions.
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Major Works by Bunyan
The Pilgrim’s Progress (Part Ⅰ, 1678) The Pilgrim’s Progress (Part Ⅱ,1684)
( deals with the pilgrimage of Christiana, Christian’s wife, and her children, accompanied by her neighbor Mercy.) Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666) The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680) The Holy War (1682)
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3. English Literature during the English Bourgeois Revolution
John Milton : Milton as the Spokesman of the Revolution . “When I Consider How My Light Is Spent”; Milton the revolutionary , Milton the epic poet ; Every progressive English poet since Milton draws inspiration from him. a pamphlet to justify the execution of Charles Ⅰ: “ Defence of the English People” (1651) Persecution after the Restoration of Charles Ⅱ
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2.1 The King James Bible of 1611
History of Bible: History of English Bible King James’ Bible of 1611 Also known as the 1611 Authorized Version of
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4.2 John Dryden (1631-1700) :
a poet, playwright and critic; a prolific writer. He turned with the tide, “time-server”; The forerunner of the English classical school of literature in the 18th Century From Dryden to Johnson, English critics value poetry according to its power to affect an audience.
the Bible;
47 scholars worked on it. The project was presided over by Bishop Lancelot Andrewes The basis: Tyndale text
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2.2 Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Part Ⅴ The Seventeenth Century
1603-1688
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1. Historical Background
The English Bourgeois Revolution and Restoration: The weakening of the tie between monarchy and bourgeoisie; The clashes between the King and Parliament; The outburst of the English Revolution; The split within the revolutionary camp; The bourgeois dictatorship and the Restoration
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Features of Literary Criticism of the Time 1. It does not stress literary theories, but particular works 2. It does not give comprehensive commentary, but just a few points 3. Impression rather than reasoning
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4. English Literature of the Restoration John Bunyan John Dryden
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4.1 John Bunyan (1628-1688)
Bunyan: a pilgrim; a man of innocence, diligent; With sensitive imagination Once enlisted in the Parliamentary army Bunyan lived at a time when political struggles adopted the form of religious struggles. The Pilgrim’s Progress from This World
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2.3 Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets
Two antagonistic camps: the Royalists and the Puritans. The Metaphysical Poets: John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert John Donne: “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (1611) The Cavalier Poets: Sir John Suckling, Robert Herrick, Ben Johnson Carpe Diem: a Latin phrase meaning “seize the day”. The philosophy of carpe diem asserts the notion that since life is short, one must make the most of one’s youth. This motif became very popular in the love poetry of the seventeenth century.
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