语言学paper
paper的用法和短语例句
paper的用法和短语例句paper有纸;文件;报纸;论文;票据等意思，那么你知道paper的用法吗?下面跟着小编一起来学习一下，希望对大家的学习有所帮助!paper的用法：paper的用法1：paper的基本意思是纸,通常用作物质名词,不可数。
如表示可数性,则须借助于单位词。
一小张纸是a piece of paper; 一大张标准尺寸的纸是a sheet of paper。
paper作写过字的纸解时,是可数名词,有复数形式。
paper的用法2：paper也可作报纸文件证件试卷论文等解,可用复数形式。
paper的用法3：paper的基本意思是用纸贴或用纸覆盖,引申可表示隐瞒,掩饰。
paper的用法4：用作及物动词,后接名词或代词作宾语。
paper的常用短语：用作名词(n.)on paper用作动词(v.)paper over (v.+prep.)paper的用法例句：1. He wiped away the blood with a paper napkin.他用纸巾将血迹擦去。
2. Under the newspaper, atop a sheet of paper, lay an envelope.在报纸下面的一张纸上放着一个信封。
3. Stein rolled up the paper bag with the money inside.斯坦把装了钱的纸袋卷了起来。
4. Randall would just now be getting the Sunday paper.兰德尔这个时候应该正在拿周日的报纸。
5. Theres always tons of scrap paper in Dads office.爸爸的办公室里总有大量的废纸。
6. She tore off two sections of paper towel and folded them lengthwise.她撕下两格纸巾，然后纵向对折。
Essay Paper和Dissertation的有什么区别
方法/步骤
Paper怎么写？ 这个词就太多含义了。 好的，也就是paper一般有两种（跟学术相关的）： 第一种是超级学术的论文，通常是由专家写的，在书和期刊上等发表，一般叫做学术论文 Scholarly paper。 第二种是类似essay的，作为学校课程作业的文章和论文，一般叫学期论文Term paper。 学期论文Term paper是学生撰写的研究论文，占很大一部分的成绩。学期论文通常用来描述一 个事件，一个概念，或者认为一个论点。学期论文是写原创作品，详细讨论一个话题，通常都需 要几页打印纸，通常是在一个学期尾交。
Essay大家都熟悉，老师经常让我们写essay，essay就是几千字的小论文，一般来说只有文献 综述和对它的分析，没有独立的数据也没关系，本科生接触的最多的就是essay，essay也是被 包括在paper里面的。Paper一般来说就包括了所有的论文，当然，不包括毕业论文。 Dissertation相对来说字数比较多，一般来说要一万字以上，和essay不同的是，它要有独立的 研究方法和数据分析，相对essay来说，它对作者的要求更高，要完成起来也更加困难。
方法/步骤
Essay怎么写？ 它几乎是留学中最常见的一个词之一。
Essay有两个特点： 1.short！短！ 2.主要是指学生的课程作业（或者考核作品）啦。 3.是在某主题上写，而不是乱来的。 在国外大学，Essay一般指几千字级别的小论文/课程论文，通常只有文献综述和对文献的批判分 析，可以没有独立的数据和实证（即便有也是简化的）。可以没有完整的数据或文献，也可以只 针对一些著作或观点谈谈自己的想法和见解，可以是批判性的，也可以是赞同的。
语言学常用论文格式(APA.format)
This handout gives some basic examples of APA style for references in a research paper. There are many more types of resources than we have room for in this handout. For more examples and complete information, use the following resources from the APA:Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5 th ed.). (2001). Washington,DC: American Psychological Association. Copies are available at the Reference and Reserve desks at Chambers Library..(2001,September 8). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Retrieved September 24, 2001, from /References in the text of your paper (See pages 120121 and 207214 in the manual for complete details)APA style requires that you cite the author and publication year of a reference in the text of your paper. One or both of these elements may be in parentheses. Direct quotations also require the page number. The full citation will follow in the reference list at the end of the paper. Here are a few examples from the manual.· Wasserstein, Zappula, Rosen, Gerstman, and Rock (1994) found…· In a recent study of reaction times (Walker, 2000)…· She stated, “The ‘placebo effect’…disappeared when behaviors were studied in thismanner” (Miele, 1993, p. 276).Reference list at the end of the paper (See pages 215281, 299 in the manual)The heading on the page of sources should be “References.” Include the page number on the top, righthand side of the page (your title page should be page 1). APA suggests your identify each page with the first two or three words from the title just to the left of the page number, although some professors may prefer you to use another identifier such as your name. Always check with your instructor for his or her preference. References should be in a hanging indent format, meaning that the first line of each reference is set flush left and subsequent lines are indented. Doublespace the entire list (this will not be done on this handout). Alphabetize the list by first author’s last name. If there is no author given, start with the first significant word in the title. In titles, capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, and proper names.Book Citation Basic Format: Author, A. A.(Publication Year). Title.Place of publication: Publisher.Examples from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association· Multiple authorsBeck, C. A. J., & Sales, B. D. (2001). Family mediation: Facts, myths, and futureprospects.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.5 th Edition· Edited bookGibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (1991).Children of color: Psychological interventions with minority youth. San Francisco: JosseyBass.· Article or chapter in an edited bookMassaro, D. (1992). Broadening the domain of the fuzzy logical model of perception. InH.L. Pick Jr., P. van den Broek, & D. C. Knill (Eds.), Cognition: Conceptual andmethodological issues (pp. 5184). Washington, DC: American PsychologicalAssociation.· Entry in an encyclopediaBergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp.501508). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.· Book, no author or editorMerriamWebster’s collegiate dictionary (10 th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam Webster.· Book, group author (government agency) as publisherAustralian Bureau of Statistics. (1991).Estimated resident population by age and sex in statistical local areas, New South Wales, June 1990 (No. 3209.1). Canberra,Australian Capital Territory: Author.Periodical Article Citation Basic Format: Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical Title, volume, pages.Examples from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association · Journal article, one author, paginated by volumeMellers, B. A. (2000). Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 910924.· Journal article, journal paginated by issue, two authorsKlimoski, R., & Palmer, S. (1993). The ADA and the hiring process in organizations.Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 45(2), 1036.· Journal article, three to six authors (list each author name individually) Saywitz, K. J., Mannarino, A. P., Berliner, L., & Cohen, J. A. (2000). Treatment for sexually abused children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 55, 10401049.· Journal article, more than six authors (list up to six authors, then “et al.”?) Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., et al.(2000). An experimental evaluation of theorybased mother and motherchildprograms for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68,843856.· Magazine article (for date, give month for monthly publications, month and day for weeklies)Kandel, E. R., & Squire, L. R. (2000, November 10). Neuroscience: Breaking down scientific barriers to the study of brain and mind. Science, 290, 11131120.· Newspaper article, no authorNew drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure. (1993, July 15). The Washington Post, p. A12.· Newspaper article, discontinuous pagesSchwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.Other Forms· ERIC Document (Give ERIC document number in parentheses at the end or the entry) Mead, J. V. (1992).Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that novice teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTLRR924). East Lansing, MI:National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 346082)· For other forms, for example technical reports, papers presented at meetings, translated works, volumes in a series, citations of works discussed in a secondary source, andothers, see the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Internet Site Basic Format: (See pages 231 and 268281 in the manual)A reference to an Internet source should include at least a document title or description, a date (either the date of publication or update or the date of retrieval), and an Internet address, or URL. Whenever possible, it should also include the author. Whenever possible, readers should be directed to specific documents rather than home pages. When a publication date is not available, use n.d. (no date).If a URL is too long for a single line, break it after a slash or before a period.· Multipage document created by a private organization, no dateGreater New Milford (Ct) Area Healthy Community 2000, Task Force on Teen and Adolescent Issues. (n.d.). Who has time for a family meal? You do!Retrieved October5, 2000 from · Chapter or section in an Internet documentBenton Foundation. (1998, July 7). Barriers to closing the gap. In Losing ground bit by bit: Lowincome communities in the information age (chap. 2). Retrieved August 18,2001 from /Library/LowIncome/two.html· Standalone document, no author identified, no dateGVU’s 8 th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from/gvu/user_surveys/survey199710/· U.S. government report on government agency Web site, no publication date givenUnited States Sentencing Commission. (n.d.).1997 sourcebook of federal sentencing statistics. Retrieved December 8, 1999, from /annrpt/1997/sbtoc97.htm· Internet article based on a print sourceVandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources by psychology undergraduates [Electronic version]. Journal ofBibliographic Research, 5,117123.If the format is an exact duplicate of the print version, use the same basic journal reference format, with the addition of [Electronic version] after the article title. If you believe it may differ from the print version, add the retrieval date and URL: Retrieved October 13, 2001, from /articles.html· Article in an Internetonly journalFredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and wellbeing. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000,from /prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html · Article from an aggregated database (An item or accession number may be added (in parentheses at the end of the retrieval statement) but is not required.)Borman, W. C., Hanson, M. A., Oppler, S. H., Pulakos, E. D., & White. L. A. (1993).Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor performance. Journal of AppliedPsychology, 78, 443449. Retrieved October 23, 2000 from PsycARTICLESdatabase.Web Citations in TextFollow the author/date format as for written sources (see pages 120121 and 207214 in the Publication Manual). For electronic sources that do not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number, if available, preceded by the ¶ symbol or the abbreviation “para.” If neither page nor paragraph numbers are visible, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it to direct the reader to the location of the material.(Myers, 2000, ¶ 5)(Beutler, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 1)Additional Sources for Citation and Style HelpLipson, C. (2006).Cite right: a quick guide to citation styles. Chicago: U of Chicago Press. Troyka, L. & Hesse, D. (2005).Simon & Schuster handbook for writers (7th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.APA Title PageYour title page should have the following:· In the upper right header, it should have the page header and page number. The page header is usually the first two or three words of the title. Put about 5 spaces or .25inch between your page header and your page number.· On the top left below the header, it should have the “Running head” or abbreviated title, which should not exceed 50 characters, including spaces and punctuation. The running head is typed in ALL UPPERCASE.· Beginning in the upper half of the page, it should have the title of your paper, centered. On the next line, it should have your name (the author). If the paper was a joint project, all contributors should be listed here. The next line has your university affiliation. All lines should be doublespaced.See pages 296298 in the manual for complete details.*Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers (7 th ed) recommends the following in place of your university affiliation: where you would have typed your university affiliation, type your course title and section. On the following line, type the professor’s name. On the last line, type the date. It also does not mention using the running head on the title page. See pages 643658 for formatting instructions and examples. Always check with your instructor for his or her preferences.Example from Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers (not to scale), Example from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (not to scale)Biological Clocks 1Biological Clocks:The Body’s Internal TimepiecesCarlos VelezIntroduction to Psychology 115, Section P1Professor Robert SchmittNovember 17,2003Individual Differences 1 Running head: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN BIMODAL PROCESSESIndividual Differences inBimodal Processing and Text RecallBruce R. Dunn and Kate I. RushUniversity of West Florida杭州印刷厂/。
英语应用语言学论文,英文论文
An Analysis of Cohesion in Chinese and Native American’sArgumentative Writing1.Defining Key TermsCohesion and CoherenceCohesion and coherence are important terms in the study of text analysis. Halliday and Hasan view the concept of cohesion as” a semantic one” (Cohesion 4). They also define the term as “Relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text.”(Cohesion4) In their later book, Language, Context and Text, Halliday and Hasan define cohesion and coherence as “Every text is also a context for itself. A text is characterized by Coherence, An important contribution to coherence comes from cohesion: the set of linguistic resources that every language has for linking one part of a text to another.”(48).In a word, Coherence can be created by cohesion in the way of adding some implicit meaning. As for the definition of both terms, the author agrees with Halliday and Hasan’s point of view. And this paper employs Halliday’s approach in the analysis of cohesion2.Data Collection and Analysis2.1 Data collectionThis paper is based on analysis of two argumentative writings. The topic of both essays is the debate of drinking age. The first argumentation chosen as data is a FLC freshman’s homework assignment in a key normal university from Zhejiang province. And the second essay in the data is written by John M. McCardell Jr. from . Although the two texts vary from length and perspectives of arguments, they do share the same point of view on limiting drinking age, also, the priority being to compare the cohesion in data. Some deviations like grammar mistakes in texts may possibly exist but they will not affect the results and findings. The data to be analyzed in thispaper is in the appendix.The intentions of choosing and analyzing argumentative writing as data in this paper are as follows. Firstly, argumentative writing comprised a large portion of the writing part in Chinese high school English test. Secondly, correlation studies on this type of writing are rare. As a pre-service teacher, it would be beneficial for the author to study this writing type and employ the findings into future teaching career.2.2 Methods on data analysisThis paper employed Halliday’s categories of cohesion (Cohesion 333-339) to analyze data. The methodology of analysis is as follows:1.Identify the cohesive items in each sentence.2.Figure out the cohesion typepare the results in two texts and find differencesThe types of cohesion in data are showed in two tables in the part of results of analysis.3.Results and Discussion3.1 Results of analysisAfter the analysis of two texts, the author found that differences of cohesive items and types are obvious.Firstly, the cohesive items in text 1 are relatively diversified as different words and expressions like “it” and “that” are used to create text coherence. However, the cohesive items in text 2 are severely repeated, the items “you”and “I”make up a large part in total cohesive items of this text. Secondly, the richness in types of cohesion is different in two texts. The types are almost totally different in text 1 while the result is opposite in text 2. The monotonicity of cohesion types in text 2 may partly be related to the cohesive items. However, in text 2, the bonded sentences are mostly adjacent pairs and simple lexical repetition is used most frequently; in text 1, the bonded sentences for certain cohesive items are not adjacent. Thirdly, there is a significant difference between the two text s’ rate of using paraphrases. Expressions like “The statement” and “the answer” are used in text 1 in order to refer to longer sentences or the phrases in different parts of the text. However, text 2 lacks ofrichness in the usage of paraphrase.3.2 Reasons of cohesive distinctions between two essaysThe distinction of cohesive items and types are obvious after comparing the two tables. Reasons for the variation are to be discussed in following passages.Firstly, the cohesive items in two texts are varied. After close reading of text 2, the author found the defect is totally avoidable by replacing repeated words for cohesive items or lengthening sentences in the way of combining short sentences into longer ones. The monotonous of cohesive items and types are partly due to the Chinese ways of thinking as Chinese people view repetition as an aesthetic object of language. In addition, it is universal for an English word to have inflections and derivatives, which might contribute to the variation of cohesive items in text 1(native writer). However, Chinese writer (nonnative writer) may have troubles in dealing with that. The limitedness of vocabulary for Chinese writers affected their choice of words deeply.Secondly, the richness in types of cohesion is varied in two texts. Native speakers are skilled in making connections between what they are currently saying and what they said before and use different cohesive items to attain the aim, regardless of the distance of two bonded items. However, Chinese writer may lack the ability in doing that. He or she tends to think the whole passage in Chinese, and then interpret it into English when writing it down. It’s not easy for nonnative speakers to command the English way of logical thinking, still, thinking in English is essential for English learners to advance their English language ability.Thirdly, there is a significant difference between the two text s’ rate of usingparaphrases. The problem of monotonicity in cohesive items in text 2 can be avoided if writer use some paraphrases to replace the items like “I” and “you”. The reasons for this problem may come from the influence of mother tongue Chinese. It may also have something to do with writer’s vocabulary learning habits.3.2 Implications for teaching of EFL argumentative writingArgumentative writing is an important writing style for high school students to command and comprise a large proportion of writing tests. Generally speaking, there are three factors that influence students' writing ability: Logic thinking, language knowledge and writing skill. The results and analysis of cohesive problems accrued in Chinese student’s writing can be applied to argumentative writing teaching in high school. The implications for argumentative writing teaching are as follows.Firstly, it can be seen from the analysis that native writer tend to use far more complex cohesive items and fewer simple lexical repetition than Chinese student writings. This is caused by people's logical thinking, which is a very complicated factor. It mainly refers to student's life and studying background. Mostly, Chinese students are likely to translate their ideas from Chinese into English in the process of writing unconsciously. As a result, they tend to use the same words over and over again without the awareness of different cohesive devices. Therefore the number of cohesive items used in argumentative writing is limited. And most cohesive items used are of a monotonous type and lacking variety. Wherefore it’s important for teachers to focus on the coherence of discourse when teaching English writing. Some suggestions may be helpful: Teachers should pay attention to the coherence of passages in text books when giving reading classes. Reading and writing complement each other as the former emphasizes input and latter one focuses on output; Teachers can expose students to western cultures and try to train students the western ways of logical thinking if time permits. These trainings will also enhance students’ reading speed.Secondly, language knowledge is also a crucial fact for students to improve their argumentative writing. It mainly concerns about English vocabulary and grammar. Argumentative essay is relatively academic compared with other forms of writing as the words and phrases are mainly illustrative, not descriptive. In order to improve students’writing ability, teachers can hold debate competitions in class to enlarge students’ vocabulary for argumentative writing.Finally, writing skills or so called “the ability of d iscourse”is of great importance in teaching writing. Coherence ability determines whether students' writing is a good one. Consequently, in teaching writing skills, teachers should develop students' writing ability. Teachers can analyze the coherence of texts when explaining reading comprehensions and it can attract students’attention on the coherence of texts and focus on the issue when they write essays.For Chinese high school students, English cohesion is hard to attain as they are easily affected by mother tongue Chinese. So teachers should play an important role in constructing their knowledge in coherence and cohesion. (1653 words)ReferencesHalliday, M.A.K. & Hasan. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group Limited, 1976Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan. Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-semiotic Perspective. Melbourne: Deakin University Press, 1985 Johnstone, B. Discourse analysis (2nd ed.). Malden: Blackwell, 2008Nicholas, R. “Lexical cohesion in academic writing.”Modern English teacher23.1 (2014): 59-62胡壮麟.“有关语篇衔接理论多层次模式的思考”，《上海外国语大学学报》1996年第1期，第1-8页。
paper.book用法
paper.book用法
"paper" 和 "book" 都是常见的英语单词，它们可以分别用于不同的语境和短语中。
首先，"paper" 可以指纸张，也可以指纸质材料制成的东西。
"paper" 还可以用作动词，表示覆盖或包裹以纸张。
例如，"I need to write my report on this paper"（我需要用这张纸写报告）或者 "She papered the walls with floral print"（她用花纹纸覆盖了墙壁）。
而 "book" 通常指一本书，可以是印刷版的书籍，也可以是电子书。
"book" 也可以用作动词，表示预订或安排。
例如，"I want to book a table at the restaurant"（我想在餐厅预订一张桌子）。
在日常用语中，"paper book" 这个短语通常用来指纸质书籍，与电子书相对。
人们可能会说 "I prefer reading paper books to e-books because I like the feel of paper"（我更喜欢纸质书籍而不是电子书，因为我喜欢纸的触感）。
总之，"paper book" 这个短语用来指代传统的纸质书籍，与电子书相对。
希望这能够全面回答你的问题。
英语语言学论文
英语语言学概论论文论文题目:An Analysis of Euphemism in English From the Politeness Principle of PragmaticsAbstractEuphemism, cosmetic words, is not only a lingual phenomenon, but also a cultural and social phenomenon. It is like a mirror, reflecting the values, aesthetic conceptions and moral concepts in some extent. Euphemism plays an important part in social communication. It is like lube that avoids hurting the other party’s feeling. It oils the human relationship in communication and helps to save face of communicators. If people make full use of euphemism, it can accelerate and facilitate human communication. This paper elaborates on the features and social functions of euphemism. And it focuses on the relationships between its polite functions and Politeness Principle. This thesis is composed of six parts with Chapter Four and Five as its core: The first chapter focuses on the origin and definitions of euphemism. The second chapter discusses the features of euphemism in many ways. The third chapter talks about the social functions of euphemism from the angle of pragmatics. The fourth chapter forms the basis of the whole research by connecting euphemism with politeness and face-saving theory. The fifth chapter centers on euphemism and Politeness Principle. The last chapter concludes the whole thesis. Appropriate use of English euphemism can contribute a lot to successful message exchange.Key Words: euphemism; social functions; Politeness Principle; face1. IntroductionThere is a humor: Once a Paris tourist resided in UK. A landlady told him sadlythat, “My husband has just passed to the other side.” The guest looked from thefence of the garden but saw no one, feeling confused. The landlady explained: “Imean he’s kicked the bucket.” The guest comforted her that: “I hope his footwill be better soon.” The landlady felt unintelligibly and said: “No, he wasn’t here, he snuffed it… you know.” The guest wondered and said: “But you’vegot electricity here.”The reasons why the guest didn’t answer properly are that he didn’t realizethat the landlady used euphemism, nor did he understand the “conversational implicature” of euphemism. What the landlady wanted to say is that her husbanddied.The word euphemism comes from the Greek word “euphemos”, meaning"auspicious/good/fortunate speech" which in turn is derived from the Greek root---words eu, "good/well" + pheme, "speech/speaking". The eupheme was originally aword or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spokenaloud (Such as taboo). The primary examples of taboo words requiring the use ofa euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as Persephone, Hecate,Nemesis or Yahweh. By speaking only words favorable to the gods or spirits, thespeaker attempted to produce good fortune by remaining in good favor with them.“Euphemism is defined in the New Edition of the Oxford Concise Dictionary (1976)as ‘Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or directone; expression thus substituted.’ IN Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (1973)the definition reads, ‘Substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expressionfor one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant.’”Euphemism is an important rhetorical means in English. It plays an importantrole in people’s daily communication. It is not only a cultural phenomenon, but also a social phenomenon. It just likes a mirror, which reflectssome social and psychological phenomena.2.Features of euphemism2.1 Indirect and implicitThe most important character of euphemism is indirect and implicit. Euphemism always gives people hints in a roundabout way. We can infer the deeper meaning and intention from the context. For example, when someone is ill, we always say he is under the weather. If someone is mad, we say he is soft in mind.2.2 UniversalityUniversality is something that is well-known and accepted by all of the people. Though euphemism is indirect and it doesn’t come straight to the point, people can easily infer its deeper implication. Some taboos connected with sex, death, or body functions are replaced by euphemisms. And the public has accepted this kind of use. For example, when we refer to death, we seldom say “die”. We use the expression “pass away”.2.3 The feature of timesThe changes of language depend on the need and changes of the society. And euphemism undergoes a process of metabolism. It bears a marked brand of times. For example, “‘She is pregnant’ has many different euphemistic expressions in different eras.(1) She has canceled all her social engagements. (1856)(2) She is in an interesting condition. (1880)(3) She is in a delicate condition. (1895)(4) She is knitting little bootees. (1910)(5) She is in a family way. (1920)(6) She is expecting. (1935)(7) She is pregnant. (1956)”But after 1960s, euphemisms of pregnant develop slowly because in modern times, people are not so implicit. They always mention things directly. And now, the phenomenon of pregnant is a cheerful thing. People will not be shy when mentioning it.3.Pragmatic functions of euphemism3.1 Taboo function“Taboo is the main psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is the avoidance of the unpleasant, inelegant things. A famous sociolinguist Mr. Chen Yuan once said: ‘Generally speaking, the coming into being of euphemism all begins from taboo.’ From the origin of euphemism, we can see that taboo is the first function of euphemism. Euphemism has been using for a long time, and it is closely related to taboo. In fact, euphemism dates back to the language taboo in the early period of human civilization. When people try to avoid and give up taboo words, they have to find another word to replace this vacancy at the same time. Hence, people created euphemism.”There are some taboo things, such as birth, death, funeral, sex, nakedness, defecation, and urinate. If they are expressed directly, they are called taboo words and the feelings they give us are vulgar, crude and harsh, whereas if they are expressed indirectly, they are called euphemism, and the impressions they made on us are elegant, implicit and polite. The evading function of euphemism also works today. Some taboo notions cannot be easily removed from people’s mind. Though science and technology are highly developed today, the word “death”is the taboo words to all nations. Thus there are a lot of euphemisms related with it. “Such as pass away, answer the final call, be asleep in Jesus, be safe in the arms of Jesus, be at rest, be called to God, be home and free, be in Abraham’s bosom, cross the River Jordan, final sleep, go home, go to meet one’s maker, go to one’s own place, join one’s ancestors, join the great majority, return to dust, with God, be no longer with us, pay the debt of nature, tick the bucket, etc.”“Among those, ‘one-way-ticket’ is the synonym of ‘die’. It reflects the speaker’s experience of life. Life is just like travel. People set out to travel, but when they arrive to the termination, they cannot go back. In the past, people often used graveyard to express the place where the dead sleep peacefully. But the associations it gives us are horrified and gloomy. So now, people use funeral home and memorial park to replace them. In such a way, it comforts people.”3.2 Polite functionPolite function of euphemism is to avoid inelegant things and make people feel pleasant. As Joanna Channell put in her book Vague Language “Vagueness is usedas one way of adhering to the politeness rules for a particular culture, and ofnot threatening face.” It means that in real life, when people meet with some unpleasant things or behaviors, they usually choose some vague expressions toavoid making bold or hurting other’s feeling----to use euphemism.It is harsh to say someone is deaf, so people use “auditory-impaired” toreplace it. They sound more gracefully. “When English-speakers refer to the appearance, they don’t use the word ‘ugly’ or ‘awful’, which has strong derogatory sense. Instead, they use the word ‘plain-looking’ or ‘not pretty’.”Westerners are sensitive to age. In their opinion, “old” equals to “useless”in some extent. In order not to hurt the feeling and self-esteem of the old, “oldmen” are replaced by “senior citizens” or “seasoned men”. For the word “senior”has many meanings. Except “older”, it also means higher in rank or authority.And the word “seasoned” means experienced.3.3 Tactical functionIf a same meaning is expressed in many different ways, their effects areentirely different. This is what we called the art of speaking. If we apply thisstrategy to our daily life, our life will be more colorful.For example, on theplane, there are some bags that can be used by the passengers to shoot his cookies.People don’t print the words “vomit bag” on the surface of the bag. Instead,they use the words “for motion discomfort”. And the result proved that the vomit phenomenon has reduced. Because compared with the former words, the word “formotion discomfort” prevents the passengers from vomiting when in a state of airsickness. This is the tactical function of euphemism.By contrary, if we use euphemism inappropriately, the result would be worse.Try to compare the following two statements:I am an old cripple, drawing an old-age pension, working hard to raise vast quantities of vegetables on an allotment andwell aware that, one of these days, I shall die.If, however, I listen to the voice of officialdom, it turns out that I am a disadvantaged senior citizen, registered as disabled, drawing a retirementpension, renting a leisure garden and, presumably, immortal because I shall neverdie--- I shall merely pass away.We can see that in the first statement, the author talks directly about his lifestatus. The second statement is that the government officials make a survey ofthe hardship of citizens. They try to cover the facts by using euphemisms.4.Euphemism and politeness4.1 Euphemism and interpersonal communicationEuphemism has been widely used in the real human communication. It can beregarded as a kind of polite terms .In primitive and traditional society, tabooand euphemism are the two sides of a coin. They are used for social control andreligious control. And in modern English, there are a number of words connectedwith holy, sex, body organ and body function. So when people’s topic refers tothose, they have to find euphemisms to replace them. They often use some vague language to avoid mentioning them directly.4.2 Politeness and face-threatening theoryThe main function of euphemism is polite function. Thus, the main characterof euphemism is polite. Politeness plays an important role in human communication.It oils human relationships. So euphemism accords with politeness will acceleratehuman communication.5.Euphemism and Politeness PrincipleFrom the above, we know that euphemism has something to do with politeness.We can associate politeness with Politeness Principle.5.1 Leech’s politeness principle“Generally speaking, most of the euphemisms accord with conversationalprinciple, especially politeness principle. Leech’s maxims of the PolitenessPrinciple tend to go in pairs as follows:(1)Tact Maxim :a.Minimize cost to other;b. Maximize benefit to other.Some examples : a、If you keep this diet, you’ll be on the heavy side.(c.f.: If you keep on eating too much, you’ll become very fat.)b、Thank you for your kind hospitality.(c.f.: Thank you for your delicious food.)(2)Approbation Maxim:a.Minimize dispraise of other;b. Maximize praise of other.Some examples: a、He is a senior citizen now.(c.f.: He is an old man now.)b、Cao Yu is a Shakespeare of China.(c.f.: Cao Yu is the best playwright of China.)(3)Modesty Maxim :a.Minimize praise of self;b. Maximize dispraise of self.Some examples: a、This is a token of my regard for you.(c.f.: This is a present for you.)b、Your praise is the highest honor for me.(c.f.: Thank you for your praise.)Leech ties politeness to the relationship between both parties and the language used. He claims that “static” feature, such as social distance, interact with “dynamic” features, such as the kind of illocutionary demand the speaker is making on the maker, to produce an appropriate degree of politeness. The core of his politeness is to minimize the expression of impolite benefits.5.2 Polite function and Politeness PrinciplePolite function is the basic social function of euphemism. And Politeness Principle shows this function. Euphemism always abides by the Politeness Principle. In such a case, euphemism can make people’s relationship more harmonious. Butthere are also some exceptions. Euphemisms of military do not accord with Politeness principle most of the time.5.3 Politeness Principle and the cooperative PrincipleThe Politeness Principle shows equal and friendly relationships between people in the society. It demands that in communication, the speaker should cooperate with the hearer. The two parties use euphemisms to replace harsh words because it can meet the psychological needs of face-want. And the language used by the two parties should be appropriate. Generally speaking, the appropriateness of the speech is closely related with euphemism. However, “The Maxim of Relevance” of Grice’s “Cooperative Principle” limits the choice of euphemism. He suggests that in communication, the reply of the hearer should be closely related to the speech of the speaker. In the process of communication, the euphemisms used just now should be connected with the primary language symbols. In such case, it will provide a clue to the hearer so that he can understand the connotation of the speech. This principle provides a lot of standard conversational implicatures. In a word, the two parties can understand the intention of each other from the context. A: How is John doing with his study at school?B: He’s a machine.Here, from the literal meaning of B's reply, he seems haven’t answer A’s question. But at least, his answer violates Quality Maxim and RelationMaxim. We know that though B’s answer doesn’t cooperate with A’s question, we can still understand B’s meaning by the deeper implication of his speech. First, we should suppose that this conversation tally with Cooperative Principle. Second, we can guess the implication between machine and study. At last, we can infer that John is hard-working. Thus, if the utterance is not relevant with each other, we can reason. “Unlike presuppositions and entailments, implicatures are inferences that cannot be made from isolated utterances. They are dependent on the context of the utterance and the shared knowledge between the speaker and the hearer.”6. ConclusionEuphemism is an appropriate language form created by people to achieve an ideal communicative effect in the social interactions. “Enrighr D.J. stated that ‘If euphemism doesn’t exist, the movement of the world will stop and it will be filled with hatred.” Nearly no one can live without euphemism.Euphemism is not only a social phenomenon, but also a lingual phenomenon. The formation of euphemism is the result of social factors and psychological factors. From the day of its birth, there are countless ties between euphemism and the social culture. Euphemism develops while the society develops. Euphemism is a mirror. We can learn the values and moral concepts of the society. Euphemism that accords with Politeness Principle oils human communication because polite function is the main function of Politeness principle. If we make good use of this language form, it will accelerate and facilitate human communication. People’s interpersonal relations will be more harmonious. We can make full use of euphemism and make our life more colorful.References:1.李国南. 辞格与词汇 [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社,2001.2.胡春梅. 论委婉语的构成及功能[J]. 浙江教育学院学报,2005,1.3.刘纯豹. 英语委婉语词典[Z]. 北京: 商务印书馆,2001.4.吴祥云. 委婉语的社会功用[J]. 昭通师范高等专科学校学报,2004,2.5.Joanna Channell. Vague Language [M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000,6.6.李鑫华. 英语修辞格详论[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000.7.李树德.冯奇. 英语修辞简明教程[M]. 上海:复旦大学出版社,2003,10.8.Jean Stilwell Peccei. Pragmatics [M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2000,8.10。
语言学纲要试题5
语言学概要试题5一、填空题（每空1分，共8分）1.在各种信息传递形式中，（）是第一性的、最基本的手段。
2.按照词法结构类型，语言可以分为孤立语、（）、（）和复综语。
3.最小的语法单位是（）。
4.语言发生接触的前提条件是（）。
5. 世界语是由波兰医生（）提出来的。
6. 音位的演变以（）为单位。
7.“戏子”现称“演员”，“金陵”现称“南京”，这属于（）。
二、单项选择（每空2分，共14分）1．从自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位是（）。
A．元音 B．辅音 C．音素 D．音位2. 关于元音和辅音的区别的描述，（）是正确的。
A．元音发音时间短暂，辅音发音时间较长。
B．辅音发音响亮，元音发音不响亮。
C．发辅音气流受阻，发元音气流不受阻。
D．发元音和辅音发音器官的各个部位均衡紧张。
3. 我们在念"老虎"时，通常要把"老"念成阳平，这种变化叫做（）。
A．同化 B．异化 C．弱化 D．脱落4.下列各组词中全都属于复合词的一组是（）A．大学、人民、（英）readerB.劳动、阿姨、（英）railwayC.瓶子、教室、（英）unhappyD.道路、材料、（英）classroom5.现代汉语普通话中的“花儿”是（）A.单纯词B.派生词C.复合词D.语素6.以下哪一点表明词义发展具有一定系统性和规则性（）A．词义随着社会的发展而发展B．基本词汇变化慢，一般词汇变化快C．具有相同或相近语义的词倾向于出现相同的变化D．词义可以扩大、缩小或转移7.确定语言之间的亲属关系的主要依据是（）A．系统的语音对应关系B．地理上邻近C．语言使用者的民族相同D．有着相同的语法结构三、名词解释（每题4分，共20分）1.语音四要素2.格3.多义词4.语气5. 地域方言四、问答题（每题6分，共30分）1.为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？2. 怎样认识理解划分音位的原则？3. 结合具体语言事实说说如何区分词和短语。
英语专业社会语言学论文 socialinguistics
社会语言学论文A Brief Analysis of Gender Differences in Language******学号：************院系：外国语学院班级：英语1101指导教师：***二〇一四年五月二十三日A Brief Analysis of Gender Differences in LanguageAbstractSociolinguistics is the descriptive study that concentrates on the study of how language is used, and the effects of language use on society. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, for instance, ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, etc. With regard to this paper, the emphasis will be put onto the differences in the actual speech of different gender. We can classify the gender differences in language into two categories. The first category is mainly about sexism in language, as for this category, we mainly focus on how speakers demonstrate their different cultural attitudes toward different genders. The second category is about the differences in the actual speech of men and women.In the first part, I will make a brief introduction about sociolinguistics and gender differences in language. In the second part, it will concern the categories of gender differences in language and previous study of gender differences in language. The third part concentrates on the approach of the analysis. The fourth is about the data collection and research methodology. The fifth part analyzes the differences of the speech between men and women from three perspectives— the purpose of the speech, the topic of the conversation and the mode of the speech. The final part comes to the conclusion about the gender differences in language.Key words: Gender differences, sociolinguistics, analysisMain Body1、IntroductionThe knowledge of gender differences in language is very helpful for language learners, and gender differences may exist not only one but all languages. Men and women, on average, tend to use slightly different language styles. These differences tend to be quantitative rather than qualitative. That is, to say that women make more minimal responses than men is akin to saying that men are taller than women. The initial identification of a women's register was by Robin Lakoff in 1975, who argued that the style of language served to maintain women's role in society. A later refinement of this argument was that gender differences in language reflected a power difference. However, both these perspective have the language style of men as normative, implying that women's style is inferior. More recently, Deborah Tannen has compared gender differences in language as more similar to 'cultural' differences. Comparing conversational goals, she argued that men have a report style, aiming to communicate factual information, whereas women have a rapport style, more concerned with building and maintaining relationships. Such differences are pervasive across mediums, including face-to-face conversation, written essays of primary school children, email, and even toilet graffiti. Communication styles are always a product of context, and as such, gender differences tend to be most pronounced in single-gender groups. One explanation for this, is that people accommodate their language towards the style of the person they are interacting with. Thus, in a mixed-gender group, gender differences tend to be less pronounced. A similarly important observation is that this accommodation is usually towards the language style, not the gender of the person. That is, a polite and empathic male will tend to be accommodated to on the basis of their being polite and empathic, rather than their being male.All in all, gender differences can be reflected in many aspects in our daily life, we should pay more attention to it, thus we can avoid many misunderstandings between men and women.2. Literature ReviewCategories of Gender Differences in LanguageAccording to Wolfson, the research about language and sex can be divided into two categories. The first category is about sexism in language and the ways in which speakers demonstrate their different cultural attitudes toward men and women. Two areas of sexism in English have been well-studied. One is that females are excluded from mention in English because the generic he/man problem. Men are regarded as the representatives of all human beings and their speech is the standard, while women are seen as inferior and secondary in society. The second is that females are give negative treatment in society. Bad words in our daily is always related to female words. Female words are often used to insult a male, whereas male words are usually used to compliment female.The second category is about the differences in the actual speech of men and women. The formation of these differences in language may have historical, physiological, social and psychological factors. Lakoff (1973) was one of the early articles to deal with the issue of differences in men’s and women’s speech. She has concluded six major characteristics of women’s speech: lexical choice, question intonation in statements, hedges which includes tag questions and statement modifiers which remove assertive force, emphatic modifiers and intonational emphasis, hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation and superpolite forms.3. Theoretical FrameworkThe contrast analysis of male and female language in daily conversation concerns many aspects, such as the topic of the conversation, the mode of the conversation and so on. The differences of the speech between men and women may result from their conception of value, their hobby and their interest etc. They hold different opinions according to the same matter. So we can refer to the ethnography of speaking in describing the gender differences in language. Ethnography refers to theinvestigation of cultures using a particular methodology, that of participant observation. The ethnography of speaking proposed by Dell Hymes in 1962.…The ethnography of speaking is concerned with the situations and uses, the patterns and functions, of speaking as an activity in its own right. (Hymes 1962:101) This ethnographic framework takes into account the various factors that are involved in speaking. An ethnography of a communicative event is a description of all the factors that are relevant in understanding how that particular communicative event achieves its objectives. (Wardhaugh1998)Conversation means to exchange ideas through interaction, so we can also employ the approach of interactional sociolinguistics—rapport talk proposed by Deborah Tannen (1984,1982) to analyze the gender differences in language. Tannen (1990a) has described the characteristics of men and women’s speech from nine dimensions: intimacy-independence, connection-status, inclusive-exclusive, relationship-information, rapport-report, community-contest, problems-solutions, novice-expert and listening-lecturing. From the description, we can conclude that women’s speech tends to be solidarity, yet men’s speech tends to be independent.4. Research MethodologyThere is a binary distinction between qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative research is inductive, subjective, ungeneralisable, soft, process and verification oriented, hypothesis-driven, and hypothesis generating research, while quantitative research is deductive, objective, generalisable, hard, outcome and discovery oriented, data-driven and hypothesis testing research.In this paper, I employ the quantitative and descriptive methodology to discuss the differences of the speech between men and women. Firstly, the characteristics of women and men’s speech are collected. Secondly, the differences are described through the collection.5. Contrast Analysis of Speech of Men and Women in Daily ConversationThe speech of women differs from the speech of men in daily conversation. Men and women differ in the kinds of language they use because men and women often fill distinctly different roles in society. We can analyze the differences of the speech of men and women from many aspects, such as the purpose of the speech, the topics of the speech and the mode of the speech. Many of the differences may result from different socialization practices.5.1 The purpose of the conversationThe purpose of the women’s speech is to establish the rapport relationship among the members in the community. They try their best to become a member of the community. They want to keep intimate relationship through interaction. So in their speech, the main purpose is to express their feelings and listen to others. The style of their speech appears more obedient and negative.However, the purpose of men’s speech is task-oriented, they have a more analytical approach, so they try to solve problems and troubles through interaction. They seldom express their intimate feelings to others. They also want show their independence in the communication. So it is absolutely different from the purpose of the women’s conversation.5.2 The topic of the conversationThe topic of women’s conversation is different from that of men’s. The topic of the women’s conversation mainly concerns social life, emotion, this can not be separated from their position, profession, social status, and personality. Women’s speech is regarded as trivial and gossip-laden because in the speech community of women, they mainly discuss clothing, love, family, trifles in daily life, experience, emotion, food and drink, life’s troubles. The purpose of the speech is to show the intimate relationship with the addressees, and through the speech they want to reinforce their membership in the community.On the contrast, men show great interest in topics concerning business, politics, legal matters, sports, geography, economy and military etc., these aspects can reflect their solid position in society.6. ConclusionIt can never be denied that gender differences do exist in all languages. Since women and women play different role in social life, they will definitely employ the different skills or methods in their communication or conversation.Women’s speech is different from men’s speech in lexical choice, syntax and pragmatics in daily life. Like O’Barr and Atkins said, “women’s language ” would be more appropriately termed “powerless language”. It demonstrated to us that means this kind of language is less convincing, less intelligent, less competent, and less trustworthy, because women are more concerned about the emotion, intimacy, food, dress, relationship in conversation, they are always ready to share their happiness and sadness with people close to them or even strangers. However, men’s language is regarded as power because the controlling status in society, and what they are interested in is business, military, politics, sport and geography, they communicate with others in order to exchange ideas with them.After learned the sociolinguistics as well as this brief analysis of the gender differences in language, I came to realize that, as a language learner, we should not only learn the basic knowledge about language, but also know the culture of the language. What’s more, I realize that the gender differences in language can never be neglected in language learning for the essential role it plays.Reference1.Nessa Wolfson. Perspectiv e: Sociolinguistics and TESOL, Heinle & Heinle Publishers2.赵蓉晖.《语言与性别：口语的社会语言学研究》.上海外语教育出版社3.陈琳. 《英语中女性特点及其发展趋势探究》.《语文学刊》. 2010年第10期4.杨永林. 《社会语言学研究》.上海外语教育出版社20045.胡文仲.《超越文化的屏障》.外语教学与研究出版社。
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What Ihave learned from linguistics
What is linguistics? It is a big question to answer, but shortly speaking, it is the scientific study of language, and itstudies the language of all human being. When I first acknowledged that, I just thought it was funny and had no significance to learn such a so called scientific science. While it is not untilI finished reading those important part of my text book, I realized there is a universe in linguistics.
It is complicated. It will be wise to distinguish language from linguistics. Here, language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols designed for human communication. Before I attached to linguistics, I always thought that linguistics was another expression of language. But from the point of definition, they are totally different. Language has some features. Arbitrariness makes it potentially creative; duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge; creativity tells its potential to create endless sentences; displacement enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication,; and it gives human being the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. What’s more, if we want to know more about language itself, we have to know its seven functions: informative, interpersonal function, performativity, emotion, phatic communication, recreational, metalingual.
Frankly, linguistics is abstruse. For me and most of us, it refers another esoteric science when we first touched it. While after teachers’ explain, we know that linguistics can be divided into some main branches. First is phonetics. It studies speech sounds, including the productionof speech, and also provide methods for their description, classification and transcription. In order to have a well understand of phonetics, we have to clarify phone and phoneme. The former is phonetic unit or segment, the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A“phoneme”is a phonological units, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. Assimilation rule should be studied; it is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. The second is phonology. It is the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. The next is morphology. It is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and ward-formation processes, basic meaningful elements. In this part we need be careful for morphemes and its types. Furthermore, we should focus on those structures that constructed words. The fourth is syntax; it studies the principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. There are two branches left, one is semantics and another is pragmatics. Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language; it is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also on the levels of language below the word and above it. Pragmatics studies the meaning in context, and answers the question which is “what do we do when we use language?”
In those branches, it is pragmatics that I am interested in. From the study of pragmatics, I learned the theory of conversational implicature. It means “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”T here are four categories of maxims attached: quantity, quality, relation, and manner. Those are useful in our daily life conversation.
As it is said in the text book, each part of those branches is science. But they are not mature. There are a lot of works need to be done. Although I can only understand some of linguistics, to be specifically, it is very important for my study of English.。