Principle of structure dependency
软件设计的重要原则
软件设计的重要原则软件设计的重要原则有以下几个：1. 单一职责原则（Single Responsibility Principle，SRP）：一个类或模块只负责一项功能，保持职责的单一性，提高代码的可读性和可维护性。
2. 开放封闭原则（Open-Closed Principle，OCP）：软件实体（类、模块、函数等）应该对扩展开放，对修改关闭，通过抽象化和接口化将变化封装起来，使得软件的设计和扩展更加灵活和可靠。
3. 里氏替换原则（Liskov Substitution Principle，LSP）：任何基类可以被其派生类替代，即派生类可以在不破坏原有功能的基础上添加新的功能，保持软件的功能完整性和一致性。
4. 依赖倒置原则（Dependency Inversion Principle，DIP）：高层模块不应该依赖于低层模块，两者应该依赖于抽象；抽象不应该依赖于具体实现，具体实现应该依赖于抽象。
通过倒置依赖关系，使得系统更加灵活、扩展性更好。
5. 接口隔离原则（Interface Segregation Principle，ISP）：客户端不应该依赖于它不需要的接口，尽量将接口拆分为小而专门的接口，避免一个接口过于庞大而臃肿。
6. 迪米特法则（Law of Demeter，LoD）：一个对象应该对其他对象尽可能少的了解，只与直接的朋友们通信。
减少对象间的耦合度，提高代码的可复用性和可维护性。
7. 最少知识原则（Least Knowledge Principle，LKP）：一个模块或对象不应该知道太多关于其他模块或对象的细节，只与最近的朋友们通信，减少模块间的依赖关系。
这些原则通过遵循可以帮助设计出高内聚、低耦合、易扩展、易维护的软件系统。
前端架构设计原则
前端架构设计原则前端架构设计是指在开发前端应用程序时，为了确保程序的稳定性、可维护性和可扩展性，所需遵循的一系列设计原则。
这些原则可以帮助开发者在编写代码时做出正确的决策，从而更好地组织和管理前端应用程序的代码。
下面是一些常见的前端架构设计原则：一、单一职责原则单一职责原则（Single Responsibility Principle，SRP）是指一个类或模块应该有且只有一个引起它变化的原因。
在前端开发中，这意味着每个组件或模块应该只负责一个明确的功能，而不是承担过多的责任。
这样可以使代码更加清晰、易于维护和测试。
二、开放封闭原则开放封闭原则（Open-Closed Principle，OCP）是指一个软件实体应该对扩展开放，对修改封闭。
在前端开发中，这意味着我们应该使用可扩展的架构，使得我们可以在不修改原有代码的情况下添加新的功能或模块。
这样可以减少代码的耦合性，提高代码的可维护性。
三、依赖倒置原则依赖倒置原则（Dependency Inversion Principle，DIP）是指高层模块不应该依赖于低层模块，二者都应该依赖于抽象。
在前端开发中，这意味着我们应该使用依赖注入等技术，将具体的实现细节与高层模块解耦，从而提高代码的可测试性和可维护性。
四、接口隔离原则接口隔离原则（Interface Segregation Principle，ISP）是指客户端不应该强迫依赖于它们不使用的接口。
在前端开发中，这意味着我们应该将大型接口拆分成多个小型接口，以满足不同组件或模块的需求。
这样可以减少代码的冗余性，提高代码的可复用性。
五、迪米特法则迪米特法则（Law of Demeter，LoD）是指一个对象应该对其他对象有尽可能少的了解。
在前端开发中，这意味着我们应该尽量减少组件或模块之间的直接依赖关系，而是通过中间件进行通信。
这样可以降低代码的耦合性，提高代码的可扩展性和可维护性。
六、组合优于继承原则组合优于继承原则（Composition over Inheritance）是指在设计类之间的关系时，应该优先考虑使用组合而不是继承。
自然语言处理及计算语言学相关术语中英对译表
自然语言处理及计算语言学相关术语中英对译表abbreviation 缩写[省略语]ablative 夺格(的)abrupt 突发音accent 口音/{Phonetics}重音accusative 受格（的）acoustic phonetics 声学语音学acquisition 习得action verb 动作动词active 主动语态active chart parser 活动图句法剖析程序active knowledge 主动知识active verb 主动动词actor-action-goal 施事(者)-动作-目标actualization 实现(化)acute 锐音address 地址{信息科学}/称呼（语）{语言学} adequacy 妥善性adjacency pair 邻对adjective 形容词adjunct 附加语[附加修饰语]adjunction 加接adverb 副词adverbial idiom 副词词组affective 影响的affirmative 肯定（的；式）affix 词缀affixation 加缀affricate 塞擦音agent 施事agentive-action verb 施事动作动词agglutinative 胶着（性）agreement 对谐AI (artificial intelligence) 人工智能[人工智能]AI language 人工智能语言[人工智能语言]Algebraic Linguistics 代数语言学algorithm 算法[算法]alienable 可分割的alignment 对照[多国语言文章词；词组；句子翻译的] allo- 同位-allomorph 同位语素allophone 同位音位alpha notation alpha 标记alphabetic writing 拼音文字alternation 交替alveolar 齿龈音ambiguity 歧义ambiguity resolution 歧义消解ambiguous 歧义American structuralism 美国结构主义analogy 类推analyzable 可分析的anaphor 照应语[前方照应词]animate 有生的A-not-A question 正反问句antecedent 先行词anterior 舌前音anticipation 预期(音变)antonym 反义词antonymy 反义A-over-A A-上-A 原则apposition 同位语appositive construction 同位结构appropriate 恰当的approximant 无擦通音approximate match 近似匹配arbitrariness 任意性archiphoneme 大音位argument 论元[变元]argument structure 论元结构[变元结构] arrangement 配列array 数组articulatory configuration 发音结构articulatory phonetics 发音语音学artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能[人工智能] artificial language 人工语言ASCII 美国标准信息交换码aspect 态[体]aspirant 气音aspiration 送气assign 指派assimilation 同化association 关联associative phrase 联想词组asterisk 标星号ATN (augmented transition network) 扩充转移网络attested 经证实的attribute 属性attributive 属性auditory phonetics 听觉语音学augmented transition network 扩充转移网络automatic document classification 自动文件分类automatic indexing 自动索引automatic segmentation 自动切分automatic training 自动训练automatic word segmentation 自动分词automaton 自动机autonomous 自主的auxiliary 助动词axiom 公理baby-talk 儿语back-formation 逆生构词(法)backtrack 回溯Backus-Naur Form 巴科斯诺尔形式[巴科斯诺尔范式] backward deletion 逆向删略ba-construction 把─字句balanced corpus 平衡语料库base 词基Bayesian learning 贝式学习Bayesian statistics 贝式统计behaviorism 行为主义belief system 信念系统benefactive 受益（格；的）best first parser 最佳优先句法剖析器bidirectional linked list 双向串行bigram 双连词bilabial 双唇音bilateral 双边的bilingual concordancer 双语关键词前后文排序程序binary feature 双向特征[二分征性]binding 约束bit 位[二进制制;比特]biuniqueness 双向唯一性blade 舌叶blend 省并词block 封阻[封杀]Bloomfieldian 布隆菲尔德(学派)的body language 肢体语言Boolean lattice 布尔网格[布尔网格]borrow 借移Bottom-up 由下而上bottom-up parsing 由下而上剖析bound 附着（的）bound morpheme 附着语素[黏着语素]boundary marker 界线标记boundary symbol 界线符号bracketing 方括号法branching 分枝法breadth-first search 广度优先搜寻[宽度优先搜索]breath group 换气单位breathy 气息音的buffer 缓冲区byte 字节CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) 计算机辅助教学CALL (computer assisted language learning) 计算机辅助语言学习canonical 典范的capacity 能力cardinal 基数的cardinal vowels 基本元音case 格位case frame 格位框架Case Grammar 格位语法case marking 格位标志CAT (computer assisted translation) 计算机辅助翻译cataphora 下指Categorial Grammar 范畴语法Categorial Unification Grammar 范畴连并语法[范畴合一语法]causative 使动causative verb 使役动词causativity 使役性centralization 央元音化chain 炼chart parsing 表式剖析[图表句法分析]checked 受阻的checking 验证Chinese character code 中文编码[汉字代码]Chinese character code for information interchange 中文信息交换码[汉字交换码] Chinese character coding input method 中文输入法[汉字编码输入]choice 选择Chomsky hierarchy 杭士基阶层[Chomsky 层次结构]citation form 基本形式CKY algorithm (Cocke-Kasami-Younger) CKY 算法classifier 类别词cleft sentence 分裂句click 啧音clitic 附着词closed world assumption 封闭世界假说cluster 音群Cocke-Kasami-Younger algorithm CKY 算法coda 音节尾code conversion 代码变换cognate 同源（的；词）Cognitive Linguistics 认知语言学coherence 一致性cohesion 凝结性[黏着性;结合力]collapse 合并collective 集合的collocation 连用语[同现;搭配]combinatorial construction 合并结构combinatorial insertion 合并中插combinatorial word 合并词Combinatory Categorial Grammar 组合范畴语法comment 评论commissive 许诺[语行]common sense semantics 常识语意学Communication Theory 通讯理论[通讯论;信息论] Comparative Linguistics 比较语言学comparison 比较competence 语言知能compiler 编译器complement 补语complementary 互补complementary distribution 互补分布complementizer 补语标记complex predicate 复杂谓语complex stative construction 复杂状态结构complex symbol 复杂符号complexity 复杂度component 成分compositionality 语意合成性[合成性] compound word 复合词Computational Lexical Semantics 计算词汇语意学Computational Lexicography 计算词典编纂学Computational Linguistics 计算语言学Computational Phonetics 计算语音学Computational Phonology 计算声韵学Computational Pragmatics 计算语用学Computational Semantics 计算语意学Computational Syntax 计算句法学computer language 计算器语言computer-aided translation 计算机辅助翻译[计算器辅助翻译]computer-assisted instruction (CAI) 计算机辅助教学computer-assisted language learning 计算机辅助语言学习[计算器辅助语言学习] concatenation 串联concept classification 概念分类concept dependency 概念依存conceptual hierarchy 概念阶层concord 谐和concordance 关键词(前后文) 排序concordancer 关键词(前后文) 排序的程序concurrent parsing 并行句法剖析conditional decision 条件决定[条件决策]conjoin 连接conjunction 连接词(合取;逻辑积;"与";连词)conjunctive 连接的connected speech 连续语言Connectionist model 类神经网络模型Connectionist model for natural language 自然语言类神经网络模型[自然语言连接模型] connotation 隐涵意义consonant 子音[辅音]constituent 成分constituent structure tree 词组结构树constraint 限制constraint propagation 限制条件的传递[限定因素增殖]constraint-based grammar formalism 限制为本的语法形式Construct Grammar 句构语法content word 实词context 语境context-free language 语境自由语言[上下文无关语言]context-sensitive language 语境限定语言[上下文有关语言;上下文敏感语言] continuant 连续音continuous speech recognition 连续语音识别contraction 缩约control agreement principle 控制一致原理control structure 控制结构control theory 控制论convention 约定俗成[规约]convergence 收敛[趋同现象]conversational implicature 会话含义converse 相反（词;的）cooccurrence relation 共现关系[同现关系]co-operative principle 合作原则coordination 对称连接词[同等;并列连接]copula 系词co-reference 同指涉[互指]co-referential 同指涉coronal 前舌音corpora 语料库corpus 语料库Corpus Linguistics 语料库语言学corpus-based learning 语料库为本的学习correlation 相关性counter-intuitive 违反语感的courseware 课程软件[课件]coverb 动介词C-structure 成分结构data compression 数据压缩[数据压缩]data driven analysis 数据驱动型分析[数据驱动型分析]data structure 数据结构[数据结构]database 数据库[数据库]database knowledge representation 数据库知识表示[数据库知识表示] data-driven 数据驱动[数据驱动]dative 与格declarative knowledge 陈述性知识decomposition 分解deductive database 演译数据库[演译数据库]default 默认值[默认;缺省]definite 定指Definite Clause Grammar 确定子句语法definite state automaton 有限状态自动机Definite State Grammar 有限状态语法definiteness 定指degree adverb 程度副词degree of freedom 自由度deixis 指示delimiter 定界符号[定界符]denotation 外延denotic logic 符号逻辑dependency 依存关系Dependency Grammar 依存关系语法dependency relation 依存关系depth-first search 深度优先搜寻derivation 派生derivational bound morpheme 派生性附着语素Descriptive Grammar 描述型语法[描写语法]Descriptive Linguistics 描述语言学[描写语言学]desiderative 意愿的determiner 限定词deterministic algorithm 决定型算法[确定性算法] deterministic finite state automaton 决定型有限状态机deterministic parser 决定型语法剖析器[确定性句法剖析程序] developmental psychology 发展心理学Diachronic Linguistics 历时语言学diacritic 附加符号dialectology 方言学dictionary database 辞典数据库[词点数据库]dictionary entry 辞典条目digital processing 数字处理[数值处理]diglossia 双言digraph 二合字母diminutive 指小词diphone 双连音directed acyclic graph 有向非循环图disambiguation 消除歧义[歧义消除]discourse 篇章discourse analysis 篇章分析[言谈分析]discourse planning 篇章规划Discourse Representation Theory 篇章表征理论[言谈表示理论] discourse strategy 言谈策略discourse structure 言谈结构discrete 离散的disjunction 选言dissimilation 异化distributed 分布式的distributed cooperative reasoning 分布协调型推理distributed text parsing 分布式文本剖析disyllabic 双音节的ditransitive verb 双宾动词[双宾语动词;双及物动词] divergence 扩散[分化]D-M (Determiner-Measure) construction 定量结构D-N (determiner-noun) construction 定名结构document retrieval system 文件检索系统[文献检索系统] domain dependency 领域依存性[领域依存关系]double insertion 交互中插double-base 双基downgrading 降级dummy 虚位duration 音长{语音学}/时段{语法学/语意学}dynamic programming 动态规划Earley algorithm Earley 算法echo 回声句egressive 呼气音ejective 紧喉音electronic dictionary 电子词典elementary string 基本字符串[基本单词串]ellipsis 省略EM algorithm EM算法embedding 崁入emic 功能关系的empiricism 经验论Empty Category Principle 虚范畴原则[空范畴原理]empty word 虚词enclitics 后接成份end user 终端用户[最终用户]endocentric 同心的endophora 语境照应entailment 蕴涵entity 实体entropy 熵entry 条目episodic memory 情节性记忆epistemological network 认识论网络ergative verb 作格动词ergativity 作格性Esperando 世界语etic 无功能关系etymology 词源学event 事件event driven control 事件驱动型控制example-based machine translation 以例句为本的机器翻译exclamation 感叹exclusive disjunction 排它性逻辑“或”experiencer case 经验者格expert system 专家系统extension 外延external argument 域外论元extraposition 移外变形[外置转换]facility value 易度值feature 特征feature bundle 特征束feature co-occurrence restriction 特征同现限制[特性同现限制] feature instantiation 特征体现feature structure 特征结构[特性结构]feature unification 特征连并[特性合一]feedback 回馈felicity condition 妥适条件file structure 档案结构finite automaton 有限状态机[有限自动机]finite state 有限状态Finite State Morphology 有限状态构词法[有限状态词法]finite-state automata 有限状态自动机finite-state language 有限状态语言finite-state machine 有限状态机finite-state transducer 有限状态置换器flap 闪音flat 降音foreground information 前景讯息[前景信息]Formal Language Theory 形式语言理论Formal Linguistics 形式语言学Formal Semantics 形式语意学forward inference 前向推理[向前推理]forward-backward algorithm 前前后后算法frame 框架frame based knowledge representation 框架型知识表示Frame Theory 框架理论free morpheme 自由语素Fregean principle Fregean 原则fricative 擦音F-structure 功能结构full text searching 全文检索function word 功能词Functional Grammar 功能语法functional programming 函数型程序设计[函数型程序设计]functional sentence perspective 功能句子观functional structure 功能结构functional unification 功能连并[功能合一]functor 功能符fundamental frequency 基频garden path sentence 花园路径句GB (Government and Binding) 管辖约束geminate 重迭音gender 性Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar 概化词组结构语法[广义短语结构语法] Generative Grammar 衍生语法Generative Linguistics 衍生语言学[生成语言学]generic 泛指genetic epistemology 发生认识论genetive marker 属格标记genitive 属格gerund 动名词Government and Binding Theory 管辖约束理论GPSG (Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar) 概化词组结构语法[广义短语结构语法] gradability 可分级性grammar checker 文法检查器grammatical affix 语法词缀grammatical category 语法范畴grammatical function 语法功能grammatical inference 文法推论grammatical relation 语法关系grapheme 字素haplology 类音删略head 中心语head driven phrase structure 中心语驱动词组结构[中心词驱动词组结构]head feature convention 中心语特征继承原理[中心词特性继承原理]Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar 中心语驱动词组结构律heteronym 同形heuristic parsing 经验式句法剖析Heuristics 经验知识hidden Markov model 隐式马可夫模型hierarchical structure 阶层结构[层次结构]holophrase 单词句homograph 同形异义词homonym 同音异义词homophone 同音词homophony 同音异义homorganic 同部位音的Horn clause Horn 子句HPSG (Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar) 中心语驱动词组结构语法human-machine interface 人机界面hypernym 上位词hypertext 超文件[超文本]hyponym 下位词hypotactic 主从结构的IC (immediate constituent) 直接成份ICG (Information-based Case Grammar) 讯息为本的格位语法idiom 成语[熟语]idiosyncrasy 特异性illocutionary 施为性immediate constituent 直接成份imperative 祈使句implicative predicate 蕴含谓词implicature 含意indexical 标引的indirect object 间接宾语indirect speech act 间接言谈行动[间接言语行为]Indo-European language 印欧语言inductional inference 归纳推理inference machine 推理机器infinitive 不定词[to 不定式]infix 中缀inflection/inflexion 屈折变化inflectional affix 屈折词缀information extraction 信息撷取information processing 信息处理[信息处理]information retrieval 信息检索Information Science 信息科学[信息科学; 情报科学]Information Theory 信息论[信息论]inherent feature 固有特征inherit 继承inheritance 继承inheritance hierarchy 继承阶层[继承层次]inheritance of attribute 属性继承innateness position 语法天生假说insertion 中插inside-outside algorithm 里里外外算法instantiation 体现instrumental (case) 工具格integrated parser 集成句法剖析程序integrated theory of discourse analysis 篇章分析综合理论[言谈分析综合理论] intelligence intensive production 知识密集型生产intensifier 加强成分intensional logic 内含逻辑Intensional Semantics 内涵语意学intensional type 内含类型interjection/exclamation 感叹词inter-level 中间成分interlingua 中介语言interlingual 中介语(的）interlocutor 对话者internalise 内化International Phonetic Association (IPA) 国际语音学会internet 因特网Interpretive Semantics 诠释性语意学intonation 语调intonation unit (IU) 语调单位IPA (International Phonetic Association) 国际语音学会IR (information retrieval) 信息检索IS-A relation IS-A 关系isomorphism 同形现象IU (intonation unit) 语调单位junction 连接keyword in context 上下文中关键词[上下文内关键词] kinesics 体势学knowledge acquisition 知识习得knowledge base 知识库knowledge based machine translation 知识为本之机器翻译knowledge extraction 知识撷取[知识题取]knowledge representation 知识表示KWIC (keyword in context) 关键词前后文[上下文内关键词] label 标签labial 唇音labio-dental 唇齿音labio-velar 软颚唇音LAD (language acquisition device) 语言习得装置lag 发声延迟language acquisition 语言习得language acquisition device 语言习得装置language engineering 语言工程language generation 语言生成language intuition 语感language model 语言模型language technology 语言科技left-corner parsing 左角落剖析[左角句法剖析]lemma 词元lenis 弱辅音letter-to-phone 字转音lexeme 词汇单位lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义lexical category 词类lexical conceptual structure 词汇概念结构lexical entry 词项lexical entry selection standard 选词标准lexical integrity 词语完整性Lexical Semantics 词汇语意学Lexical-Functional Grammar 词汇功能语法Lexicography 词典学Lexicology 词汇学lexicon 词汇库[词典;词库]lexis 词汇层LF (logical form) 逻辑形式LFG (Lexical-Functional Grammar) 词汇功能语法liaison 连音linear bounded automaton 线性有限自主机linear precedence 线性次序lingua franca 共通语linguistic decoding 语言译码linguistic unit 语言单位linked list 串行loan 外来语local 局部的localism 方位主义localizer 方位词locus model 轨迹模型locution 惯用语logic 逻辑logic array network 逻辑数组网络logic programming 逻辑程序设计[逻辑程序设计] logical form 逻辑形式logical operator 逻辑算子[逻辑算符]Logic-Based Grammar 逻辑为本语法[基于逻辑的语法] long term memory 长期记忆longest match principle 最长匹配原则[最长一致法] LR (left-right) parsing LR 剖析machine dictionary 机器词典machine language 机器语言machine learning 机器学习machine translation 机器翻译machine-readable dictionary (MRD) 机读辞典Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Markov chart 马可夫图Mathematical Linguistics 数理语言学maximum entropy 最大熵M-D (modifier-head) construction 偏正结构mean length of utterance (MLU) 语句平均长度measure of information 讯习测度[信息测度] memory based 根据记忆的mental lexicon 心理词汇库mental model 心理模型mental process 心理过程[智力过程;智力处理] metalanguage 超语言metaphor 隐喻metaphorical extension 隐喻扩展metarule 律上律[元规则]metathesis 语音易位Microlinguistics 微观语言学middle structure 中间式结构minimal pair 最小对Minimalist Program 微言主义MLU (mean length of utterance) 语句平均长度modal 情态词modal auxiliary 情态助动词modal logic 情态逻辑modifier 修饰语Modular Logic Grammar 模块化逻辑语法modular parsing system 模块化句法剖析系统modularity 模块性(理论)module 模块monophthong 单元音monotonic 单调monotonicity 单调性Montague Grammar 蒙泰究语法[蒙塔格语法] mood 语气morpheme 词素morphological affix 构词词缀morphological decomposition 语素分解morphological pattern 词型morphological processing 词素处理morphological rule 构词律[词法规则] morphological segmentation 语素切分Morphology 构词学Morphophonemics 词音学[形态音位学;语素音位学] morphophonological rule 形态音位规则Morphosyntax 词句法Motor Theory 肌动理论movement 移位MRD (machine-readable dictionary) 机读辞典MT (machine translation) 机器翻译multilingual processing system 多语讯息处理系统multilingual translation 多语翻译multimedia 多媒体multi-media communication 多媒体通讯multiple inheritance 多重继承multistate logic 多态逻辑mutation 语音转换mutual exclusion 互斥mutual information 相互讯息nativist position 语法天生假说natural language 自然语言natural language processing (NLP) 自然语言处理natural language understanding 自然语言理解negation 否定negative sentence 否定句neologism 新词语nested structure 崁套结构network 网络neural network 类神经网络Neurolinguistics 神经语言学neutralization 中立化n-gram n-连词n-gram modeling n-连词模型NLP (natural language processing) 自然语言处理node 节点nominalization 名物化nonce 暂用的non-finite 非限定non-finite clause 非限定式子句non-monotonic reasoning 非单调推理normal distribution 常态分布noun 名词noun phrase 名词组NP (noun phrase) completeness 名词组完全性object 宾语{语言学}/对象{信息科学}object oriented programming 对象导向程序设计[面向对向的程序设计] official language 官方语言one-place predicate 一元述语on-line dictionary 在线查询词典[联机词点]onomatopoeia 拟声词onset 节首音ontogeny 个体发生Ontology 本体论open set 开放集operand 操作数[操作对象]optimization 最佳化[最优化]overgeneralization 过度概化overgeneration 过度衍生paradigmatic relation 聚合关系paralanguage 附语言parallel construction 并列结构Parallel Corpus 平行语料库parallel distributed processing (PDP) 平行分布处理paraphrase 转述[释意;意译;同意互训]parole 言语parser 剖析器[句法剖析程序]parsing 剖析part of speech (POS) 词类particle 语助词PART-OF relation PART-OF 关系part-of-speech tagging 词类标注pattern recognition 型样识别P-C (predicate-complement) insertion 述补中插PDP (parallel distributed processing) 平行分布处理perception 知觉perceptron 感觉器[感知器]perceptual strategy 感知策略performative 行为句periphrasis 用独立词表达perlocutionary 语效性的permutation 移位Petri Net Grammar Petri 网语法philology 语文学phone 语音phoneme 音素phonemic analysis 因素分析phonemic stratum 音素层Phonetics 语音学phonogram 音标Phonology 声韵学[音位学;广义语音学] Phonotactics 音位排列理论phrasal verb 词组动词[短语动词]phrase 词组[短语]phrase marker 词组标记[短语标记]pitch 音调pitch contour 调形变化Pivot Grammar 枢轴语法pivotal construction 承轴结构plausibility function 可能性函数PM (phrase marker) 词组标记[短语标记] polysemy 多义性POS-tagging 词类标记postposition 方位词PP (preposition phrase) attachment 介词依附Pragmatics 语用学Precedence Grammar 优先级语法precision 精确度predicate 述词predicate calculus 述词计算predicate logic 述词逻辑[谓词逻辑]predicate-argument structure 述词论元结构prefix 前缀premodification 前置修饰preposition 介词Prescriptive Linguistics 规定语言学[规范语言学]presentative sentence 引介句presupposition 前提Principle of Compositionality 语意合成性原理privative 二元对立的probabilistic parser 概率句法剖析程序problem solving 解决问题program 程序programming language 程序设计语言[程序设计语言]proofreading system 校对系统proper name 专有名词prosody 节律prototype 原型pseudo-cleft sentence 准分裂句Psycholinguistics 心理语言学punctuation 标点符号pushdown automata 下推自动机pushdown transducer 下推转换器qualification 后置修饰quantification 量化quantifier 范域词Quantitative Linguistics 计量语言学question answering system 问答系统queue 队列radical 字根[词干;词根;部首;偏旁]radix of tuple 元组数基random access 随机存取rationalism 理性论rationalist (position) 理性论立场[唯理论观点]reading laboratory 阅读实验室real time 实时real time control 实时控制[实时控制]recursive transition network 递归转移网络reduplication 重迭词[重复]reference 指涉referent 指称对象referential indices 指标referring expression 指涉词[指示短语]register 缓存器[寄存器]{信息科学}/调高{语音学}/语言的场合层级{社会语言学} regular language 正规语言[正则语言]relational database 关系型数据库[关系数据库] relative clause 关系子句relaxation method 松弛法relevance 相关性Restricted Logic Grammar 受限逻辑语法resumptive pronouns 复指代词retroactive inhibition 逆抑制rewriting rule 重写规则rheme 述位rhetorical structure 修辞结构rhetorics 修辞学robust 强健性robust processing 强健性处理robustness 强健性schema 基朴school grammar 教学语法scope 范域[作用域;范围]script 脚本search mechanism 检索机制search space 检索空间searching route 检索路径[搜索路径]second order predicate 二阶述词segmentation 分词segmentation marker 分段标志selectional restriction 选择限制semantic field 语意场semantic frame 语意架构semantic network 语意网络semantic representation 语意表征[语义表示] semantic representation language 语意表征语言semantic restriction 语意限制semantic structure 语意结构Semantics 语意学sememe 意素Semiotics 符号学sender 发送者sensorimotor stage 感觉运动期sensory information 感官讯息[感觉信息] sentence 句子sentence generator 句子产生器[句子生成程序] sentence pattern 句型separation of homonyms 同音词区分sequence 序列serial order learning 顺序学习serial verb construction 连动结构set oriented semantic network 集合导向型语意网络[面向集合型语意网络] SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) 结构化通用标记语言shift-reduce parsing 替换简化式剖析short term memory 短程记忆sign 信号signal processing technology 信号处理技术simple word 单纯词situation 情境Situation Semantics 情境语意学situational type 情境类型social context 社会环境sociolinguistics 社会语言学software engineering 软件工程[软件工程]sort 排序speaker-independent speech recognition 非特定语者语音识别spectrum 频谱speech 口语speech act assignment 言语行为指定speech continuum 言语连续体speech disorder 语言失序[言语缺失]speech recognition 语音辨识speech retrieval 语音检索speech situation 言谈情境[言语情境]speech synthesis 语音合成speech translation system 语音翻译系统speech understanding system 语音理解系统spreading activation model 扩散激发模型standard deviation 标准差Standard Generalized Markup Language 标准通用标示语言start-bound complement 接头词state of affairs algebra 事态代数state transition diagram 状态转移图statement kernel 句核static attribute list 静态属性表statistical analysis 统计分析Statistical Linguistics 统计语言学statistical significance 统计意义stem 词干stimulus-response theory 刺激反应理论stochastic approach to parsing 概率式句法剖析[句法剖析的随机方法] stop 爆破音Stratificational Grammar 阶层语法[层级语法]string 字符串[串；字符串]string manipulation language 字符串操作语言string matching 字符串匹配[字符串] structural ambiguity 结构歧义Structural Linguistics 结构语言学structural relation 结构关系structural transfer 结构转换structuralism 结构主义structure 结构structure sharing representation 结构共享表征subcategorization 次类划分[下位范畴化] subjunctive 假设的sublanguage 子语言subordinate 从属关系subordinate clause 从属子句[从句;子句] subordination 从属substitution rule 代换规则[置换规则] substrate 底层语言suffix 后缀superordinate 上位的superstratum 上层语言suppletion 异型[不规则词型变化] suprasegmental 超音段的syllabification 音节划分syllable 音节syllable structure constraint 音节结构限制symbolization and verbalization 符号化与字句化synchronic 同步的synonym 同义词syntactic category 句法类别syntactic constituent 句法成分syntactic rule 语法规律[句法规则] Syntactic Semantics 句法语意学syntagm 句段syntagmatic 组合关系[结构段的;组合的] Syntax 句法Systemic Grammar 系统语法tag 标记target language 目标语言[目标语言]task sharing 课题分享[任务共享]tautology 套套逻辑[恒真式;重言式;同义反复] taxonomical hierarchy 分类阶层[分类层次] telescopic compound 套装合并template 模板temporal inference 循序推理[时序推理]temporal logic 时间逻辑[时序逻辑]temporal marker 时貌标记tense 时态terminology 术语text 文本text analyzing 文本分析text coherence 文本一致性text generation 文本生成[篇章生成]Text Linguistics 文本语言学text planning 文本规划text proofreading 文本校对text retrieval 文本检索text structure 文本结构[篇章结构]text summarization 文本自动摘要[篇章摘要] text understanding 文本理解text-to-speech 文本转语音thematic role 题旨角色thematic structure 题旨结构theorem 定理thesaurus 同义词辞典theta role 题旨角色theta-grid 题旨网格token 实类[标记项]tone 音调tone language 音调语言tone sandhi 连调变换top-down 由上而下[自顶向下]topic 主题topicalization 主题化[话题化]trace 痕迹Trace Theory 痕迹理论training 训练transaction 异动[处理单位]transcription 转写[抄写;速记翻译] transducer 转换器transfer 转移transfer approach 转换方法transfer framework 转换框架transformation 变形[转换] Transformational Grammar 变形语法[转换语法] transitional state term set 转移状态项集合transitivity 及物性translation 翻译translation equivalence 翻译等值性translation memory 翻译记忆transparency 透明性tree 树状结构[树]Tree Adjoining Grammar 树形加接语法[树连接语法] treebank 树图数据库[语法关系树库]trigram 三连词t-score t-数turing machine 杜林机[图灵机]turing test 杜林测试[图灵试验]type 类型type/token node 标记类型/实类节点type-feature structure 类型特征结构typology 类型学ultimate constituent 终端成分unbounded dependency 无界限依存underlying form 基底型式underlying structure 基底结构unification 连并[合一]Unification-based Grammar 连并为本的语法[基于合一的语法] Universal Grammar 普遍性语法universal instantiation 普遍例式universal quantifier 全称范域词unknown word 未知词[未定义词]unrestricted grammar 非限制型语法usage flag 使用旗标user interface 使用者界面[用户界面]Valence Grammar 结合价语法Valence Theory 结合价理论valency 结合价variance 变异数[方差]verb 动词verb phrase 动词组[动词短语]verb resultative compound 动补复合词verbal association 词语联想verbal phrase 动词组verbal production 言语生成vernacular 本地话V-O construction (verb-object) 动宾结构vocabulary 字汇vocabulary entry 词条vocal track 声道vocative 呼格voice recognition 声音辨识[语音识别]vowel 元音vowel harmony 元音和谐[元音和谐]waveform 波形weak verb 弱化动词Whorfian hypothesis Whorfian 假说word 词word frequency 词频word frequency distribution 词频分布word order 词序word segmentation 分词word segmentation standard for Chinese 中文分词规范word segmentation unit 分词单位[切词单位]word set 词集working memory 工作记忆[工作存储区]world knowledge 世界知识writing system 书写系统X-Bar Theory X标杠理论["x"阶理论]Zipf's Law 利夫规律[齐普夫定律]。
二语习得SecondLanguageAcquisition资料讲解
eg. watashiwa Nihonjin desu
第二语言习得的调查以参数的重新设定为主。例如说日语的人学英语就得重新设 定’中心参数’,使之从‘中心词为后’,调整至’中心词为先’。 79xx
Second Language Acquisition
UG principle The principle of structure-dependency（结构依存关系）which states
Second Language Acquisition
Implicit learning is coming to learn the underlying structure of a complex stimulus environment by a process which takes place naturally, simply and without conscious operations. Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where the individual makes and tests hypotheses.
第九章 普遍语法与二语习得研究.
三、普遍语法的“参数”
• 在“最简方案”中，“原则”体现在“计算模 块”（computational module）中，“参数”则 包含在“词库”（lexicon）中。 • 按照“最简方案” ，人类语言的核心是“词库” （lexicon）。 • “词库”由两部分构成： • “词汇语类”（lexical categories） • “功能语类”（functional categories）
普遍语法中 “结构依存原则”
• 普遍语法中 “结构依存原则”（the principle of structure dependency ）认为，语言 是以这样一种方式构成的，即主要由句子 中的词、语素等成分组成的“结构关系” 构成的。 • 一个句子可以切分为短语，短语还可以切 分为词或语素。但是，句子不是词、语素 或短语的简单的线性排列。词与词之间、 短语与短语之间存在着层级关系。
（2）“功能语类中”的“参数” 设置
• 按照最简方案的观点，“参数”设置包含在功能 语类中。 • 在功能语类中，“参数”设置主要表现为与功能 语类相关的“屈折特征”变化的强弱。 • 在法语中，屈折变化属于强特征，限定性动词必 须移位到“屈折短语”（IP）中心语的位置。 • 英语屈折形式变化属于弱特征，不需要提升动词 短语中的动词以获得时态等特征。
第三节 与第二语言习得相关的理 论问题
• 根据原则与参数的理论，第二语言习得研 究关注的不是这一理论本身，而是这些原 则和参数对第二语言学习者来说是否是 “可及”的。即所谓普遍语法的可及性问 题。 • 关于普遍语法是否可及主要有三种观点： • 完全可及、完全不可及、部分可及。
第三节 与第二语言习得相关的理 论问题
• Cook和Newson（1996:11）指出： • 结构依存可以作为语言的一条原则：句子成分的 移位，无论是构成被动句还是疑问句，或者其他 句子，这种移位都要考虑句子的结构关系，而不 是词与词之间的线性关系。” • 需要说明的是，这种结构依存原则并不是某些特 定语言的规则，而是适用于所有语言的一种语言 知识，这种知识反映了人类语言一种内在的心理 结构。
软件工程中的可扩展性设计原则
软件工程中的可扩展性设计原则在当今数字化时代，软件的需求和功能不断变化和增长。
为了应对这种变化，软件工程中的可扩展性设计变得至关重要。
可扩展性设计原则旨在构建能够轻松适应新需求、新功能和不断变化的业务环境的软件系统，而无需进行大规模的重构或重新开发。
一、开闭原则（OpenClosed Principle，OCP）开闭原则是可扩展性设计中最基础也最重要的原则之一。
它指出软件实体（类、模块、函数等）应该对扩展开放，对修改关闭。
这意味着当需要添加新的功能或行为时，我们应该通过扩展现有代码而不是修改现有代码来实现。
例如，假设我们有一个计算图形面积的类｀Shape`，它有一个方法｀calculateArea`。
如果我们后来需要添加一个新的图形类型（如三角形），我们不应该修改｀Shape` 类的现有代码，而是创建一个新的子类｀Triangle` 并在其中实现特定的面积计算逻辑。
这样做的好处是显而易见的。
首先，它减少了引入新错误的风险。
因为修改现有代码可能会影响到依赖于该代码的其他部分，从而导致意外的错误。
其次，它使得代码更易于维护和理解。
不同的功能和扩展被隔离在不同的模块或类中，提高了代码的清晰度和可管理性。
二、里氏替换原则（Liskov Substitution Principle，LSP）里氏替换原则是对继承关系的一种约束。
它指出子类必须能够替换其父类，并且在使用父类的地方使用子类不会产生任何错误或异常。
换句话说，如果一个程序使用了父类对象，那么将父类对象替换为子类对象时，程序的行为不应该发生改变。
这就要求子类不能削弱父类的功能，并且要保持父类的基本特性。
例如，如果有一个父类｀Bird` 具有｀fly` 方法，而子类｀Penguin`（企鹅）不能飞。
那么在使用｀Bird` 类的地方，如果用｀Penguin` 类的对象替换，就可能导致不符合预期的结果，这就违反了里氏替换原则。
遵循里氏替换原则有助于确保继承关系的正确性和稳定性，避免因为不当的继承导致代码的混乱和不可预测性。
举例说明软件设计7原则
举例说明软件设计7原则1. 单一职责原则（Single Responsibility Principle，SRP）一个类或模块应该只有一个改变的原因。
即，一个类或模块应该只有一个责任。
举例：一个数据处理类，它的职责是读取数据、处理数据并将结果返回。
如果将文件读取和数据处理的责任放在同一个类中，这违反了单一职责原则。
应该将文件读取和数据处理分别封装到两个单独的类中。
2. 开放封闭原则（Open-Closed Principle，OCP）软件实体（类，模块，函数等）应该对扩展开放，对修改封闭。
举例：一段代码用于计算员工的薪水，其中有一个计算基础薪水的函数。
如果需要增加一个新的员工类型，只需要创建一个新的类来实现员工的新薪水计算逻辑，而不需要修改原有的计算基础薪水的函数。
3. 里氏替换原则（Liskov Substitution Principle，LSP）子类型必须能够替换其基类型。
即，如果一个类B是类A的子类，那么在任何使用类A的地方都可以用类B来替换。
举例：有一个基类Animal，派生出子类Cat和Dog。
在一个方法中，如果传入一个Animal对象作为参数，应该能够接受任何Animal的子类对象作为参数。
4. 依赖倒置原则（Dependency Inversion Principle，DIP）高层模块不应该依赖于低层模块，二者都应该依赖于抽象。
抽象不应该依赖于细节，细节应该依赖于抽象。
举例：有一个Logger类用于记录日志，该类应该依赖于一个抽象的日志接口，而不应该直接依赖于具体的文件日志类。
这样，在需要更换日志实现方式时，只需要创建一个新的实现了日志接口的类，无需修改Logger类。
5. 接口隔离原则（Interface Segregation Principle，ISP）客户端不应该依赖于它不需要的接口。
一个类不应该强迫其客户端依赖于它们不需要的方法。
举例：有一个图形类，它有用于绘制线条、绘制矩形、绘制圆形的方法。
第二语言习得 考试复习题
第二语言习得期中考试复习题1. acquisition& learning➢The term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term “learning” is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language. Now most of the researchers use them interchangeably, irrespective of whether conscious or unconscious processes are involved2. incidental learning & intentional learning➢While reading for pleasure a reader does not bother to look up a new word in a dictionary, but a few pages later realizes what that word means, then incidental learning is said to have taken place.➢If a student is instructed to read a text and find out the meanings of unknown words, then it becomes an intentional learning activity. ngauage➢Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication .That is to say , language is systematic (rule-governed ), symbolic and social.nguage Acquisition Device➢The capacity to acquire one’s FIRST LANGUAGE , when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mech anism or apparatus.5.Contrastive analysis❖Under the influence of behaviorism, researchers of language teaching developed the method of contrastive analysis (CA) to study learner errors. Its original aim is to serve foreign language teaching.6.Error analysis❖Error analysis aims to 1) find out how well the learner knows a second language, 2) find out how the learner learns a second language, 3) obtain information on common difficulties in second language learning, and to 4) serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teaching materials (Corder, 1981).It is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language system s.7.interlanguage❖It refers to the language that the L2 learner produced .❖The language produced by the learner is a system in its own right.❖The language is a dynamic system, evolving over time.8.Krashen and His Monitor Model❖ 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis❖ 2. The Monitor Hypothesis❖ 3. The Natural Hypothesis❖ 4. The Input Hypothesis❖ 5. The Affective Filter Hypothsis9. input hypothesis❖Its claims : The learner improves and progresses along the “natural order” when s/he receives second language “input” that is one step beyond his or her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage “i”, then acquisition takes place when s/he is exposed to “Comprehensible Input” that belongs to level “i+1”.10. affective filter hypothesis❖The hypothesis is based on the theory of an affective filter, which states that successful second language acquisition depends on the learner’s feelings. Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.11.Shumann’s Acculturation Model❖This model of second language acquisition was formulated by John.H.Schumann(1978), and applies to the natural context of second language acquisition where a second language is acquired without any instruction in the environment. Schumann defines acculturation as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture or rather , the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group.12.Universal Grammar⏹The language faculty built into the human mind consisting of principles and parameters.⏹This is the universal grammar theory associated with Noam Chomsky.⏹Universal Grammar sees the knowledge of grammar in the mind as having two components: “principles＂that all languages have incommon and “parameters” on which they vary.13.M acLaughlin’s Information processing model☐SLA is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic processing.14.Anderson’s ACT☐This is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA☐Also emphasizes the automatization process.☐Conceptualizing three types of memory:1. Working memory2. Declarative long term memory3. Procedural long-term memory15.fossilization☐It refers to the phenomenon in which second language learners often stop learning even though they might be far short of native-like competence. The term is also used for specific linguistic structures that remain incorrect for lengthy periods of time in spite of plentiful input.munication strategies⏹Communication strategies, known as CSs, consist of attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction.They are characterized by the negotiation of an agreement on meaning between the two parties.1.What it is that needs to be learnt in language acquisition?➢Phonetics and Phonology➢Syntax➢Morphology➢Semantics➢Pragmatics2.How experts study the children’s acquisition➢Observe young children’s learning to talk.➢Record the speech of their children➢Create a database➢Have a single hypothesis3.What are learning strategies? Give examples ?➢Intentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information .➢Learning strategies are classified into :1. meta-cognitive strategies2. cognitive strategies3. socio-affective strategies4.What are the factors influencing the success of SLA ?●Cognitive factors :1. Intelligence2. Language aptitudenguage learning strategies●Affective factors:nguage attitudes2.Motivation5.What are the differences between the Behaviorist learning model and that of Mentalist?➢Behaviorist learning model claims that children acquired the L1 by trying to imitate utterances produced by people around them and by receiving negative or positive reinforcement of their attempts to do so. Language acquisition, therefore, was considered to be environmentally determined.6.What are the beneficial views obtained from the studies on children’s L1 acquisition?1. Children’s language acquisition goes through several stages2. These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although the rate at which individual children progress through them ishighly variable;3. These stages are similar across languages;4. Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and the rules created by the child do not necessarily correspond to adult ones;5. Children are resistant to correction;6. Children’s mental capacity limits the n umber of rules they can apply at any one time, and they will revert to earlier hypotheses when two ormore rules compete.7.What are the differences of error analysis from contrastive analysisContrastive analysis stresses the interfering effects of a first language on second language learning and claims that most errors come from interference of the first language. (Corder ,1967). However, such a narrow view of interference ignores the intralingual effects of language learning among other factors. Error an alysis is the method to deal with intralingual factors in learners’ language (Corder, 1981).it is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language systems .Error analysis is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners’ inte rlanguage and a target language, while contrastive analysis between languages. (native language and target language)8.What are UG principles and parameters?➢The universal principle is the principle of structure-dependency, which states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence.➢Parameters are prnciples that differ in the way they work or function from language to language. That is to say there are certain linguistic features that vary across languages.9.What role does UG play in SLA？➢Three possibilities :1. UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1.2. The learner’s Core grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2 learner, particularly not to th e adult learner.3. UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UGinfluence.10.What are classifications of communication strategies?Faerch and Kasper characterizes CSs in the light of learners’ attempts at governing two different behaviors and their taxonomies are achievement and reduction strategies , and they are based on the psycholinguistics.➢Achievement Strategies:⏹Paraphrase⏹Approximation⏹Word coinage⏹Circumlocution⏹Conscious Transfer⏹Literal translation⏹Language switch (borrowing)⏹Mime⏹Use body language and gestures to make communication open⏹Appeal for assistance➢Reduction Strategies⏹Message abandonment（topic shift）:Ask a student to answer the question :How old are you ? She must utter two orthree sentences to answer the question, but she mustn’t tell her age.⏹Topic avoidance(Silence)。
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Interrogative inversion Structure Independent (1st attempt)
(3)Interrogative inversion process Beginning with a declarative, invert the first and second words to construct an interrogative. Declarative Interrogative (4) a. The woman must leave. *Woman the must leave? b. A sailor can swim. *Sailor a can swim? c. No boy has read the book. *Boy no has read the book? d. My friend is sleeping. *Friend my is sleeping?
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Structure independent (3rd attempt):
(8)Interrogative inversion process • Beginning with a declarative, move the first auxiliary verb to the front to construct an interrogative.
(11)Does the child acquiring English learn these properties? (12) We are not dealing with a peculiarity of English. No known human language has a transformational process that would produce pairings like those in (4), (7) and (9), repeated below:
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Interrogative inversion process (Structure dependent) (16)The right generalization is a priori much more complicated, relying on structured hierarchical organization. (17) Beginning with a declarative, move the first auxiliary verb following the subject to the front to construct an interrogative.
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Structure Dependent Correct Pairings
• For the above examples, fronting the second auxiliary verb gives the correct form:
Declarative Interrogative
Declarative Interrogative (9) a. The man who is here can swim. *Is the man who here can swim? b. The boy who will play has left. *Will the boy who play has left?
(6) Interrogative inversion process: • Beginning with a declarative, move the auxiliary verb to the front to construct an interrogative.
Declarative (7) a. Bill could be sleeping. b. Mary has been reading. c. Susan should have left. Interrogative *Be Bill could sleeping? Could Bill be sleeping? *Been Mary has reading? Has Mary been reading? *Have Susan should left? Should Susan have left?
Can the man who is here Has the boy who will
(10) a.The man who is here can swim.
swim? b.The boy who will play has left. play left?
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Natural transformations are struc1
Interrogative inversion: some more complicated facts
(22) The man left. (23) Mary sleeps. • Sentences, e.g. (22)-(23), with no auxiliary at all do have interrogative counterparts, but ones that initially seem to fall under entirely different mechanisms. Declarative Interrogative (24) a. Mary will sleep. a`. Will Mary sleep? b. Mary sleeps. b`. Does Mary sleep? • Comparing (24a) and (24a`), we see just the familiar inversion alternation. • But comparing (24b) and (24b`), instead we see a change in the form of the main verb (from sleeps to sleep), and the addition of a form of the auxiliary verb do in the presubject position. Yet native speakers have a strong intuition that the same process is involved. (24a) is to (24a`) as (24b) is to (24b`).
(4) a. The woman must leave. *Woman the must leave? (7) a. Bill could be sleeping. *Be Bill could sleeping? (9) a. The man who is here can swim. *Is the man who here can swim?
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The section, “Structure dependency a case study” here is adopted from a talk given by Howard Lasnik (2003) in Delhi university.
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Crain and Nakayama’s Study
(13) Such incorrect forms as given in (4), (7) and (9) are not attested in any of the voluminous literature documenting the errors young children make in learning their language. (14) In fact, experiments were specifically designed to determine whether such incorrect forms are possible for children. Even 3-year old children have invariably shown that they are not. (Crain and Nakayama: 1987) (15) The seemingly structure independent computational operations in (4), (7) and (9) are evidently not available to the human language faculty.
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Poverty of Stimulus
(18) Does the child have evidence that would determine the correct process and exclude the incorrect ones? (19) Example dialogues like those in (10) surely are not uniformly available to the child learning language. (20) Even more significantly, even if the child is exposed to (10), that alone does not rule out the other possibilities as options. (21) This line of reasoning is a model of the classic ‘poverty of the stimulus’ argument for ’ innateness of some aspect of language ability.
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