handout_3语料库讲义
Handout-B3Unit7
Unit 7 Book 3Part I In-class ReadingI. Words and ExpressionsNote: Study the following words and phrases carefully and get ready for dictation.Alternativeadj. providing a choice between two or more things; other 其他可选用的，不同的Have you got an alternative suggestion?n.a choice between two or more things1. 两者（或在两者以上）间择一，取舍，抉择Her father gave her the alternative of going on to college or starting to work.她父亲让她在上大学继续求学和开始工作之间作出抉择。
2. 供替代的选择Is there an alternative to surgery?除外科手术外，还有无其他办法？3. 选择的自由，选择的余地We have no alternative in this matter.在这件事上我们没有选择的余地。
alternate v.交替，轮流adj.交替的，轮流的alter v.改变alteration n.变更，改造alternation n. 交替alternatively adv.二者择一地approvaln. favourable opinion 许可，赞同；批准，核准The father expressed approval of what the son did.父亲对儿子的所作所为表示赞许approve v. 赞同，允许commitmentn. promise to undertake 承诺Father made a commitment that he would give me a computer as a birthday present.父亲承诺说他会给我一台计算机做生日礼物。
Handout-Book3-Unit3
Guidelines for StudentsUnit 3 Book 3■Part One In-class Reading◆The words and expressions students are supposed to master before class:1. constantly (adv.) (Line 3, Para. 1)－He doesn’t like his new neighbor because the husband and the wife constantly quarrel with each other－The view across the valley presented a constantly changing panorama(全景图). Adj. constant－He is a constant friend of mine.（坚定的，忠贞的）－No one could bear your constant complaints.（不变的，时常发生的）2. guilty (adj.) (-ier, -iest) (Line 10, Para. 2)－I have a guilty conscience about forgetting to mail your letter.－He was found /declared guilty.Idiom:1) This guy was guilty of theft.2) I feel guilty about having told a lie.3. suppress (v.) (Line 11, Para. 2)1)抑制（感情、思想等）2) 压制，镇压3)隐藏，藏匿－She could hardly suppress a smile.－Opposition to the government was quickly suppressed.－His father tried to suppress the scandal.4. resentful (adj.) (Line 15, Para. 3)－He was deeply resentful at her interference.－She gave her husband a resentful look.v. resent: resent sth./ doing sth./ that…(对……表示忿恨)n. resentment 忿恨(Line 40, Para. 6)5. range (in sth.) from ... to …(Line 21, Para. 4)－The children’s ages range from 5 to 10 / between 5 and 10.－His feelings to this failure have ranged from bitterness to hope.6. foster (v.) (Line 28, Para. 5)1) 培养，促进2) 抚养，养育－I The couple wanted to adopt the black child they had been fostering.－She has since gone on to find happiness by fostering more than 100 children.－We hope these meetings will help foster friendly relations between our two countries.－These sessions are designed to foster better working relationships.7. stimulate (v.) (Line29, Para. 5)1)刺激，使兴奋2) 鼓励－Exercise stimulates the body.－The approach of the 2008 Olympic Games stimulated Chinese people’s zeal for8. compel(v/n) (Line 54, Para. 7)－They submitted because they were compelled.－His cleverness and skill compel our admiration.－Her illness compelled her to give up his studies.adj. compelling:使人非注意不可的－My second and more compelling reason for going to Dearborn was to see the Henry Ford Museum.－The court was presented with compelling evidence that she'd murdered her husband.9. optimum（Line56 Para7）10. accessibility (Line 62, Para. 8)access →accessible →accessibility－The only access to their house is along a narrow road.－Students need easy access to books.－The island is accessible only by boat.－The problem with some of these drugs is that they are so very accessible.－Two new roads are being built to increase accessibility to the town centre.－The accessibility of her plays (= the fact that they can be understood) means that she is able to reach a wide audience.11. supreme (Line62,Para8) 1) 最高位的2) 极度的；至上的－The matter will have to be decided by the Supreme Court.－Love brings him the supreme courage.－Technology is to the development of the modern society a matter of supreme importance.12. basis(Line 21，Para4) 【Pl】：bases－A steady process in economy is supposed to establish/lay a basis for the construction of a Harmonious Society.－On the basis of these facts, we can reach the following conclusion.13. concern（Line59，Para8）1) “挂念，担心”，不可数名词，后接about/for－I feel no concern about the matter.2) “关系，利害关系” concern后接with/in－I have no concern with the matter.14. arise v.（Line66，Para8）(arose, arisen)1.出现, 产生－The birds also attack crops when the opportunity arises.－Problems arose over plans to build a new supermarket here.2.由……引起, 起源于－Are there any matters arising from the last meeting?－The board acknowledges the problems which arise from the newness of the 15. expense n（Line2，Para1）.1) “花费，费用”，常为不可数－household expense 家庭支出；public expense 公费；2)具体的“花一笔钱”或“费用，津贴”多为可数16. invaluable adj （Line65，Para8）.注：invaluable不是valuable的反义词，而是priceless的同义词1) 注意区分invaluable和pricelessinvaluable意为“珍贵的”，多指质地上是非常宝贵的，也可对实际无法计价的事物进行修饰；be invaluable to…Their services were invaluable to me.priceless意为“极贵重的，无价的”，Is this dress priceless?17. necessity n（Line52，Para7）. “必要性”：为不可数名词。
Handout-Book3-Unit1
Guidelines for StudentsUnit 1 Book 3Part I In-class ReadingThe words and expressions students are supposed to master:1. acquaintanceHe has a wide circle of acquaintances.He has some acquaintance with German, but does not speak it fluently.Have a nodding acquaintance with (a subject)对（某学科）略知一二Make the acquaintance of sb: get to know sbacquaint v.Acquaint oneself with: make familiar with; reveal toBe acquainted with sbI’m not acquainted with the professor.2. adverselyin a harmful wayadverse adj:unfavorable; contrary or hostile (to):adverse weather conditionsadverse winds 逆风adversity n.TroubleA brave man smiles in the face of adversityA friend is known in adversity.Misfortune affliction(不幸, 苦难, 灾难)3. assuranceConfidence in oneselfA businessman, to be successful, should act with perfect assurance.PromiseHe gave me a definite assurance that the repairs would be finished by Friday. Give sb an assurance that = assure sb thatWith assurance = with confidence4. contrastI like the contrast of the white trousers with the black jacket.There's a marked contrast between his character and hers.Their economy has expanded enormously, while ours, by/in contrast, has declined.The amount spent on defense is in sharp contrast to that spent on housing and health.contrast verbIf you contrast some of her early writing with her later work, you can see just how much she improved.The styles of the two film makers contrast quite dramatically.contrasting adjectivecontrasting colors / flavorsthe contrasting attitudes of different age-groups5. Dwellthink or talk at length about sth, especially sth unpleasantIn his speech, he dwelt on the plight of the sick and the hungry.(liter) dwell in/at: residedwelling n: place of residencetown-dwellersCave-dwellers6. eliminateremove or get rid of something or somebody 消除，排除A move towards healthy eating could help eliminate heart disease.We eliminated the possibility that it could have been an accident.The police eliminated him from their enquiries.7. Esteemn. a feeling of respect and admirationThere has been a drop in public esteem for teachers.We all hold him in great esteem.Because of their achievements they were held in (= given) (high) esteem.v. Have a high opinion of; respect greatlyNo one can esteem your father more than I do.Her work is highly esteemed by all her colleagues.(formal) consider; regardI esteem it a privilege to address this audience.self-esteemI) Losing the job was a real blow to his self-esteem.II) The program is designed to help children from broken families build their self-esteem.8. Inadequacyinadequatenot good enough or too low in quality:This work is extremely inadequate - you'll have to do it again.Maddie's a real expert on art, so I feel completely inadequate whenever I talk to her about it.too small in amount:She rejected the $2 million offer as totally inadequate.inadequately adverbOur scientific research is inadequately funded.inadequacy noun [C or U]Economic growth is hindered by the inadequacies of the public transport system.I always suffer from feelings of inadequacy when I'm with him.9. inferior Not as good as, or worse than someone or sth elseThese products are inferior to those we bought last year.She cited cases in which women had received inferior health care.It was clear the group were regarded asintellectually/morally/socially inferior.Cf. superiorspontaneouslyspontaneous adjectivehappening or done in a natural, often sudden way, without any planning or without being forced: His jokes seemed spontaneous, but were in fact carefully prepared beforehand.spontaneously adverbThe liquid spontaneously ignited.In the past ten years skyscrapers have developed ______ in Chicago and New Y orkCity.(A)homogeneously (C)spontaneously(B)simultaneously (D)harmoniouslydwell on think or talk for too long about something, especially something unpleasant 谈或想得很多e.g.I) Let’s not dwell on your past mistakes.II) There is no need to dwell on Sarah further.live up to do as well as is expected or promised 符合，不辜负（期望）e.g. I) The concert was brilliant—it lived up to all our expectations.II) She fails to live up to the ideal standards she has set for herself.set aside keep something, especially money or time, for a special purpose and only use it for that purpose (为某目的)节省或保留(钱或时间)e.g. I) I will set a piece of cake aside for you.II) Try to set aside at least an hour each day for learning new vocabulary.Difficult sentences or useful expressions from the text:1 Shyness is the cause of much unhappiness for a great many people. All kinds of people describe themselves as shy: short, tall, dull, intelligent, young, old, slim, overweight. Shy people are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are excessively concerned with their own appearance and actions. Worrisome thoughts are constantly swirling in their minds: What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound stupid? I’m ugly. I’m wearing unattractive clothes.2 It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people adversely. A person’s self-concept is reflected in the way he or she behaves, and the way a personbehaves affects other people’s reactions. In general, the way people think about themselves has a profound effect on all areas of their lives. For instance, people who have a positive sense of self-worth or high self-esteem usually act with confidence. Because they have self-assurance, they do not need constant praise and encouragement from others to feel good about themselves. Self-confident people participate in life enthusiastically and spontaneously. They are not affected by what others think they “should” do. People with high self-esteem are not hurt by criticism; they do not regard criticism as a personal attack. Instead, they view a criticism as a suggestion for improvement.3 In contrast, shy people, having low self-esteem, are likely to be passive and easily influenced by others. They need reassurance that they are doing “the right thing.” Shy people are very sensitive to criticism; they feel it confirms their inferiority. They also find it difficult to be pleased by compliments because they believe they are unworthy of praise. A shy person may respond to a compliment with a statement like this one: “You’re just saying that to make me feel good. I know it’s not true.” It is clear that, while self-awareness is a healthy quality, overdoing it is detrimental, or harmful.4 Can shyness be completely eliminated, or at least reduced? Fortunately, people can overcome shyness with determined and patient effort in building self-confidence. Since shyness goes hand in hand with lack of self-esteem, it is important for people to accept their weaknesses as well as their strengths. For example, most people would like to be “A” students in every subject. It is not fair for them to label themselves as inferior because they have difficulty in so me areas. People’s expectations of themselves must be realistic. Dwelling on the impossible leads to a sense of inadequacy, and even feelings of envy, or jealousy. We are self-destructive when we envy a student who gets better grades.5 If you are shy, here are some specific helpful steps toward building self-confidence and overcoming shyness:6 1. Recognize your personal strengths and weaknesses. Everyone has both. As self-acceptance grows, shyness naturally diminishes.7 2. Set reasonable goals. For example, you may be timid about being with a group of strangers at a party. Don’t feel that you must converse with everyone. Concentrate on talking to only one or two people. You will feel more comfortable.8 3. Guilt and shame are destructive feelings. Don’t waste time and energy on them. Suppose you have hurt someone’s feelings. Feeling ashamed accomplishes nothing. Instead, accept the fact that you have made a mistake, and make up your mind to be more sensitive in the future.9 4. There are numerous approaches to all issues. Few opinions are completely right or wrong. Don’t be afraid to speak up and give your point of view.10 5. Do not make negative comments about yourself. This is a form of self-rejection. Avoid describing yourself as stupid, ugly, a failure. Accent the positive.11 6. Accept criticism thoughtfully. Do not interpret it as a personal attack. If, for example, a friend complains about your cooking, accept it as a comment on your cooking, not yourself. Be assured that you are still good friends, but perhaps yourcooking could improve.12 7. Remember that everyone experiences some failures and disappointments. Profit from them as learning experiences. Very often a disappointment becomes a turning point for a wonderful experience to come along. For instance, you may be rejected by the college of your choice. However, at the college you actually attend, you may find a quality of education beyond what you had expected.13 8. Do not associate with people who make you feel inadequate. Try to change their attitude or yours, or remove yourself from that relationship. People who hurt you do not have your best interests at heart.14 9. Set aside time to relax, enjoy hobbies, and reevaluate your goals regularly. Time spent this way helps you learn more about yourself.15 10. Practice being in social situations. Don’t isolate yourself from people. Try making one acquaintance at a time; eventually you will circulate in large groups with skill and self-assurance.16 Each one of us is a unique, valuable individual. We are interesting in our ownpersonal ways. The better we understand ourselves, the easier it becomes to live up to our full potential. Let’s not allow shyness to block our chances for a rich and fulfilling life.Students’ Tasks:Practice as much as possible the in-class reading (including new words and phrases, text, grammar items etc.) so that you will be fully prepared to do the following in the class:1.dictation ( words , phrases or sentences from the text)2.Finish Quiz from nceonline. It is due Mar. 15.3.read aloud and learn them by heart:1 Shyness is the cause of much unhappiness for a great many people. All kinds of people describe themselves as shy: short, tall, dull, intelligent, young, old, slim, overweight. Shy people are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are excessively concerned with their own appearance and actions. Worrisome thoughts are constantly swirling in their minds: What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound stupid? I’m ugly. I’m wearing unattractive clothes.2 It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people adversely. A person’s self-concept is reflected in the way he or she behaves, and the way a person behaves affects other people’s reactions. In general, the way people think about themselves has a profound effect on all areas of their lives. For instance, people who have a positive sense of self-worth or high self-esteem usually act with confidence. Because they have self-assurance, they do not need constant praise and encouragement from others to feel good about themselves. Self-confident people participate in life enthusiastically and spontaneously. They are not affected by what others think they “should” do. People with high self-esteem are not hurt by criticism; they do not regard criticism as a personal attack. Instead, they view a criticism as a suggestion for improvement.4.answer or discuss the questions concerning the topic of the text5.finish the exercises; (p.16 &17)Directions:Complete each of the following sentences by translating the Chinese in brackets intoEnglish.1) Her rough, red hands _________________ (反映了) a life of hard physical work.2) He has never been very _____________ (担心) about what other people think of him.3) His mother’s deat h when he was aged six had a ____________________ (深刻的影响) on him.4) She is _________ (看作) as a strong candidate for the job.5) Some people’s teeth are highly ______________ (敏感的) to cold.6) How did she _____________ (作出反应) to the news?7) The new process has ____________ (排除) the need for checking the products by hand.8) It’s taken me a while but at last I’ve managed to ___________ (克服我的恐惧) of publicspeaking.9) If you want to pass your exams, you’ll have to _______________ (注意力集中在) yourlistening skills.10) She was asked about a pay increase for the factory workers but ___________ (未做评论).TranslationDirections: Translate the following sentences into English, using the expressions in brackets.1. 你应该适当化一点时间休息和锻炼。
handout 3-代词和数词
Handout 3 数词和代词英语数词用法一.基数词: 表示数目的数词1.两位数: 几十和个位数之间加连词号, 如: twenty-three, forty-seven, ninety-six2.三位数的读法: 第一个数字+hundred + and +后面的一位或两位数字, 如: 101读作one hundred and one, 864读作eight hundred and sixty-four3.四位数和四位以上数字的读法: 阿拉伯数字每三位为一段, 从后往前用逗号分开, 每个逗号处所用的数词分别为: thousand, million, billion, 如: 21,634,755读作twenty-one million six hundred and thirty-four thousand seven hundred and fifty-five. 注意: 读这样的数时, 只在hundred一词后加and4.hundred, thousand, million, billion表示具体数目时都不用复数形式, 但它们的复数形式可以用于一些词组中, 如: hundreds of, thousands of, millions of, billions of.5.数词dozen, score的用法与hundred, thousand等相同二.序数词: 表示数目顺序的词1.序数词一般是由基数词加th构成, 序数词前一定要加the, 如: the seventh, the thirteenth, the one hundredth2.以y结尾的基数词构成序数词时, 先把y变为i, 再加eth, 如: the twentieth, the fortieth, the fiftieth, the eightieth3.大于二十的基数词对应的序数词, 只将末位数变为序数词, 前面的其他位数仍用基数词, 如: 第532读作five hundred and thirty-second4.不规则的序数词如下: the first, the second, the third, the fifth, the eighth, the ninth, the twelfth三.数词的用法:1.编号的事物可用序数词或基数词加名词构成, 如: the fourth lesson =lesson four, the fifteenth page =page fifteen, the ninth part =part nine2.编号的事物若数字较大, 一般用基数词放在名词后面来表示, 名词前一般不用定冠词, 如: room 302, page 215,3.在表示年月日时, 年用基数词, 日用序数词, 年的读法是, 从后往前, 将年份分成两位一段, 依次读出每一段即可, 如: April 5,1976 读作April (the) fifth, nineteen seventy-six; October 1, 1949读作October the first, nineteen forty-nine;4.表示时间时用基数词:①.表示几点整的说法: It is five (o’clock)②.表示几点过几分的说法: 若不超过30分钟, 用past表示过几分; 若超过30分钟, 用to 表示差多少分到几点, 如: 3:05 =five past three, 5:20 =twenty past five; 8:35 =twenty-five to nine; 12:50 =ten to one③.表示几刻钟的说法, 如: a quarter, three quarters④.表示上午,下午某时间, 如: 8:00 a.m., 4:15 p.m.⑤.时刻也用24小时制读法, 只须依次读出点钟数和分钟数, 整点钟时, 需在最后加读hundred ( hours), 如: 18:45读作eighteen forty-five5.表示加减乘除的说法: 数学运算的加减乘分别用plus, minus, times, divided by表示a. How much is fifteen plus two?b. How much is eight minus seven?c. How much is twelve times twelve?d. How much is eighty-one divided by nine?e. Five plus three is / equals eight.f. Five minus three equals / leaves two.g. Five times three makes / is fifteen.h. Fifteen divided by three equals five.十五除以三等于五6.分数的表示法: 分子用基数词, 分母用序数词, 若分子大于1, 则分母用序数词的复数形式, 如: one third, two tenths, two thirds. 有些分数可以用half, quarter表示, 如: three quarters7.小数: 小数点读作point, 小数点前面的数字读作一个完整的基数词, 小数点后面的每位数字依次用基数词读出, 如: 3.4读作three point four, 0.2读作zero point two, 8.97读作eight point nine seven8.某些数字的读法与写法, 如: $10.20读作ten dollars and twenty cents; 35Ｏ读作thirty-five degree; -20Ｏ读作twenty degree below zero或minus twenty degree; World War II读作World War two或the second world war.9. in the 1930s / 1930’s表示“在二十世纪三十年代”10. 序数词前一般要用the, 但表示“又一,再一”的概念时, 序数词前也可以用a / ana. They plan to buy a second house. 他们计划再买第二房子英语代词用法代词(pronoun)是代替名词的词：1)可作主语、宾语和表语,定语This is John Smith.Can I help youThat's all.All men are equal.2)格的变化 I 我(主格)，me我(宾格)，Who谁(主格)，whom谁(宾格)。
Handout-Book3-Unit8
Guidelines for StudentsUnit 8 Book 3Part I In-class ReadingThe words and expressions supposed to be mastered:heredity (n.) (Line1, Para1)1. Some diseases develop because of the conditions one lives in; others are present by heredity.2. Some children seem to be gentle by heredity.比较heritage, heredity 和inheritanceFair play is part of our heritage.（使用最广泛，不仅指一般的遗产，也指世代相传的具有特色的精神财富或物质财富。
）The estate he received by inheritance from his aunt was donated to the local orphanage. （指继承这一行为，不指继承的东西。
为抽象名词。
）The colour of our skin is due to heredity.（特指生物遗传）identical (adj.) (Line 8, Para. 2)1. No leaves are identical(相同的).2. Your voice is identical to your brothers.3. This is the identical(同一的) hotel that we stayed in last year.4. Both events happened on the identical day.resemblance (n.) (Line 16, Para. 3)1. There is a strong resemblance between the authentic work of Xu Beihong and the counterfeit. resemble(v.) look or be like.⏹The identical twins resemble each other in appearance but not in character.substantially (Line 27, Para. 4)1. Though young, he has substantially contributed to the project.substantial (adj.)⏹To study abroad indicates to make substantial changes in life.substance (n.)⏹Water is a substance vital to life.⏹The substance of their discussion is how often and how long a student can surf on line.illustrate (v.) (Line 32, Para. 4)1.He illustrated his point by relating his own experience.2.If you illustrate this children book, it will sell much better.比较:⏹Our staff members are always ready to demonstrate how this computer works. (意为“示范；说明”。
handout_2语料库讲义
2. Linguistic theory and corpus linguistics2.1 Background-- Back in the 1960s the efforts by Francis and Kučera to create a machine-readable corpus of English were not warmly accepted by many members of the linguistic community.-- The creation of the Brown Corpus was regarded as “a useless and foolhardy enterprise” because “the only legitimate source of grammatical knowledge” about a language was the intuition of the native speaker, and this intuition could not be obtained from a corpus.-- The difference that has characterized the relationship between the corpus linguist and the generative grammarian rests on a false assumption: that all corpus linguists are descriptivists, and that all generative grammarians are theoreticians unconcerned with the data on which their theories are based.The three types of adequacy that Chomsky claims linguistic descriptions can meet:observational adequacydescriptive adequacyexplanatory adequacyWhile the generative grammarian strives for explanatory adequacy (the highest level of adequacy, according to Chomsky), the corpus linguist aims for descriptive adequacy (a lower level of adequacy), and what‟s more, generative grammarians do not think that corpora can provide enough evidence to achieve explanatory adequacy of linguistic descriptions.2.2 Linguistic theory and descriptionIf a theory or description achieves observational adequacy, it is able to describe which sentences in a language are grammatically well formed.To achieve descriptive adequacy(a higher level of adequacy), the description or theory must not only describe whether individual sentences are well formed but also specify the abstract grammatical properties which make the sentences well formed.The highest level of adequacy is explanatory adequacy. This adequacy is achieved when the description or theory not only reaches descriptive adequacy but does so using abstract principles which can be applied beyond the language being considered and become a part of “Universal Grammar.” At this level o f adequacy, one would describe that English is not a language which can omit subject pronouns because, unlike Spanish, Italian or Japanese, English is not a language which permits “pro-drop”.In the Minimalist Program, a distinction is made between those elements of a language that are part of the “core” and those that are part of the “periphery.”This idealized view of language is taken because the goal of the minimalist program is “a theory of the initial state.”Unlike generative grammarians, corpus linguists see complexity and variation as inherent in language, and in their discussions of language, they place a very high priority on descriptive adequacy, not explanatory adequacy.Corpus linguists are very skeptical of the highly abstract and decontextualized discussions of language which are promoted by generative grammarians, largely because such discussions are too far removed from actual language usage.Chafe sums up the disillusionment that corpus linguists have with purely formalist approaches to language study. He noted that they “exclude observations rather than ... embrace ever more of them” and that they rely too heavily on “notational devices designed to account for only those aspects of reality that fall within their purview, ignoring the remaining richness which also cries out for understanding.” The corpus linguist embraces complexity; the generative grammarian pushes it aside, seeking an ever more restrictive view of language.2.3 Corpus linguistics: a methodology or a theory?Corpus linguistics is generally considered to be a methodology rather than an independent branch of linguistics. But this view is not shared by all scholars within the circle of corpus linguistics.Halliday points out in one of the papers he wrote in 1993 (Quantitative Studies and Probabilities in Grammar) that corpus linguistics re-unites the activities of data gathering and theorising and argues that this is leading to a qualitative change in our understanding of language.Tognini-Bonelli (the widow of John Sinclair) argues in her book Corpus Linguistics at Work (2001) that corpus linguistics “goes well beyond this purely methodological role” and “has, therefore, a theoretical status ….”One of the reasons for giving corpus linguistics a status of an independent discipline is that what it studies cannot be classified according to traditional concepts of linguistics or grammar.Michael Hoey published a book entitled Lexical Priming: A new theory of words and language in 2005. In the Introduction to the first chapter he wrote: “In this book I want to argue for a new theory of the lexicon, which amounts to a new theory of language. The theory reverses the roles of lexis and grammar, arguing that lexis is complexly and systematically structured and that grammar is an outcome of this lexical structure. It is quite clear from what he said that he is trying to justify the theoretical status of corpus linguistics.Sinclair developed the concept of extended unit of meaning. The idea of extended unit of meaning is different from the one in traditional linguistics. According to Sinclair, a unit of meaning is one that has its unique meaning which other units of meaning do not possess. For example, Sinclair (1998) uses the collocation naked eye to show his concept of extended units of meaning.-- In this course, for the convenience of description, less rigid, indeed less limiting, position is taken. Corpus linguistics is considered as a methodology with a wide range of applications across many areas and theories of linguistics.If you are interested in the argument that corpus linguistics is a theory not just a methodology, you can read the following reference books, especially the one edited by Viana et. al. (2011).Halliday, M., W. Teubert, C. Yallop and A. Cermakova. 2005. Lexicology and Corpus Linguistics. London: Continuum.Hoey, Micheal. 2005. Lexical Priming: A New Theory of Words and Language. London: Routledge.Teubert, Wolfgang. 2005. “My version of corpus linguistics”. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics. Vol. 10/1. John Benjamins Publishing Company.Tognini-Bonelli, Elena. 2001. Corpus Linguistics at Work. Amsterdam: Benjamins.Viana V., Sonia Zyngier and Geoff Barnbrook (ed.) 2011. Perspectives on Corpus Linguistics. Philadelphia: John Benjamins B.V.李文中, 2010. 语料库语言学的研究视野.《解放军外国语学院学报》第2期.濮建忠, 2010. 语料库与语言一元化研究.《解放军外国语学院学报》第2期.卫乃兴, 2009. 语料库语言学的方法论及相关理念.《外语研究》第5期.许家金, 2003. 语料库语言学的理论解析.《外语教学》第6期.张瑞华, 2009. 访英国伯明翰大学语料库语言学家WOLFGANG TEUBERT教授.《外国语》第2期.2.4 Corpus linguistics: corpus-based or corpus-driven?2.4.1 A corpus-based approachA corpus-based approach uses a corpus or corpora as a source of examples to check researcher intuition or to examine the frequency and/or plausibility of the language contained within a smaller data set. The researches adopting corpus-based approach do not question the pre-existing traditional descriptive units and categories, for example: passive voice, progressive aspect, nominalization, relative clauses, etc.One of the typical applied linguistics studies using a corpus-based approach is the study of the use of adverbial connectors in advanced Swedish learners‟ written English by Altenberg and Tapper (1998). The study takes Quirk et al.‟s (1985) description of the conjuncts (i.e. adverbial connectors) in English as the standard and compares it with the uses of these adverbial connectors by the Swedish learners of English with the data taken from both a comparable corpus composed of a native English speaker sub-corpus and a Swedish learners‟ sub-corpus.To summarize, the essential characteristics of corpus-based analyses are as follows:1. It is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts; (An empirical approach is an approach to acquiring knowledge that emphasizes direct observation and experimentation as a way of answering questions.)2. It utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a …corpus,‟ as the basis for analysis;3. It makes extensive use of computers for analysis, using both automatic and interactive techniques;4. It depends on both quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques.5. It bases the analyses on the existing grammatical theories.2.4.2 A corpus-driven approachA corpus-driven approach is different from a corpus-based one in that in a corpus-driven approach, the “descriptions aim to be comprehensive with respect to corpus evidence”, so that even the …linguistic categories‟ are derived “systematically from the recurrent patterns and the frequency distributions that emerge from language in context” (Tognini-Bonelli 2001: 87).In its most basic form, corpus-driven analysis assumes only the existence of words. Co-occurrence patterns among words, discovered from the corpus analysis, are the basis for subsequent linguistic descriptions.In fact, even inflected variants of the same lemma are treated separately, e.g. the inflected variants of the same lemma TAKE take, took, taken, takes, taking. This is because corpus linguists who believe in corpus-driven approach claim that each word form has its own grammar and its own meanings.The corpus-driven research is more inductive than a corpus-based one, so that the linguistic constructs themselves emerge from analysis of a corpus.In its most basic form, corpus-driven analysis assumes only the existence of words. Co-occurrence patterns among words, which are discovered from the corpus analysis, are the basis for subsequent linguistic descriptions. Therefore, grammatical classes and syntactic structures have no a priori status in the analysis.In fact, even inflected variants of the same lemma are treated separately, e.g. the inflected variants of the same lemma TAKE take, took, taken. This is because corpus linguists who believe in corpus-driven approach claim that each word form has its own grammar and its own meanings.A very good example of a corpus-driven study is Biber‟s “A corpus-driven approach to formulaic language in English”.First, the full set of multi-word sequences that occur most frequently in the corpus is identified. In this study, only the 4-word sequences are retrieved. Then, each of those multiword sequences is investigated to describe its variable properties: the extent to which each slot in the sequence is fixed or variable.Biber finds that the multi-word patterns typical of speech are fundamentally different from those typical of academic writing: patterns in conversation tend to be fixed sequences (including both function words and contents words). For example:In contrast, most patterns in academic writing are formulaic frames consisting of invariable function words with an intervening variable slot that is filled by contents words.====================================Besides the first four characteristics of corpus-based approach mentioned above, a radical corpus-driven approach is considered to have following three general characteristics:1. It would be based on analysis of the actual word forms that occur in the corpus (not lemmas)2. It would consider only sequences of words, regardless of the pre-definedgrammatical categories3. It would use frequency information derived from the corpus as the primary evidence to be considered in the analysis.However, in actual practice, corpus-driven studies often incorporate some corpus-based methods, and thus they might be best considered as hybrids.Finally, it is worth mentioning again that both corpus-based and corpus-driven analyses must go beyond simple counts of linguistic features. It is essential to include qualitative, functional interpretations of quantitative patterns. The patterns found in quantitative analyses should be given further explanation, exemplification, and interpretation in a qualitative way.。
必修3 Unit3-reading 公开课 handout
5. looks at the _________ on the wall
Owner:
1. sees Henry’s poor _____________
2.leadsHenry to another____________ which is not reserved
Part 1 (line 1—Owner:All right, Horace.)
Part 2
Henry:
1. looks at the _____________ outside a restaurant
2.sits downat a table next to the front window
3.moves to another tableand puts the ________ on the table
6. answers in a ___________ manner
Hostess: stands next to the door
Henry:
1. __________ at the clock on the wall again
2.___________ the envelope and holds a __________ pound bank note in his hands
When it is 2 o’clock, Henry opens the_4_________and gives the owner a million pound bank note. The owner is shocked but he thinks the noteis_5_________. Then the_6_________’s attitude changes dramatically. He tells Henry to forget about the_7_________and thanks him again and again.
handout-3-casting
handouts 3
4
Casting – Some Issues (2) heat of fusion to convert
the solid to the liquid 3.1 Heating Period Thermal Analysis
H V{Cs (Tm T ) H f Cl (Tp Tm )}
handouts 3
7
Cm is a function of - mold material
- thermal properties of the cast metal
- pouring temperature relative to the melting point of the metal.
handouts 3
8
Implication of Chvorinov’s Rule:
A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will cool and solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
handouts 3
22
Casting – Some Design Issues
Two sections intersects: two problems:
Stress concentration
shrinkage
Heat energy required for (1) heat for raising the temperature to the melting point, (2) heat of fusion to convert the solid to the liquid, and (3) heat for raising the molten metal to the metal at the desired temperature ready to pour it into a cavity.
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3. Corpus: definitions, types and compositions3.1 Definitions of a corpus3.1.1 Sinclair’s definitionA corpus is a collection of naturally-occurring language text, chosen to characterize a state or variety of a language (Sinclair, 1991:171).Corpus vs. Text Archive or Text Database-- A corpus designed for linguistic analysis: normally a systematic, planned and well-structured compilation of text-- An archive: a text repository, often huge and opportunistically collected, and normally not structured.3.1.2 Bowker and Pearson’s definitionA corpus can be described as a large collection of authentic texts that have been gathered in electronic form according to a specific set of criteria (Bowker & Pearson, 2002).There are four important characteristics to be noted: authentic, electronic, large and specific criteria.authentic: it is an example of real …live‟ language and consists of a genuine communication between people going about their normal business. This characteristic is mentioned in Sinclai r‟s definition.in electronic form: one that can be processed by a computer. This characteristic is not mentioned in Sinclair‟s definition.size: exactly how large a corpus should be depends on the purpose of your study. There are no hard and fast rules a bout how large a corpus needs to be. In Sinclair‟s definition, the size of a corpus is not mentioned since he believes that a corpus should be very, very large.specific criteria: you cannot just start downloading texts randomly from the Web or other sources and then call your collection a …corpus‟. The texts in a corpus are selected according to explicit criteria in order to be used as a representative sample of a particular language or subset of that language.3.2 Types of corporaAt the very least, there are different corpora for different natural languages, such as English, French, Spanish, Chinese etc., but even here there are problems because the variety of English spoken in England is not the same as those spoken in America, Canada, Ireland,Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc. And even within each of these language varieties, it is invariably true that people speak to their friends differently from the way they speak to their friends‟ parents, and that people in the 1800s spoke differently from the way people do nowadays, etc.3.2.1 General reference corpus vs. special purpose corpusA General Reference Corpus: a corpus that can be taken as representative of a given language as a whole and can therefore be used to make general observations about that particular language. Examples of general reference corpora are the Brown Corpus, the LOB, the British National Corpus, Bank of English, etc.A Special Purpose Corpus: a corpus that focuses on a particular aspect of a language. It could be restricted to a particular subject field, to a specific text type, to a particular language variety or to the language used by members of a certain demographic group. Because of its specialized nature, such a corpus cannot be used to make observations and generalizations about language in general.Examples of special purpose corpora include:-- The Jiao Tong University Corpus for English in Science and Technology (JDEST): for studies of scientific English.-- The International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE): for studies of the interlanguage of learners of English.-- Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES): for studies of child language development and language acquisition.-- Time Magazine Corpus of American English: for studies of magazine articles (AmE).-- Translational English Corpus (TEC): for comparisons between translated and non-translated English texts.There are also many other special purpose corpora besides the ones mentioned above.3.2.2 Written corpus vs. spoken corpusA written corpus is a corpus that contains written texts, while a spoken corpus is one that consists of transcripts of spoken material (e.g. conversations, broadcasts, lectures, etc.).The Brown Corpus and the LOB corpus are written corpora.The LLC is a spoken corpus. Another spoken corpus is the Corpus of Spoken American English (CASE), which is designed to provide the first large computerized corpus of spoken American English as used by adults and it is one of the few large spoken corpora compiled since the LLC of British English.Corpora, such as the BNC and the BoE, usually contain a mixture of both written and spoken texts, and they are general purpose corpora, but they can be used to study spoken English if you retrieve the necessary information only from the spoken parts of them.3.2.3 Monolingual corpus vs. multilingual corpusA monolingual corpus is one that contains texts of a single language, for example, the Brown Corpus, the LOB corpus, the BNC, the BoE are monolingual corpora.A multilingual corpus contains texts of two or more languages. Multilingual corpora can be further subdivided into parallel corpora and comparable corpora.A parallel corpus contains texts in language A alongside their translations into language B, C, etc.In a bilingual parallel corpus, for example, the texts in the two languages are usually aligned at the sentence level, and with a corpus retrieval tool, you can easily find the translation of a sentence in either way.A comparable corpus consists of sets of texts in different languages that are not translations of each other.The texts in the different languages have been selected because they have some characteristics or features in common; the one and only feature that distinguishes one set of texts from another in a comparable corpus is the language in which the texts are written. The shared features will frequently include subject matter or topic and may also include features such as text type, time period in which the texts were written, degree of technicality, etc.Comparable corpora of varieties of the same language can be used to compare those varieties. Comparable corpora of different languages can be used by translators and by learners to identify differences and equivalences in each of the two languages.3.2.4 Synchronic corpus vs. diachronic corpusA synchronic corpus presents a snapshot of the language use during a limited time frame.A diachronic corpus can be used to study how a language has evolved over a long period of time.The first specialized electronic diachronic corpus of English is the Helsinki Corpus of English Texts: Diachronic Part. This corpus was compiled at the University of Helsinki between 1984 and 1991 and it consists of some 400 samples of continuous text, with a total of 1.5 million words covering the period from Old English to Early Modern English. This corpus can be used to study how English changed during the period of about 1000 years.3.2.5 Open corpus vs closed corpusAn open corpus, also known as a monitor corpus, is a corpus that is constantly beingexpanded. For example, the size of the COCA has been enlarged from 350 million words in 2008 to 450 million words in 2012.The Bank of English (BoE), COCA, etc. are examples of open corpora.Sinclair (1991) points out, “a corpus should be as large as possible.” He lists several reasons for the large size of a corpus. According to him, in order to study the behaviour of words in texts, we need to have available quite a large number of occurrences.... One of the uses of (a word) will typically be twice as common as all the others; several will occur once only, and that is not enough on which to base a descriptive statement. This is why a corpus needs to contain many millions of words.A closed or finite corpus is one that does not get augmented once it has been compiled.The British National Corpus (BNC) is a closed corpus.The advantages of a closed corpus is that once the corpus is established, many different processes can be done about it. According to Leech, one of the leading compilers of the BNC, “... the BNC has one characteristic not shared by the Bank of English (open corpus), ... : the BNC is a finite, balanced corpus.Based on BNC, a book Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English was published in 2001. This book contains many lists of word frequencies and these lists are very useful for different studies of English linguistics. It is impossible to publish such a book on an open corpus. All the different frequency lists in this book can be found on the following website: /bncfreq/3.2.6 Native speaker corpus vs. Learner corpusA native speaker corpus contains texts written or spoken by the native speakers of a language.A learner corpus contains texts written or spoken by learners of a foreign language. Such corpora can be usefully compared with corpora of texts written by native speakers.Examples:-- The International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE)-- Chinese Learner English Corpus (CLEC)-- Spoken and Written English Corpus of Chinese Learners (SWECCL2.0)-- Parallel Corpus of Chinese EFL Learners (PACCEL)3.2.7 Raw corpus vs. annotated corpusA raw corpus is the one in which all the texts keep their original form.An annotated corpus contains texts which have been enriched with interpretative or linguistic information. The first and most common is part-of-speech (POS) tagging. Each word in a corpus is assigned a grammatical tag corresponding to the word class to which it belongs. Other levels of annotation include syntactic annotation and semantic annotation.The purpose to annotate a corpus is to extract more information from it than from an unannotated raw corpus.3.3 Corpus compositionsTo compile a corpus involves different considerations, such as: what types of language texts should be included (spoken vs. written, specialized vs. general), how large should it be, and how to guarantee the representativeness, should the corpus be annotated (POS tagged, semantically tagged, syntactically parsed), if yes, to what extent should it be annotated, etc.3.3.1 The Brown CorpusThe full name of the Brown Corpus is Brown University Standard Corpus of Present-Day American English, which consists of 1,014,312 words of running text of edited English prose printed in the United States during the calendar year 1961. So far as it has been possible to determine, the writers were native speakers of American English. Although all of the material first appeared in print in the year 1961, some of it was undoubtedly written earlier. However, no material known to be a second edition or reprint of earlier text has been included.The Corpus is divided into 500 samples of about 2000 or more words each. Each sample begins at the beginning of a sentence but not necessarily of a paragraph or other larger division, and each ends at the first sentence ending after 2000 words. The samples represent a wide range of styles and varieties of prose.Verse: not included, but short verse passages quoted in prose samples are keptDrama: not includedFiction: included, but no samples consisting of more than 50% dialogue were admitted Samples were chosen for their representative quality rather than for any subjectively determined excellence.The selection procedure was in two phases: an initial subjective classification and decision as to how many samples of each category would be used, followed by a random selection of the actual samples within each category.There two main parts in the Brown Corpus, one is the part of informative prose and the other is the part of imaginative prose. The list of main categories with their principal subdivisions and the number of samples in each can be found in the following website: http://khnt.hit.uib.no/icame/manuals/brown/INDEX.HTM3.3.2 The LOB CorpusThe full name of this corpus is Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus. Like its American counterpart, the LOB Corpus contains 500 printed texts of about 2,000 words each, or about a million running words in all. The year of publication (1961) and the sampling principles are identical to those of the Brown Corpus, though there were necessarily some differences in text selection.The coding system differs, however, in many respects in the two corpora and the LOB corpus has got a more detailed coding system.For more information about the LOB, visit the following website:http://khnt.hit.uib.no/icame/manuals/lob/INDEX.HTM3.3.3 The LLCThe full name of this corpus is the London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English. It was the biggest and most widely used electronic corpus of spoken English until the mid-1990s. The complete LLC contains 100 texts, totaling 500,000 words. The texts comprise both dialogue and monologue. The range of varieties assembled in the LLC is displayed in the following website: http://khnt.hit.uib.no/icame/manuals/LONDLUND/INDEX.HTM3.3.4 The British National Corpus (BNC)The British National Corpus is one of the largest corpora in the world, which has approximately 100 million words. Most of the corpus (about 90 percent) consists of various types of written British English with the remainder (about 10 percent, or 10 million words) comprised of different types of spoken British English. Even though writing dominates in the BNC, the amount of speech in the corpus is the most ever made available in a corpus (compare the LLC: 500,000 words).For detailed information about the structure and composition of the BNC, visit the following website:/You can use the free online version of the BNC on the following website:/bnc/3.3.5 The International Corpus of English (The ICE)The International Corpus of English (ICE) is a large corpus for the comparative study of both spoken and written forms of regional varieties of English throughout the world. As a whole, ICE will be a mega-corpus, but its component parts are more modest in size.The ICE includes up to 20 parallel subcorpora, (the number is constantly growing) each consisting of one million words of the English used by adults over the age of 18 who have received formal education through the medium of English to at least the completion of secondary school, in countries such as the UK, USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand where English is the dominant or major first language, as well as in countries such as India, Nigeria, Singapore or regions such as the Caribbean where English may be an additional official language or a second language of a significant part of the population.The website for the more detailed structure of the ICE:/english-usage/ice/design.htm#For further information of English corpora, visit the following website:/resources/corpora.html#BE3.3.6 The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)The Corpus of Contemporary American English is the largest freely-available corpus of English, and the only large and balanced corpus of American English. COCA is a relatively new corpus which was released in 2008.This corpus contains more than 400 million words. The corpus is equally divided among spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. It includes 20 million words each year from 1990-2009 and the corpus is also updated once or twice a year (the most recent texts are from the summer of 2009). Because of the design of this corpus, it is perhaps the only corpus of English which is suitable for looking at current, ongoing changes in the language.The corpus allows the users to easily limit searches by frequency and compare the frequency of words, phrases, and grammatical constructions, in at least two main ways: by genre and over time.3.3.7 Some Learner Corpora Compiled by Chinese Researchers-- Chinese Learner English Corpus.Compilers: Gui Shichun, Yang Huizhong et al.Size: 1,000,000 wordsTexts: compositions from CET 4 or CET 6 by Chinese learners of English -- Spoken and Written English of Chinese LearnersCompilers: Wen Qiufang et. al.Spoken subcorpusSize: about 1 million wordsTexts: the transcription of the spoken tests of TEM Level 4 and Level 8 (2003-2007), divided among different types of tasks; the recorded sound also provided in themp3 form.Written subcorpusSize: 1.2 million wordsTexts: English compositions of the Chinese College EFL learners, including 27 different topics of argumentative essays and expositions.-- Parallel Corpus of Chinese EFL Learners (PACCEL)Compilers: Wen Qiufang et. al.Size: 2.1 million wordsTexts: The transcriptions of the oral interpretation tests and the texts of translation tests from the third and fourth year English majors in China. Both the interpretationsubcorpus (500,000 words) and the translation subcorpus (1.6 million words)have been aligned at the sentence level.ReferencesBowker, L. and J. Pearson. 2002. Working with Specialized Language: A practical guide to using corpora, London and New York: Routledge.Leech, G., P. Rayson and A. Wilson. 2001. Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English: Based on the British National Corpus. London: Longman.Sinclair, John. 1991. Corpus Concordance Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.。